语言学讲义第四章
Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)
Syntax (grammar)
?Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
4.1 Syntactic relations
?Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:
–4.1.1 positional relation
–4.1.2 relations of substitutability
–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence
4.1.1 Positional Relation
?For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.
?The boy kicked the ball
NP1 NP2
Subject Object
?Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
?If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball
–*Boy the ball kicked the
–*The ball kicked the boy
?The teacher saw the students
?The students saw the teacher
?Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.
–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.
?Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.
?There are 6 possible types of language:
–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
?The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.
–The ______ smiles.
man
boy
girl
?It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable
grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
strong man
–The tallest boy smiles.
pretty girl
yesterday.
–He went there last week.
the day before.
?This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev. ?To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.
4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence
?It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
?For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.
?Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.
4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents
4.2.1 Grammatical Construction
?Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.
–an apple
–ate an apple
–Mary ate an apple
4.2.2 Immediate Constituents
?Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:
–the girl (NP)
–ate the apple (VP)
–The girl ate the apple (S)
Immediate Constituent Analysis
(IC Analysis)
In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.
A (Sentence)
B C
The boy ate the apple
Two ways: tree diagram and bracketing
Tree diagram:
Bracketing
?Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
?(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))
?[
[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]
S
4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions
?Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.
–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.
?Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including
–the basic sentence,
–the prepositional phrase,
–the predicate (verb + object) construction,
–the connective (be + complement) construction.
?The boy smiled.
(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)
?He hid behind the door.
(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)
?He kicked the ball .
(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)
?John seemed angry.
(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)
4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination
?Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:
1) Coordination
?Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .
–These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.
?Coordination of NPs:
–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]
?Coordination of VPs:
–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]
?Coordination of PPs:
–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]
?Coordination of APs:
–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]
?Coordination of Ss:
–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].
2) Subordination
?Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.
?two dogs
Head
?(My brother) can drink (wine).
Head
?Swimming in the lake (is fun).
Head
?(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.
Head
3) Subordinate clauses
?Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:
–complement clauses
–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses
–relative clauses
?John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].
(complement clause)
?Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].
(adverbial clause)
?The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.
(relative clause)
4.3. Syntactic Function
?The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.
4.3.1 Subject
?In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）. ?The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.
–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)
–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)
?In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.
–This definition seems to work for these sentences:
–Mary slapped John.
■ A dog bit Bill.
?but is clearly wrong in the following examples:
–John was bitten by a dog.
–John underwent major heart surgery.
?In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).
?Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). ?Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as
–Bill is a very crafty fellow.
?but fails in others, such as
–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don?t trust.
–As for Bill, I wouldn?t take his promises very seriously.
?All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.
?The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.
What characteristics do subjects have?
A. Word order
?Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:
–Sally collects stamps.
–*Collects Sally stamps.
B. Pro-forms
?The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:
–He loves me.
–I love him.
–We threw stones at them.
–They threw stones at us.
C. Agreement with the verb
?In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:
–She angers him.
–They anger him.
–She angers them.
D. Content questions
?If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in
–John stole the Queen?s picture from the British Council.
–Who stole the Queen?s picture from the British council?
–What would John steal, if he had the chance?
–What did John steal from the British Council?
–Where did John steal the Queen?s picture from?
E. Tag question
?A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.
–John loves Mary, doesn?t he?
–Mary loves John, doesn?t she?
–*John loves Mary, doesn?t she?
4.3.2 Predicate
?Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.
?It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.
–The boy is running. (process)
–Peter broke the glass. (action)
–Jane must be mad! (state)
?The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.
4.3.3 Object
?Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.
–Mother bought a doll.
–Mother gave my sister a doll.
IO DO
?In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.
–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).
–Mother gave a doll to my sister.
–John kicked me.
?Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.
–John broke the glass. → The glass was broken by John.
–Peter saw Jane. → Jane was seen by Peter.
?Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.
–He died last week.
–The match lasted three hours.
–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)
4.4. Category
?The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:
–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability
–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice
4.4.1 Number
?Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.
–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.
–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.
?In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.
–le cheval royal (the royal horse)
–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)
4.4.2 Gender
?Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.
–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.
–For instance, in Latin, ignis…fire? is masculine, while flamma …flame? is feminine.
?English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.
–he: she: it
–prince: princess
–author: authoress
?In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.
–beau cadeau (fine gift)
–belle maison (fine house)
–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)
–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)
?Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:
–le poele (the stove)
–la poele (the frying pan)
–le pendule (the pendulum)
–la pendule (the clock)
4.4.3 Case
?The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.
–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.
?In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:
–inflection
–following a preposition
–word order
?as manifested in
–teacher : teacher?s
–with : to a man
–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John
4.4.4 Agreement
?Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall
also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). ?This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,
–Whose is this pen? --Oh, it?s the one I lost.
?or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:
–Each person may have one coin.
?Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:
–This man runs. The bird flies.
–These men run. These birds fly.
Sentence
Clause
Phrase
Word
?the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)
?has been doing
(verbal phrase)
?extremely difficult
(adjectival phrase)
?to the door (prepositional phrase)
?very fast
(adverbial phrase)
?The best thing would be to leave early.
?It?s great for a man to be free.
?Having finished their task, they came to help us.
?John being away, Bill had to do the work.
?Filled with shame, he left the house.
?All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.
?It?s no use crying over spilt milk.
?Do you mind my opening the window?
Sentence: (traditional approach)
simple
Sentence complex
non-simple
compound
Sentence: (functional approach)
Yes/no
Interrogative
Indicative wh-
Declarative
Sentence
Jussive
Imperative
Optative
Basic sentence types: (Bolinger)
?Mother fell.
(Nominal + intransitive verbal)
?Mother is young.
(Nominal + copula + complement)
?Mother loves Dad.
(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).
?Mother fed Dad breakfast.
(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)
?There is time.
(There + existential + nominal)
Basic sentence types: (Quirk)
?SVC Mary is kind.
a nurse.
?SV A Mary is here.
in the house.
?SV The child is laughing.
?SVO Somebody caught the ball.
?SVOC We have proved him wrong.
a fool.
?SVOA I put the plate on the table.
?SVOO She gives me expensive presents.
4.6 Recursiveness
?Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.
–All these are means to extend sentences.
–How long can a sentence be?
?Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.
?The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.
–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …
?John?s sister
?John?s sister?s husband
?John?s sister?s husband?s uncle
?John?s sister?s husband?s uncle?s daughter, etc.
?that house in Beijing
?the garden of that house in Beijing
?the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing
?a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing
4.6.1 Conjoining 连接
?Conjoining: coordination.
?Conjunctions: and, but, and or.
–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.
–Give me liberty or give me death.
4.6.2 Embedding嵌入
?Embedding: subordination.
?Main clauses and subordinate clauses.
?Three basic types of subordinate clauses:
–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.
–Complement clause: I don?t know whether Professor Li needs this book.
–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.
4.7. Beyond the sentence
(Text and discourse)
?The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary.
?Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.
4.7.1 Sentential Connection
?Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):
–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.
–We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.
?Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):
–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.
–He dictated the letter. She wrote it.
–The door was open. He walked in.
4.7.2 Cohesion衔接
?Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.
?Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:
–Conjunction 连接
–Ellipsis 省略
–lexical collocation 词汇搭配
–lexical repetition 词汇重复
–Reference 指称
–Substitution 替代, etc.
?“Did she get there at six?”
“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”
(Ellipsis)
?“Shall we invite Bill?”
“No. 1 can?t stand the man.”
(Lexical collocation)
?He couldn?t open the door. It was locked tight.
(Reference)
?“Why don?t you use your own recorder?”
“I don't have one.”
(Substitution)
?I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.
(Logical connection)
语言学期末(这份是正确的)
一. What is language? 1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries. The design/defining /distinctive features of human language: Arbitrariness (任意性） Productivity/Creativity(创造性） Duality （二元性、二层性） Displacement （移位性） Cultural transmission（文化传递性） 2.语言&言语 Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakers Parole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker. 3. Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms. 二．语音学（选择题） 三．音位学Phonology 1.音位变体 Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. 同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布. [p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context: [p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places. /p/ [p] / [s] _____
语言学复习资料 精整版
1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。 3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。 4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。 5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。 6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。 7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。 8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。 9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。 10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。 11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。 12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。 13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。 14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。 15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。 16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。 17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。 18、复合词：复合词由两个或两个以上的词根复合构成。例：汉语中的“火车”、“心疼”，英语中的“black-board(黑板)”、“rail-way(铁路)”。 19、重叠词：是由相同的词根相叠构成。如：看看、试试、多多等。 20、语法：语法是音义结合的各结构单位之间的组织规则的汇集，它包括词的构词、构形的规则和组词成句的规则。 21、词组：词组是实词与实词的有机组合。词组在句子中具有相当于词的作用，但它是比词大的语法单位。 22、语法范畴：是把同一性质的语法意义进一步综合概括所形成的语法意义的类别，如词形范畴与词类范畴等。 23、语法手段：对语法形式再概括所得出的类别就是语法手段，也叫语法方式，一般包括内部屈折法、附加法、重叠法、异根法、重音法、词序、虚词、语调、冠词、前置词和后置词、助动词等。 24、直接成分分析法：指从句法结构的外部形式，特别是隐形形式入手，对句子的直接组成成分进行分析的方法。由于句子的直接成分与句子的层次性一致，所以也叫层次分析法。 25、意音文字：一部分字符是义符，一部分字符是音符的文字是意音文字。 26、字符：字符也就是文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
文化语言学
简答题 1.罗常培《语言与文化》的学术贡献？ 该书专门论述语言与文化的关系，在当时以语言形式研究为主的时代卓然而立。它论述了六个方面的问题：①从词语的语源和演变看过去文化的遗迹。②从造词心理看民族的文化程度。 ③从借字看文化的接触。④从地名看民族迁徙的踪迹。⑤从姓氏和别号看民族来源和宗教信仰。⑥从亲属称谓看婚姻制度。这实际上是一本词汇与文化的专门著作。 2．文化语言学与人类语言学的联系与区别？ 同：关注的焦点都集中在人身上。 异：人类语言学以活的语言为对象，以了解语言的现状为目的，以实地考察为主要方法。而文化语言学除了活的语言外，还关注语言的历史、语言的书面形态、语言现状背后的原因、有多种方法如参照法、认同法等。 3．文化语言学与社会语言学联系与区别？ 同：都强调人类与人、与社会的密切关系，都关注着语言与人和社会的互动关系。 异：社会语言学主要研究的是语言在社会中的存在状况，主要关注的是社会现象中与人有密切关系的地域、职业、行业、性别、年龄、性格等特征。文化语言学主要研究的是语言在民族文化中的存在状况，它主要关注观念、信仰、道德、习俗、意识、思维等因素。 4. 什么是语言的人文性？ 指语言结构体能通过自身的存在状态、分布范围、活动单位、变化方式等各方面表现出它所赖以生存的民族文化生态环境中种种因素的属性语言的人文性应是语言的一种属性，一种功能，而不是具体的文化因素。 5.中国文化语言学有几个学派？它们的异同点是什么？ 三个：以游汝杰为代表的文化参照派、以申小龙为代表的文化认同派、以陈建民为代表的社会学派。 同：语言研究必须要与它的人文生态环境结合起来，对几乎全盘接受西方语言学理论的中国现代语言学提出尖锐批评，要求建立独立的文化语言学科，注重语言的个性，注重语言的功能研究等。 异：语言与文化之间有着怎样的关系；如何看待语言的人文属性；怎样评价中国现代语言学的历史；文化语言学的学科性质如何。文化派：注重语言和文化的参照比较研究，认为可以从汉语来探求文化，也可以从汉文化来探求汉语。文化认同派：注重对汉语的文化功能进行研究，认为汉语不仅是汉文化的载体，也是汉文化的结晶，追求汉语与汉民族文化之间的一致性。社会学派：注重探求在社会背景下的语言变异和运用规律。 论述题 1. 这是几组关于称谓语的原式和变式，对变式结构的特点 进行分类描写，并分析其原因 叶利钦——叶氏，奥巴马——奥氏 马拉多纳——老马；贝克汉姆——小贝 穆托姆博——穆大叔；霍华德——霍二叔 莎士比亚——莎翁；萨马兰奇——萨翁 第一组是总统的名字的第一个字加上“氏” 很显然是中外结合原因是中国人命名的是根据自己民族的思维进行的即姓+氏这种表达有庄重义故用于总统第二组是加了词头即 在人的姓前加上老或小这样的词头原因表示亲切和喜爱第三组名字的头字加上辈分 这里是按年龄转换的原因表示对前辈的尊敬和喜爱最后一组在名字的头字加上翁翁指
《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章期末复习
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. 规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. （2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时 The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. 历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time.
文化语言学考试资料
文化语言学考试资料 1汉语作为汉民族文化的代码，其有深刻的民族文化的历史背景，试论述有哪些文化因素对汉语的形成和发展产生过重要影响 20分 2双语阶段结束后，底层语言不会立即死亡，而是缓慢地萎缩，试举例论述语言萎缩的情况 20分 3简述汉语南方方言形成的历史层次 10分 4什么是等意异字和叠义复合？举例加以说明 10分 5语言接触后一把会产生什么变化？试举例说明 20分 6关于钢铁，枪炮和细菌 1汉语作为汉民族文化的代码，具有深刻的民族文化的历史背景，汉语同汉文化是同步形成和发展的，在漫长的历史进程中，至少有四个文化因素对汉语的形成和发展起到过重要的影响： （） 汉文化起源的多样性。 中原文化时期，夏朝和商朝的建立标志着华夏民族的开始形成。这个时期，居住在黄河流域的华夏民族与北狄、西羌、东夷及南方百越等民族时有冲突，同时也有交流，因此，汉文化是华夏民族和境内其他民族文化融合的综合体。 （二）汉字的一统作用 秦统一了汉字，使全国“书同文”，最终把我国黄河和长江两大文化中心统一起来。尽管各地的人对同一个字还是说不同的音，但汉字统一了全国的书面语，实际上也就是统一了古汉语和汉文化。同时，由于汉字符号的表义性使汉字表示的语素意义长期稳定，从而使汉语记载下来的汉文化作品具有长期稳定的延续性，这就形成了长达几千年的高度发达和统一的汉字文化。而汉字文化反过来也使汉民族的语言自古以来在长期发展中一直保持其稳定的延续性。 （三）佛教文化的融入 佛教传入中国，有史可考的时期大约在汉武帝征服西域之后，佛教文化自此渐渐融入汉民族文化。魏晋南北朝时期，佛教思潮海陆并进，涌入中国，在北方更加上少数民族武力的推波助澜，佛教变成人们生活不可缺少的一部分。到唐朝，佛教大盛，玄奘在印度求得重要的梵文经本，开始了三百年的佛经运动，从此佛学渗透到中国文化的各个领域，成为中国文化核心的一部分。佛教文化对汉语的影响主要表现在三个方面：1、四声理论的建立2、书面语口语话倾向产生3、大量借词进入汉语词汇 （四）社会分合和人口迁徙 从黄帝到清朝，中国境内曾出现过大大小小共八十多个王朝。割据和统一，依长江的南北对峙，北方王朝的南进等，分分合合的社会政治历史使社会动荡，人口迁徙。这样的结果对汉语的发展也产生了巨大的影响。 2 . 退缩到宗教领域 中国历史上的犹太移民在放弃母语后，掌教的神职人员仍使用希伯来语诵读讲解犹太经文。 .
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义 一、常考题型 1.填空 2.单项选择 3.判断正误 4.解释词语并举例说明 对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明 5.回答问题 做题要求：用英文进行答题。 二、各章节学习要点 Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论） 1.What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition （语言学的定义） P.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general. 1.2 The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴） P.2—4 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas. Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支： 1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学） The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.
文化人类学期末考试试题
文化人类学 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 一、单选题（共10分） 1、文化唯物论的代表人物哈里斯的代表作是（） A《文化唯物论》B 《原始文化》C 《洁净与危险》D 《忧郁的热带》 2、《江村经济》的作者是（） A 林耀华 B 费孝通 C 瞿同祖 D 吴文藻 3、基诺族属于（） A 平等社会 B 阶层社会 C 阶级社会 D 开放的阶级体制 4、马埃男子社团属于（） A 年龄社团 B 性别社团 C 区域社团 D 民族社团 5、《新教伦理与资本主义精神》的作者是（） A 韦伯 B 涂尔干 C 斯旺森 D 马克思 6、“男耕女织”表达的是一种（） A 年龄分工 B 性别分工 C 地域分工 D 阶层分工 7、认为宗教是精神鸦片这是（）的观点 A 韦伯 B 涂尔干 C 斯旺森 D 马克思 8、《癫狂与文明》的作者是（） A 德里达 B 福柯 C 涂尔干 D 米德 9、年龄和性别分工（） A 存在于狩猎社会 B 存在于采集社会 C 存在于工业社会D存在于一切社会 10、对“神圣”与“凡俗”的区分出自（） A 布朗 B 涂尔干 C 马克思 D 韦伯 二、多选题（共20分） 1、狩猎与采集社会的一般特点（） A小规模的社会群体B以性别为基础的社会分工C没有恒久稳定的领导者D食物共享 2、下面关于形式主义流派说法正确的是（） A以研究市场经济的西方经济学理论为自己的基础 B以西方经济学的方法论作为自己的方法论指导 C形式主义流派是经济人类学中历时最久的、影响最大和人数最多的一个学派。 D主张从社会、生态自然环境与人类之间的互动、交换关系的角度来考察经济问题。 3、关于平等社会的表述正确的是（） A财富和权利平等B个人声望平等C主要指狩猎和采集社会 D无论是个体还是群体，在经济资源和权利上都处在平等的地位上 4、改革前中国社会的分层情况（） A一种缺少公平竞争机会的体制 B政治色彩浓厚 C以身份指标确定个人的社会地位 D是开放性的 5、人类学中关于乱伦禁忌的理论有（） A近亲繁殖理论 B童年期亲密理论 C家庭破裂理论 D广泛联姻论 6、宗教仪式的基本类型包括（） A 祈祷 B 音乐 C 强化仪式 D 转换仪式
文化语言学和社会语言学的异同
文化语言学和社会语言学的异同 语言学（linguistics）是以人类语言为研究对象的学科。探索范围包括语言的结构、语言的运用、语言的社会功能和历史发展，以及其他与语言有关的问题。语言学的历史非常古老。人类最早的语言研究是从解释古代文献开始的，是为了研究哲学、历史和文学而研究语言的。中国在汉朝时产生了训诂学。在印度和希腊，公元前4世纪到3世纪，就建立了语法学。现代的语言学建立于18世纪初期，是随着历史比较语言学的出现的。它主要包括文化语言学、应用语言学、社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学等。文化语言学和社会语言学是语言学上的两个分支，它们虽然相互联系，但重点很不相同。它们的不同点主要体现在它们的定义、研究对象、研究方法、研究理论的意义，还有实践意义不同，它们对人类的其他活动都有着不同的作用。具体分析如下： 一、定义不同 人类文化语言学（ethnolinguistics）是语言学与文化人类学（cultural anthropology ，亦称社会人类学，social anthropology）的边缘化所形成的一门交叉学科，其交迭领域为“语言、思维、文化及其关系”，这是当今语言研究中最具动力和潜势的一个探索点。同时人类文化语言学是一门大跨度的综合性学科，理论语言学、应用语言学、社会语言学、心理语言学以及语言哲学和语言思想史研究构成了它的基本学科扇面，而当代最活跃的几个语言学分支诸如语用学、话语分析、跨文化交际理论、翻译理论以及（第二）语言习得理论等，都可以从中获得本体论和方法论资源。换言之，开展人类文化语言学研究，不仅可以直接介入语言、思维和文化这一领域，而且还可以高屋建瓴地带动、推进和融合当代语言学分支的研究。人类之所以会有文化，而其它动物不能有文化，其原因除脑力的差异以外，便是语言能力的有无，故语言对于文化的关系极为重大(Ellwood C ·A·,Cultural Evolution)。欧美的语言学家、文化人类学家们，如洪堡特（W ·F ·Humboldt）、马林诺夫斯基（B·Malinowski）等也都有过精彩论述。这些理论昭示了语言的文化属性或人文性，使当代语言学家反思语言研究游离于社会，游离于人文世界的缺陷。社会语言学是一个很大的术语，它覆盖了大量有关语言和社会的问题，包括语言的社会功能和语言使用者的社会特征。社会语言学研究语言多样性的特征，他们的功能特征和说话者的特征以及这三者在言语社团中持续的交互作用和变化。它试图揭示出那些能解释和限制言语社团中语言行为和作用于语言行为的社会规则和规范，同时，也努力去确定语言多样性对于说话者的符号性价值。而这种由语言的多样性产生的符号性或象征性特征，是语言功能差异的必然结果。 二、研究对象的不同 人类文化语言学的研究对象具有本土性、多样性、传统性、时代性、实用性、温和性。社会语言学的研究对象是年龄与语言变异（1）、．性别与语言变异（2）、社会阶层与语言变异（3）、集团用语（4），集团用语中主要有行话、单位用语、专业用语、术语、隐语和黑话。其中（1）（2）是从“属性论”的观点探讨语言的使用状况。一种语言即使在同一时代、也会因说话人所属的地区、年龄、性别、身份、修养等不同而产生差异。有关这方面的研究中，特别值
《文化语言学》教学大纲
《文化语言学》教学大纲 课程名称：文化语言学英文名称：metalinguistics 课程代码：[JX042006] 课程类别：限定选修课 学分学时数：2学分，32学时 适用专业：汉语言 修（制）订人：郝鹏飞修（制）订日期：2014年9月1日 审核人：审核日期： 审订人：审订日期： 一、课程性质与目的要求 （一）课程性质 文化语言学是汉语言文学专业的专业选修课。文化语言学是研究语言和文化的关系的学科，是语言学和文化学的交叉学科,本课程研究的对象定位在汉语与中国文化关系的范围内。本课程以基本掌握了现代汉语、古代汉语、语言学概论等专业基础课知识体系的学生为教学对象。通过本课程的教学，使学生了解汉语与中国文化相互作用、相互完善、相互依存的关系，引导学生对汉语与中国文化关系的深入思考和探索，初步掌握研究方法。 （二）课程目的要求 1.了解汉字和汉语语音、词汇、语法的特点，了解中国文化的特点。 2.认识汉字、汉语语音词汇语法与中国文化的相互影响和相互依存关系。 3.初步掌握从汉字、语音、词汇、语法研究中国文化和从中国文化透视汉字、语音、词汇、语法发展规律的方法。 二、教学内容、重（难）点、教学要求及学时分配 第1章文化语言学的研究内容（4学时） 教学要求：了解文化语言学的概念、文化语言学研究的内容和意义。 教学要点： 1.文化的涵义 2.文化的三个层次 3.文化语言学概念和研究内容 4.文化语言学研究的意义 教学重（难）点：对文化和文化层次的理解。
第2章汉汉语语音与汉文化（8学时） 教学要求：了解汉语语音的特点，中国文化对汉语语音的影响，由汉语语音的特点形成的独特的中国文化现象。 教学要点： 1.汉语音义结合的特点 (1)一音多义(语素)是汉语的一大特点 (2)一音多字造成汉语的奇特现象 2.语音特点形成的文学艺术手法 (1)双关 (2)借对 (3)幽默的谈笑艺术 (4)歇后语 3.汉语语音特点形成的民俗 (1)吉祥语与吉祥物 (2)禁忌语 4.语音特点形成的制度—避讳 教学重（难）点：汉语语音的特点与中国文化特点的关系。 第3章汉字与文化（8学时） 教学要求：了解汉字性质和特点，掌握从汉字中了解历史文化信息的方法。 教学要点： 1.文字是文明的标志 （1）文字使语言突破了时间上的局限，使语言得以长久保存 （2）文字使语言突破了空间上的局限，使语言得以传到远处 2.文字的形体反映了古文化的演进 （1）古文字反映古代物质生产方式的进步 （2）古文字反映古代风俗制度的变化 （3）古文字反映审美意识的起源 教学重（难）点：汉字的结构；汉字蕴含的历史文化信息。 第4章汉语词汇与汉文化（8学时）
《语言学概论》期末试卷
语言学概论》期末试卷 1. (单选题） 下 列关于“语言”的说法,不正确的一项是（D ）（本题2.0 分） A 、语言系统是由多个子系统组合而成的B 、 语言是一个符号系统 C 、 语言符号具有任意性和线条性特征D 、 语言符号的音义关系可以任意改变 2. (单选题） 下 卜列兀音音素都是后兀音的一组是（B）本题2.0分） A 、[u, ￡] B 、 [a , A ] C 、 [a ,y] D 、[o, a] 3. (单选题） 下 F列辅音音素都是塞音的一组是（B）（本题2.0分） A 、[k, 1] B 、[p, k] C 、[p, n] D 、[t, v] 4. （单选题）从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是
(A)(本题2.0分) A 、音位 B 、 曰素 C 、 音节 D 、 音渡 5.(单选题）汉语普通话中的“我”和助词“的”单念时发音分别 为［uo］和［te］,而在实际语流中，“我的”发音是［uo de］,这是语流音变中的（A）本题2.0分） A 、顺同化现象 B 、 逆同化现象 C 、 弱化现象 D 、 异化现象 6.(单选题）语音的本质属性是（C ）本题2.0分） A 、物理属性 B 、 生理属性 C 、 社会属性 D 、 心理属性 7.（单选题）英语“students”中的“-s”是（C）本题2.0分）
A 、虚词语素 B 、 词根语素 C 、 构形语素 D 、 构词语素 8.(单选题）从词的构造方式看，下列各项中属于复合词的是（D）本题2.0分） A 、木头 B 、 念头 C 、 苦头 D 、 山头 9.(单选题）划分词类的最本质的标准是（A ）（本题2.0分） A 、分布标准 B 、 意义标准 C 、 形态标准 D 、 逻辑标准 10.（单选题）下面词组中，结构类型与其他各组不冋的一组是（D）本题2.0分） A 、年轻漂亮/朴素大方 B 、我们大家/首都北京 C、铁路民航/工人农民 D、贯彻执行/讨论研究
整理过的英语语言学资料
1 One of the main features of our human language is arbitrariness .Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to ? Give examples if necessary(10 points). 2 In English we can describe a story as "a successful story" or "a success story ".Do you think they mean the same ? Please explain and give your reasons(10 points) 3 Explain the following terms ,giving examples where necessary.(50 points) <中山2003》design feature macro linguistics vowel minimal pair folk etymology aspect anaphor error analysisr metaphor 4 Language can change through blending ,met analysis ,back-formation, analogical creation and borrowing. Give two English words for each of them ( 5 points) 清华2000年试题 5 Answer the following question briefly.clearly,grammatically and correctly.(10 Points ) 湖南师大2003年What is it wrong to assume that the meaning of a sentence is the sum of the meaning of the words which compose it ? 7 Define the following terms.(10 points) 中国海洋大学1999 Phoneme,consonant,morpheme,lexicon,syntax,endocentric construction,semantics,hyponymy ,language ,design feature 8 Define the following terms .(20 points) 苏州大学1997 allophone morpheme assimilation internal authority interlingua phatic communion closed-class word government semantic triangic lingua franca What is the main grammatical difference between a sentence and a clause ? 同上 6 Translate into Chinese and exemplify each of the following.(10 points ) Example : dialectal synonyms Answer , 方言同义词，Fall and autumn are dialectal synonyms . homograph homophony gradable opposites endocentric construction exocentric construction List the six important characteristics of human language . What are the types of morphemes? Illustrate the deep and surface structures. What do u know about the semantic features? How does language change? 10 Words in our mental lexicon are known to be related to one another .Discuss the relationships between words ,using examples from the English language .(15 points ) 北外2003年试题 11 What do you think are the similarities and dissimilarities between learning a first and a second language? ( 30 points) 同上 31. .cultural transmission (as a defining feature of human language) is One of the major defining features of human language. Humans are born with the ability to acquire a language, but different from animals, the actual use of human language is not genetically transmitted, rather it is culturally transmitted, i.e.it has to be taught and learnt. 32. .phonic medium of language isThe limited range of sounds that are used in human language communication, i.e.the speech sounds. 33.Voicing is a phonetic feature of some sounds.It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords. 34.Inflectional morphemes are morphemes that are used to indicate the grammatrcal relations and categories,such as-ed,-(e)s,-est in English. 35.Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.For example ,if we say, "The dog is barking," we must be talking about a certain dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the situation.The actual dog the word "dog" refers to in this particular situation is the reference of the word "dog". 36.Locutionary act refers to the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses.It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. For example, by saying "You have left the door wide open",the locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean. 37.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages. 38.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language,often cutting across regional differences. It is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation. 39.Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For this reason, registers are also known as situational dialects. 40.Acculturation refers to a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.
人类文化语言学
一. 概论 在国外出版的语言学概论一类的书上，常常看到“语言与文化”这样的章节，但是在语言学文献里从来未见到“文化语言学”这个名称（国外正式出版物中收录的相关术语只有：人种语言学（或种族语言学）Ethno linguistic、人类语言学anthropological linguistic、社会语言学sociolinguistic）。文化语言学这一学科名称在国内出版物上最早见于《复旦学报》1985年第三期游汝杰的《方言与文化》，该文是一本当时尚未出版的同名书稿的内容提要。其后，桂诗春、顾嘉祖和陆晟主编的《语言与文化》2002年增改版序言中解释说“文化语言学”乃是译自英文的人类文化语言学（ethno linguistics）。 而事实上，社会语言学、人类文化语言学、人类语言学这三个学科在一定程度上是重叠的，中国文化语言学在其创立过程中吸收了西方人类学语言学和人种语言学的一些理论和观点，但由于它提出并坚持了以汉语人文性论为本体论、以汉语的文化性征和中国语文传统的科学分析、阐释为方法论的两翼这一“向中华文化认同”的方法原则，因此，被它所吸收的有关理论和观点，很自然地已在中国文化语言学的“文化规定”和“语言型式”中得到脱胎换骨的改造并融为中国文化语言学的有机组成部分。这些经改造后的西方人类语言学的理论、观点与其原初形态已有了本质差异，中国文化语言学成为一种既对立于西方形式主义(或曰科学主义)语言学及其中国变体—中国现代语言学，又有别于西方人文主义语言学的学术新范型, 它有着自己特殊的内涵。 我先分别介绍西方的人类文化语言学Ethno linguistic、人类语言学anthropological linguistic和中国的文化语言学，再作一个比较。 二. 西方的人类语言学和人类语言学 西方人类语言学(Anthropological Linguistic)，又称语言人类学(Linguistic Anthropology)，成型于20世纪初，是西方人文主义语言学之集大成。它综合运用语言学和人类学的理论与方法来研究语言结构、语言变化和社会文化的关系，以及与人类文化模式和信仰有关的语言变异。其缘起的学术逻辑可以一直追溯到古希腊崇尚人文的奥尔菲传统，他关注人的认识的能动性，注重社会政治伦理并提出“人是万物的尺度”之命题，从而构成了西方学术中相对于形式主义倾向与流派的一种人文主义倾向与流派。18世纪由维柯(Giovanni Battista Vico,l668- 1774)在1725年出版的《新科学))中首次依据“人是万物的尺度”这一命题提出符号学——文化语言学的思想，开创了把语言作为文化的核心和构成因素来研究语言与文化关系的人文主义传统。 继维柯之后，第一个从系统的纯语言学角度对文化学一语言学作创造性阐释的是威廉·洪堡特(Wilhelrn Freiberr von Humbolt ,1767-1835)。他首次认定语言是一种创造性的精神活动，进而提出每一种语言都具有特定的认知形式即“内蕴形式”.所谓语言的内蕴形式是一种语言的语义结构，它决定着语言的各种成分、模式和规则，反映着使用该语言的民族对事物、思想的表达方式和对语言的组织原则.包含着该语言集团对世界的一种主观见解.因此，语言的内蕴形式是一种语言的个性，是民族的思想表达方式和民族文化精神的体现。简言之，语言的内蕴形式只是部分地为人类所共有并属于人类的智力特征，而另一部分则为每种语言所特有的语言形式，这种语言形式构成该语言与其它一切语言形式的同一和差别.由此，洪堡特建立起著名的语言世界观理论—人类各种语言的差异不在于外部声音和感性符号的不同、不在于对某一事物的称谓不同，而在于它的内蕴形式所取的对某一种事物的观点即世界观不同，因此，语言结构具有民族的特点，不能用莫须有的逻辑的普遍语法代替每种语言的独特性。 洪堡特所代表的文化学一语言学传统，在欧洲大陆曾因19世纪后期新语法学派的崛起而出现断裂.不过，一些具有文化哲学洞察力的语言学家还是沿着维柯、洪堡特的理论和克