商业建筑外文文献翻译)

Commercial Buildings

Abstract:

A guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings is provided. It covers load characteristics; voltage considerations; power sources and distribution apparatus; controllers; services, vaults, and electrical equipment rooms; wiring systems; systems protection and coordination; lighting; electric space conditioning; transportation; communication systems planning; facility automation; expansion, modernization, and rehabilitation; special requirements by occupancy; and electrical energy management. Although directed to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience, it can be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings. This recommended practice is not intended to be a complete handbook; however, it can direct the engineer to texts, periodicals, and references for commercial buildings and act as a guide through the myriad of codes, standards, and practices published by the IEEE, other professional associations, and governmental bodies.

Keywords:

Commercial buildings, electric power systems, load characteristics

1. Introduction

1.1 Scope

This recommended practice will probably be of greatest value to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience. It can also be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings.

However, it is not intended as a replacement for the many excellent engineering texts and handbooks commonly in use, nor is it detailed enough to be a design manual. It should be considered a guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings.

1.2 Commercial Buildings

The term “commercial, residential, and institutional buildings”as used in this chapter, encompasses all buildings other than industrial buildings and private dwellings. It includes office and apartment buildings, hotels, schools, and churches, marine, air, railway, and bus terminals, department stores, retail shops, governmental buildings, hospitals, nursing homes, mental and correctional institutions, theaters, sports arenas, and other buildings serving the public directly. Buildings, or parts of buildings, within industrial complexes, which are used as offices or medical facilities or for similar nonindustrial purposes, fall within the scope of this recommended practice. Today’s commercial buildings, because of their increasing size and complexity, have become more and more dependent upon adequate and reliable electric systems. One can better understand the complex nature of modern commercial buildings by examining the systems, equipment, and facilities listed in 1.2.1.

1.2.2 Electrical Design Elements

In spite of the wide variety of commercial, residential, and institutional buildings, some electrical design elements are common to all. These elements, listed below, will be discussed generally in this section and in detail in the remaining sections of this recommended practice. The principal design elements considered in the design of the power, lighting, and auxiliary systems include: 1) Magnitudes, quality, characteristics, demand, and coincidence or diversity of loads and load factors

2) Service, distribution, and utilization voltages and voltage regulation

3) Flexibility and provisions for expansion

4) Reliability and continuity

5) Safety of personnel and property

6) Initial and maintained cost

7) Operation and maintenance

8) Fault current and system coordination

9) Power sources

10) Distribution systems

11) Legally required and optional standby/emergency power systems

12) Energy conservation, demand, and control

13) Conformance with regulatory requirements

14) Special requirements of the site related to: seismic requirements, altitude, sound levels, security, exposure to physical elements, fire hazards, hazardous locations, and power conditioning and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems

1.10 Safety

Safety of life and preservation of property are two of the most important factors in the design of the electric system.

This is especially true in commercial buildings because of public occupancy, thoroughfare, and high occupancy density. In many commercial buildings, the systems operating staff have very limited technical capabilities and may not have any specific electrical training.

Various codes provide rules and regulations as minimum safeguards of life and property. The electrical design engineer may often provide greater safeguards than outlined in the codes according to his or her best judgment, while also giving consideration to utilization and economics.

Personnel safety may be divided into two categories:

1) Safety for maintenance and operating personnel

2) Safety for the general public

Safety for maintenance and operating personnel is achieved through the proper design and selection of equipment with regard to enclosures, key-interlocking, circuit breaker and fuse-interrupting capacity, the use of high-speed fault detection and circuit-opening devices, clearances, grounding methods, and identification of equipment.

Safety for the general public requires that all circuit-making and circuit-breaking equipment, as well as other electrical apparatus, be isolated from casual contact. This is achieved by using dead-front equipment, locked rooms and enclosures, proper grounding, limiting of fault levels, installation of barriers and other isolation (including special ventilating grills), proper clearances, adequate insulation, and similar provisions outlined in this recommended practice.

Circuit protection is a fundamental safety requirement of all electric systems. Adequate interrupting capacities are required in services, feeders, and branch circuits. Selective, automatic isolation of faulted circuits represents good engineering practice. Fault protection, which is covered in Chapter 9, should be designed and coordinated throughout the system. Physical protection of equipment from damage or tampering, and exposure of unprotected equipment to electrical, chemical, and mechanical damage is necessary.

1.12 Design Considerations

Electrical equipment usually occupies a relatively small percentage of total building space, and, in design, it may be easier to relocate electrical service areas than mechanical areas or structural

elements. Allocation of space for electrical areas is often given secondary consideration by architectural and related specialties. In the competing search for space, the electrical engineer is responsible for fulfilling the requirements for a proper electrical installation while at the same time recognizing the flexibility of electric systems in terms of layout and placement.

Architectural considerations and appearances are of paramount importance in determining the marketability of a building. Aesthetic considerations may play an important role in the selection of equipment, especially lighting equipment. Provided that the dictates of good practice, code requirements, and environmental considerations are not violated, the electrical engineer may have to negotiate design criteria to accommodate the desires of other members of the design team.

1.1

2.1 Coordination of Design

The electrical engineer is concerned with professional associates such as the architect, the mechanical engineer, the structural engineer, and, where underground services are involved, the civil engineer. They must also be concerned with the builder and the building owner or operator who, as clients, may take an active interest in the design. More often, the electrical engineer will work directly with the coordinator of overall design activities, usually the architect, or the project manager; and must cooperate with the safety engineer, fire protection engineer, perhaps the environmental enginner, and a host of other concerned people, such as space planners and interior decorators, all of whom have a say in the ultimate design. The electrical designer must become familiar with local rules and know the authorities having jurisdiction over the design and construction. It can be inconvenient and embarrassing to have an electrical project held up at the last moment because proper permits have not been obtained, for example, a permit for a street closing to allow installation of utilities to the site or an environmental permit for an on-site generator.

Local contractors are usually familiar with local ordinances and union work rules and can be of great help in avoiding pitfalls. In performing electrical design, it is essential, at the outset, to prepare a checklist of all the design stages that have to be considered. Major items include temporary power, access to the site, and review by others. Certain electrical work may appear in nonelectrical sections of the specifications. For example, the furnishing and connecting of electric motors and motor controllers may be covered in the mechanical section of the specifications. For administrative control purposes, the electrical work may be divided into a number of contracts, some of which may be under the control of a general contractor and some of which may be awarded to electrical contractors. Among items with which the designer will be concerned are: preliminary cost estimates, final cost estimates, plans or drawings, technical specifications (which are the written presentation of the work), materials, manuals, factory inspections, laboratory tests, and temporary power. The designer may also be involved in providing information on electrical considerations that affect financial justification of the project in terms of owning and operating costs, amortization, return on investment, and related items.

Many electrical designs follow the concept of competitiveness in the commercial sense. Here, cost is a primary consideration, and such designs tend toward minimum code requirements. There is great pressure on the designer to consider cost above maintainability and long life. However, the experienced designer can usually adopt effective compromises.

1.1

2.2 Flexibility

Flexibility of the electric system means the adaptability to development and expansion as well as to changes to meet varied requirements during the life of the building. Often a designer is faced

with providing utilities where the loads may be unknown. For example, many office buildings are constructed with the tenant space designs incomplete. In some cases, the designer will provide only the core utilities available for connection by others to serve the working areas. In other cases, the designer may lay out only the basic systems and, as tenant requirements are developed, fill in the details. Often the tenant provides all of his or her own working space designs.

Because it is usually difficult and costly to increase the capacity of risers and feeders, it is important that provisions for sufficient capacity be provided initially. Extra conductors or raceway space should be included in the design stage if additional loads may be added later. This consideration is particularly important for commercial buildings with the increasing use of electronic equipment and air conditioning. The cost and difficulties in obtaining space for new feeders and larger switchgear, which would be required when modernizing or expanding a building, may well be considered in the initial design. A load growth margin of 50% applied to the installed capacity of the major feeders is often justified where expansion is anticipated. Each project deserves careful consideration of the proper load growth margin to be allowed.

Flexibility in an electric wiring system is enhanced by the use of oversize or spare raceways, cables, busways, and equipment. The cost of making such provisions is usually relatively small in the initial installation.

Empty riser shafts and holes through floors may be provided at relatively low cost for future work. Consideration should be given to the provision of satellite electric closets initially for future expansion. Openings through floors should be filled in with fireproof, easily removed materials to prevent the spread of fire and smoke between floors. For computer rooms and the like, flexibility is frequently provided by raised floors made of removable panels, providing access to a wiring space between the raised floor and the slab below.

商业楼宇

摘要：

提供商业楼宇电气设计指南和一般参考。它涵盖了负荷特性;电压考虑电源和配电设备;控制器;服务，拱顶，电气设备室;布线系统;系统的保护和协调;照明;空间电空调，运输，通信系统的规划，设备自动化;扩张，现代化建设和康复;所占用的特殊要求;和电能管理。虽然向面向工程师的权力与商业建设的经验有限，它可以是一个负责所有商业楼宇电气设计工程师的援助。这个建议的做法是不打算成为一个完整的手册，但是，它可以直接工程师到文本，期刊和商业楼宇的引用，并作为行动指南，通过无数的法规，标准和做法，由IEEE出版，其他专业协会和政府机构。

关键词：商业大厦，电力系统，负荷特性

介绍

1.1范围：此建议的做法可能会成为最大的价值面向工程师的权力与商业建设的经验有限。它也可以是一个负责所有商业楼宇电气设计工程师的援助。

但是，它不打算应用许多优秀的工程技术文本和常用手册，也不是不足够的详细设计手册。它应被视为对商业楼宇的电气设计指南和一般参考。

1.2商业楼宇

“商业，住宅，建筑物和体制”作为本章，包括工业建筑和私人住宅以外的所有建筑物。它包括办公和公寓楼，宾馆，学校，教堂，海洋，航空，铁路，巴士站，百货公司，零售商店，政府大楼，医院，养老院，精神和惩教机构，影剧院，体育场馆，以及其他直接服务市民的建筑物。建筑物或部分建筑物内的工业园区，这是作为办公室或医疗设施或类似的非工

业用途使用，属于这个建议的做法的范围。

今天的商业楼宇，因为他们的规模日益扩大和复杂性，已成为越来越多后，充足和可靠的电力系统的依赖。可以更好地理解现代商业建筑的复杂性，由检查系统，设备和1.2.中所列的设施。

1.3电气设计元素

尽管在各种各样的商业，住宅和机构的建筑物，一些电气设计元素共同所有。下面列出的这些元素，将在这一节中详细讨论一般在此建议的做法，其余部分的动力，照明和辅助系统的设计中考虑的主要设计元素包括：

1）大小，质量，特点，需求，巧合还是载荷和载荷因素的多样性

2）服务，分配和利用电压和电压调节

3）灵活性和扩展的规定

4）可靠性和连续性

5）人员和财产的安全

6）初始和维持费用

7）操作和维修。

8）故障电流和系统的协调

9）动力源。

10）配电系统

11）法律规定的和可选的待机/应急电源系统

12）节约能源，需求和控制

13）符合法规要求

14）相关的网站的特别要求：抗震要求，高度，声级，安全性，接触物理元素，火灾隐患，危险地段，功率调节，不间断电源（UPS）系统

1.4安全

生命和财产保全的安全性在电力系统的设计，最重要的因素有两个。因为市民入住，通途，都会占用密度高的商业大厦。在很多商业楼宇，系统操作人员的技术能力非常有限，可能不会有任何具体的电力方面的培训。

各种规则提供最低保障的生命和财产的规则和规例。电气设计工程师往往会提供大于规则，根据他或她的做出最好的判断，同时也考虑到利用和经济保障。

人员的安全，可分为两类：

1）为维护和操作人员的安全

2）为广大市民的安全

维护和操作人员的安全是通过适当的设计和设备选型方面来完成，钥匙环环相扣，断路器和熔断器分断能力，使用高速的故障检测和电路开启装置，间隙，接地方法和设备识别。

为广大市民的安全要求，所有的电路决策和破电路设备，以及其他电气设备。这是通过使用前端设备，控制和机柜，正确的接地，故障水平的限制，安装的障碍和其他隔离（包括特殊的通风格栅），适当的间隙，足够的绝缘，类似的规定，在此建议的做法概述。

短路保护是所有电力系统的基本安全要求。服务，馈线和分支电路，需要足够的打断能力。选择性，电路故障自动隔离，表示良好的工程实践。故障保护，这是第9章中所涵盖的，应设计和整个系统的协调。物理设备损坏或篡改，和暴露未受保护的设备，电气，化工，机械损伤保护是必要的。

1.4设计注意事项

电气设备通常占有总建筑空间的比例相对较小，在设计上，它可能是更容易比电气机械领域或结构元素服务领域发生改变。电气领域的分配空间常常给建筑和相关专业的审议。在空间

竞争的搜索，电气工程师是负责履行适当的电气安装的要求，而同时保证在布局和安置方面的电力系统的灵活性。

商业建筑考虑的是在确定建筑物至关重要。美观的考虑可能会在设备选型中发挥了重要作用，尤其是照明设备。电气工程师提供好的做法，规范的要求，和环境因素使然不受侵犯，可能有谈判的设计标准，以适应设计团队的其他成员的愿望。

1.5设计的协调

有关专业的联营公司，如建筑师，机械工程师，结构工程师，其中涉及地下服务，土木工程师，电气工程师。他们还必须关注的建设者和建筑物的业主或经营者，作为客户，可采取积极关注在设计。更多的时候，电气工程师将直接与整体设计活动，通常是建筑师，项目经理的协调;必须配合安全工程师，消防工程师，也许是环境编译引擎，以及其他有关人士的主机如空间规划者和室内装饰，所有的人有发言权，在最终的设计。电气设计师必须熟悉当地的规则，知道在设计和建设有管辖权的机关。例如，它可以有一个电力项目，在最后时刻举行的不便和尴尬，因为没有获得适当的许可，为街道收的许可证，允许安装公用事业上的网站或环境许可证网站发生器。

当地承包商通常是熟悉当地法令和工会工作规则和避免陷阱是可以有很大的帮助。执行电气设计中，它是必不可少的，在开始时，准备了所有的设计阶段，必须考虑到的清单。主要项目包括临时用电，访问该网站，并检讨别人。某些电器的工作中可能出现的非电气部分的规格。例如，家具和电动马达和马达控制器连接，可覆盖在规格的机械部分。行政控制的目的，电气工程，可划分成若干合同，其中一些可能是总承包商的控制下，其中一些可能会被授予电业承办商。在与设计师将关注的项目是：初步成本预算，最终成本估计，计划或图纸，技术规范（这是工作的书面陈述），材料，手册，工厂检查，化验，临时用电。设计师也可以参与提供信息电气考虑拥有和经营成本，摊销，投资回报率，以及相关的项目，影响项目的财务理由。

1.6灵活性

灵活性意味着电力系统的发展和壮大，以及变化的适应性，以满足不同的要求，在建筑物的使用寿命。往往是一个设计师正面临着可能是未知的负载提供公用事业。例如，许多办公楼的建造与租户的空间设计不完整。在某些情况下，设计师将提供只有别人的核心工具，用于连接提供服务的工作领域。在其他情况下，设计师可能会奠定了基本制度，并作为租户需求的开发，填补细节。通常情况下，租客提供所有他或她自己的工作空间设计。

因为它通常是困难和昂贵的增加竖管和馈线的能力，它是重要的，最初将提供足够的能力的规定。应包括额外的导线或滚道的空间，在设计阶段后可能会增加额外负荷。这方面的考虑，尤其重要的是越来越多地使用电子设备和空调的商业建筑。的成本和困难，取得新的馈线和较大的开关，这将需要现代化或扩大建设时，空间很可能被认为是在最初的设计。应用的主要馈线装机容量的50％的负荷增长幅度预计扩张，往往是有道理。每个项目都值得仔细考虑适当的负载允许的增长幅度。

特大型或备用水道，电缆，母线槽，和设备的使用电布线系统的灵活性增强。作出这些规定的成本通常是在初始安装相对较小。

空喉轴和孔，通过地板可为今后的工作在相对较低的成本。应考虑到最初为将来的扩展提供卫星电壁橱。通过地板的开口应与防火填充材料，容易去除，以防止火灾和烟雾楼层之间的传播。电脑室和灵活性，经常提供可拆卸面板的活动地板，高架地板下面板坯之间的布线空间提供接入。

文献、资料来源：《Special English for Architectural Electric Engineering and Automation》

建筑类型和设计-外文翻译

南京理工大学 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 学院（系）：南京理工大学继续教育学院 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：学术论坛网 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文 建筑类型和设计 厂房与人民息息相关，因为它提供必要的空间，工作和生活中。 由于其使用的分类，建筑主要有两种类型：工业建筑和民用建筑各工厂或工业生产中使用的工业大厦，而那些居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的人使用的民用建筑。 工业楼宇厂房可用于加工和制造各类采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等领域。可分为两种类型的单层和多层的厂房，民用建筑，工业建筑是相同的。然而，工业与民用建筑中使用的材料，在使用它们的方式不同。 民用建筑分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑，住宅建筑应满足家庭生活应包括至少有三个必要的房间：每个单位。一个客厅，一个厨房和厕所，公共建筑，可以在政治文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，影剧院，体育场馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等，他们都有不同的功能，这在需要以及不同的设计类型。 房屋是人类居住。房屋的基本功能是提供遮风挡雨，但今天人们需要更他们的住房，一个家庭迁入一个新的居民区知道，如果现有住房符合其标准安全，健康和舒适。附近的房屋是如何粮店，粮食市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，社区中心，家庭也会问。 在60年代中期最重要的住房价值足够空间的内部和外部。多数首选的一半左右1英亩的土地，这将提供业余活动空间单户住宅的家庭。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭宁愿住尽量尽可能从一个大都市区的中心，“打工仔”，即使行驶一段距离，他们的工作。不少家庭的首选国家住房郊区住房的大量的，因为他们的主要目的是远离噪音，拥挤，混乱。无障碍公共交通已不再是决定性因素，在住房，因为大多数工人开着自己的车上班的人。我们主要感兴趣的安排和房间的大小和卧室数目。 在建筑设计中的一个重要的一点是，房间的布局，应提供有关它们目的，最大可能的便利，在住宅，布局可根据三类认为：“天”，“夜必须注意“和”服务“。支付提供这些地区之间容易沟通。”天“的房间，一般包括用餐室，起居室和厨房，但其他房间，如一项研究，可能会补充说，可能有一个大厅，客厅，通常是最大的，往往是作为一个餐厅，也或厨房，可有一个用餐凉亭。“夜”的房间，卧室组成。“服务”，包括厨房，卫生间，储藏室，厨房和储藏室的水厕。连接天与客房的服务。 这也是必须考虑的前景问题，从不同的房间，和那些在使用中最应该尽可能最好朝

建筑类外文文献及中文翻译

forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.

零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献

零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：

建筑外文翻译--建筑类型和设计

building types and design A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in . As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities . Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used . Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center . In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms . Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.

土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译修订版

土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译修订版 IBMT standardization office【IBMT5AB-IBMT08-IBMT2C-ZZT18】

外文文献翻译 Reinforced Concrete （来自《土木工程英语》） Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships. Reinforced concrete structures may be cast-in-place concrete, constructed in their final location, or they may be precast concrete produced in a factory and erected at the construction site. Concrete structures may be severe and functional in design, or the shape and layout and be whimsical and artistic. Few other building materials off the architect and engineer such versatility and scope. Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage of temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In

土木工程外文文献翻译

专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

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不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。

市场营销_外文翻译_外文文献_英文文献_顾客满意策略与顾客满意

顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction 》自20世纪八十年代末以来, 顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额, 获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝随着时代的变迁, 社会物质财富的极大充裕, 顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代, 到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国, 随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代, 到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代, 各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价, 消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格, 而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位, 以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说, 今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品, 是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争, 也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争, 即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力, 这就是CSft略所要解决的问题。CS寸代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号, 而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标, 自己满意为经营理念, 而是以顾客满意, 赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主, 而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此, 营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上, 放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值, 顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值, 且远远高于其他同行, 顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意, 顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买, 还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品, 而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人, 而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样, 一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天, 其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查, 一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意, 其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明, 企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客, 利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐?佩 珀斯指出: 决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额, 而是在于顾客份额。 于是, 企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员, 定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定, 以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意” 目标的差距及其重点领域, 从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力, 不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品, 高水准的亲情般的服

商业建筑外文文献翻译)

Commercial Buildings Abstract: A guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings is provided. It covers load characteristics; voltage considerations; power sources and distribution apparatus; controllers; services, vaults, and electrical equipment rooms; wiring systems; systems protection and coordination; lighting; electric space conditioning; transportation; communication systems planning; facility automation; expansion, modernization, and rehabilitation; special requirements by occupancy; and electrical energy management. Although directed to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience, it can be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings. This recommended practice is not intended to be a complete handbook; however, it can direct the engineer to texts, periodicals, and references for commercial buildings and act as a guide through the myriad of codes, standards, and practices published by the IEEE, other professional associations, and governmental bodies. Keywords: Commercial buildings, electric power systems, load characteristics 1. Introduction 1.1 Scope This recommended practice will probably be of greatest value to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience. It can also be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings. However, it is not intended as a replacement for the many excellent engineering texts and handbooks commonly in use, nor is it detailed enough to be a design manual. It should be considered a guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings. 1.2 Commercial Buildings The term “commercial, residential, and institutional buildings”as used in this chapter, encompasses all buildings other than industrial buildings and private dwellings. It includes office and apartment buildings, hotels, schools, and churches, marine, air, railway, and bus terminals, department stores, retail shops, governmental buildings, hospitals, nursing homes, mental and correctional institutions, theaters, sports arenas, and other buildings serving the public directly. Buildings, or parts of buildings, within industrial complexes, which are used as offices or medical facilities or for similar nonindustrial purposes, fall within the scope of this recommended practice. Today’s commercial buildings, because of their increasing size and complexity, have become more and more dependent upon adequate and reliable electric systems. One can better understand the complex nature of modern commercial buildings by examining the systems, equipment, and facilities listed in 1.2.1. 1.2.2 Electrical Design Elements In spite of the wide variety of commercial, residential, and institutional buildings, some electrical design elements are common to all. These elements, listed below, will be discussed generally in this section and in detail in the remaining sections of this recommended practice. The principal design elements considered in the design of the power, lighting, and auxiliary systems include: 1) Magnitudes, quality, characteristics, demand, and coincidence or diversity of loads and load factors 2) Service, distribution, and utilization voltages and voltage regulation 3) Flexibility and provisions for expansion

差异化营销策略外文文献翻译

文献出处: Dalman, M. Deniz, and Junhong Min. "Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect." International Journal of Marketing Studies 6.5 (2014): 63-72. 原文 Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect Dalman, M. Deniz & Junhong Min Abstract This research investigates that brand differentiation creating superior values can be achieved not only by adding meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes, which is called "trivial attribute effect." Two studies provided empirical evidences as following; first, trivial attribute effect creates a strong brand differentiation even after subjects realize that trivial attribute has no value. Second, trivial attribute effect is more pronounced in hedonic service category compared to the utilitarian category. Last, the amount of willingness to pay is higher when trivial attribute is presented and evaluated in joint evaluation mode than separate evaluation mode. Finally, we conclude with discussion and provide suggestions for further research. Keywords: brand differentiation, evaluation mode, service industry, trivial attribute Introduction Problem Definition Perhaps the most important factor for new product success is to create the meaningful brand differentiation that provides customers with superior values beyond what the competitors can offer in the same industry (Porter, 1985). Not surprisingly, more than 50 percent of annual sales in consumer product industries including automobiles, biotechnology, computer software, and pharmaceuticals are attributed to such meaningful brand differentiation by including new or noble attributes (Schilling &Hill, 1998). However, the brand differentiation that increases consumer preference is not only by introducing meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes. For

外文翻译---建筑的组成部分

Literature translation. Construction constituent Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground. The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers. Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour. Load-Carrying Frame Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton con struction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material