(完整word版)吴伟仁--英国文学史及选读--名词解释
①Beowulf: The national heroic epic of the English people. It has over 3,000 lines. It describes the battles between the two monsters and Beowulf, who won the battle finally and dead for the fatal wound. The poem ends with the funeral of the hero. The most striking feature in its poetical form is the use if alliteration. Other features of it are the use of metaphors(暗喻) and of understatements(含蓄).
②Alliteration: In alliterative verse, certain accented(重音) words in a line begin with the same consonant sound(辅音). There are generally 4accents in a line, 3 of which show alliteration, as can be seen from the above quotation.
③Romance: The most prevailing(流行的) kind of literature in feudal England was the Romance. It was a long composition, sometimes in verse(诗篇), sometimes in prose(散文), describing the life and adventures of a noble hero, usually a knight, as riding forth to seek adventures, taking part in tournament(竞赛), or fighting for his lord in battle and the swearing of oaths.
④Epic: An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significantly to a culture or nation. The first epics are known as primacy, or original epics.
⑤Ballad: The most important department of English folk literature is the ballad which is a story told in song, usually in 4-line stanzas(诗节), with the second and fourth lines rhymed. The subjects of ballads are various in kind, as the struggle of young lovers against their feudal-minded families, the conflict between love and wealth, the cruelty of jealousy, the criticism of the civil war, and the matters and class struggle. The paramount(卓越的) important ballad is Robin Hood(《绿林好汉》).
⑥Geoffrey Chaucer杰弗里.乔叟: He was an English author, poet, philosopher and diplomat. He is the founder of English poetry. He obtained a good knowledge of Latin, French and Italian. His best remembered narrative is the Canterbury Tales(《坎特伯雷故事集》), which the Prologue(序言) supplies a miniature(缩影) of the English society of Chaucer’s time. That is why Chaucer has been called “the founder of English realism”. Chaucer affirms men and women’s right to pursue their happiness on earth and opposes(反对) the dogma of asceticism(禁欲主义) preached(鼓吹) by the church. As a forerunner of humanism, he praises man’s energy, intellect, quick wit and love of life. Chaucer’s contribution to English poetry lies chiefly in the fact that he introduced from France the rhymed stanza of various types, especially the rhymed couplet of 5 accents in iambic(抑扬格) meter(the “heroic couplet”) to English poetry, instead of the old Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse.
⑦【William Langland威廉.朗兰: Piers the Plowman《农夫皮尔斯》】
The English Bible: The first complete English Bible was translated by John Wycliffe(约翰?威克里夫). The Authorized Version is King James Bible made in 1611. The result is a monument of English language and English literature.
Renaissance: Renaissance or the birth of letters is an intellectual movement. Its two features are a thirsting curiosity for the classical literature and the keen interest in the activities of humanity. Humanism is the key-note of the Renaissance.
William Caxton威廉.卡克斯顿: He is the first English printer and invented in England the profession of publisher.
Thomas More托马斯.莫尔: The greatest of the English humanists was Thomas More, the author of Utopia《乌托邦》. He is also one of such “giants”(巨匠) of the Renaissance. He distinguished himself as a learned scholar, a master of Latin, a witty talker, a lover of music, an honest statesman , and a man of noble character, modest but steadfast(坚定的), to his convictions. He was a far-sighted thinker, aspired for a totally new society with happy, classless, and free from poverty and exploitation. He was one of the forerunners of modern socialist thought.
Utopia: It is More’s masterpiece, written in the form of a conservation between More and Hythloday, a returned voyager. It is divided into two books. The first book contains a long discussion on the social conditions of England. In the second book is described in detail an ideal communist society, Utopia. The name “Utopia”comes from Greek words meaning “no place”and was adopted by More as the name of his ideal commonwealth.
Philip Sidney菲利普.锡德尼: He is well-known as a poet and critic of poetry. His collection of love sonnets, Astrophel and Stella《爱星者与星》, was published in 1591.
Edmund Spenser埃德蒙.斯宾塞(莎翁之前最杰出的英国诗人)：The poet’s poet of the period was ES who was buried beside Chaucer in Westminster Abbey. ES has held his position as a model of poetical art among the Renaissance English poets, and his influence can be traced in the works of Milton, Shelley, and Keats. ES is the first master to make that language the natural music of his poetic effusions(感情的流露). His sonnets in Amoretti, together with Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella and Shakespeare’s sonnets ,are the most famous sonnet sequences of the Elizabeth Age. 【In 1579 he wrote The Shepherd’s Calendar《牧人日记》which marked the budding(萌芽) of the Renaissance flower in the northern island of England. The faerie Queen 《仙后》is his greatest work which was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth.】
Francis Bacon: He is the founder of English materialist philosophy and the founder of modern science in England. His New Instrument is called the Inductive Method of reasoning. He is also the first English essayist. To give a few, “Men fear death as children fear to go in the dark..”“Studies serve for delight.”“Reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.”
Drama: The Miracle Play圣迹剧The Morality Play道德剧寓意剧
The Interlude幕间节目
Christopher Marlowe克里斯托弗.马洛: The most gifted of the “university wits”was Christopher Marlowe. His best work include 3 of his plays, Tamburlaine《帖木儿大帝》(1587), The Jew of Malta《马耳岛的犹太人》(1592), and Doctor Faustus《浮士德博士》(1588). He was the greatest of the pioneers of English drama. His work paved the way for the plays of the greatest English dramatist——Shakespeare——whose achievements were the monument of the English Renaissance.
【His plays show the spirit of the rising bourgeoisie, its eager curiosity for knowledge, its towering pride, its insatiable(不知足的) appetite for power won by military, might, knowledge, or gold. The theme of his plays is the praise of individuality freed from the restraints of medieval dogmas and law, and the conviction of the boundless possibility of human efforts in conquering the universe. The heroes in his plays are merely individualists, their individualistic ambition often brings ruin to the world and sometimes to themselves.】
William Shakespeare: Shakespeare is one of the founders of realism in world literature. His dramatic creation often used the method of adaptation（改革）. Shakespeare long experience with the stage and his intimate knowledge of dramatic art thus acquired make him a master hand for playwriting. Shakespeare was skilled in many poetic forms: the song, the sonnet, the couplet, and the dramatic blank verse. He was especially at home with the blank verse. Shakespeare was a great master of the English language. Shakespeare has been universally acknowledged to be the summit of the English Renaissance, and one of the greatest writers over the world.
①The great comedies: A Midsummer Might’s Dream, The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, Twelfth Night.
②The great tragedies: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth.
The Merchant of Venice: 威尼斯富商安东尼奥Antonio为了成全好友巴萨尼奥Bassanio的婚事，向犹太人高利贷者夏洛克Shylock借债。由于安东尼奥贷款给人从不要利息，并帮夏洛克的女儿私奔，怀恨在心的夏洛克乘机报复，佯装也不要利息，但若逾期不还要从安东尼奥身上割下一磅肉。不巧传来安东尼奥的商船失事的消息，资金周转不灵，贷款无力偿还。夏洛克去法庭控告，根据法律条文要安东尼奥履行诺言。为救安东尼奥的性命，巴萨尼奥的未婚妻鲍西娅Portia假扮律师出庭，她答允夏洛克的要求，但要求所割的一磅肉必须正好是一磅肉，不能多也不能少，更不准流血。夏洛克因无法执行而败诉，害人不成反而失去了财产。剧本的主题是歌颂仁爱、友谊和爱情，同时也反映了资本主义早期商业资产阶级与高利贷者之间的矛盾，表现了作者对资产阶级社会中金钱、法律和宗教等问题的人文主义思想
Ben Jonson本.琼森: Of the many contemporaries and successors of Shakespeare, the most well-known was Ben Jonson. He wad a prolific(多产的) dramatist, writing dozens of plays, including tragedies, comedies, and ,masques(假面剧). Jonson’s comedies are “comedies of humours.”Every Man in His Humour《人各有癖》is one of his best comedies.
Part Three
John Milton: His nickname was “The lady of the Christ’s”when he was in college. Milton was political in both his life and his art. He wrote the greatest epic Paradise Lost《失乐园》in English literature. Milton is a master of the blank verse. He first use blank verse in non-dramatic works. Milton is a great stylist and famous for his grand style. He has always been admired for his sublimity(高尚) of thought and majesty of expression.
Paradise Lost: It is Milton’s masterpiece. It’s a long epic in 12 books, written in blank verse. The stories were taken from the Old Testament: the creation, the rebellion in Heaven of Satan and his fellow-angles; their defeat and expulsion(驱逐) from Heaven; the creation of the earth and of Adam and Eve; the fallen angles in hell plotting against God; Satan’s temptation of Eve; and the departure of Adam and Eve from Eden.【The finest thing in Paradise Lost is the description of hell, and Satan is the real hero of the poem. He is firmer than the rest of the angles and the spirit questioning the authority of God.】
Samson Agonistes《力士参孙》: It is a poetical drama modeled on the Greek tragedies. It deals with the story of Samson from the “Books of the Judges”in the Old Testament.
John Bunyan: John Bunyan, the son of a poor tinker, was born in the little village of Elstow. He had a sensitive imagination. When he was about 17, Bunyan enlisted in the parliament army, and served during the decisive battle of Naseby in 1645. After the Restoration, he was flung into Bedford prison in 1660, for refusing to obey the law prohibiting religious meetings. With the characteristic diligence Bunyan set to work in prison making shoelaces, and so earned a living for his family. In the prison, he wrote the book “The Pilgrim’s Progress”（《天路历程》）which was published in 1687. Bunyan cherished a deep hatred of both the king and his government.
The Pilgrim’s Progress: It is a religious allegory(讽喻). It tells of the spiritual pilgrimage(朝圣) of the Christian, who flies from the City of Destruction(毁灭之城), 【meets with the perils and temptations(诱惑) of the Slough of Despond, Vanity Fair, and Doubting Castle(疑虑之城), faces and overcomes the demon Appollyon, and finally comes to the Delectable Mountains and the Celestial City.】Bunyan intends to satirize the state trials in the reactionary(反动派的) reigns of Charles II and James II.
Metaphysical poets(玄学派诗人): About the beginning of the 17th century appeared a school of poets called “metaphysicals”by Samuel Johnson, the 18th century writer. The works of the Metaphysical poets are characterized, generally speaking, by mysticism in content and fantasticality in form. John Donne is the founder of the Metaphysical school of poetry.
John Donne(约翰????多恩): He is the founder of the Metaphysical school of poetry, lived and wrote during the succeeding reigns of Elizabeth I, James and Charles I. His poems can be divided into two categories: the youthful love lyrics(抒情诗) and sacred(宗教的) verse(诗篇).
John Dryden(约翰.德莱顿):The most distinguished literacy figure of the Restoration Period was John Dryden, poet, playwright and critic. During this period of revolution and counter-revolution,
Dryden turned with the tide. He was a prolific writer. His plays show the usual immorality of the age and have all been deservedly forgotten by posterity with the only exception of all for love《一切为了爱》【, a tragedy dealing with the same story as Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra】.Dryden established the heroic couplet and he was the forerunner of the English classical school of literature in the next century.
Part Four
Classicism: English literature of the Restoration period was modeled on the literature of France where classicism was then prevailing. The classicists upheld reason, law and order in literature. According to classicism, drama, poetry and prose should all be controlled by some fixed rules. The classicists modeled themselves on Greek and Latin authors. Rimed couplet obeys the three unities (三一律)of time, place and action, regularity in construction. Poetry following the ancient divisions, should be lyric, epic, didactic(教诲的)，satiric, or dramatic.
The English enlighteners: The enlighteners fought against class inequality, stagnation, prejudices and other survivals of feudalism. They attempted to place all branches of science at the service of mankind by connecting them with the actual needs and requirements of people. The representatives of the Enlightenment in English literature were Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, the essayists, and Alexander Pope, the poet. 【These writers criticized different aspects of contemporary England, discussed social problems, and even touched upon morality and private life. The literature of the Enlightenment in England mainly appealed to the middle class readers.】
Richard Steele(斯梯尔) and Joseph Addison(艾迪生): They are linked together by the ties of a life-long friendship and the partnership in literary career. Their writings afford a new code of social morality for the rising bourgeoisie. They give a true picture of the social life of England in the 18th-century. In the hands of Addison and Steele, the English essay had completely established itself as a literary genre(流派). Addison’s chief contribution to literature lies in his essays written for The Tatler and The Spectator.
The Spectator: It was a daily paper, publishing one essay every day. Its general purpose is “to enliven morality with wit, and to temper(缓和) wit with morality.”It preached moderation, reason, self-control, civility(礼貌), refinement(高尚) and good taste.
Alexander Pope(亚历山大?蒲柏): He is the most important English poet in the first half of the 18th century. When he was only 22, his poem Essay on Criticism《论批评》was published. He is a great master of verse in England and in Europe. Pope is the most important representative of the English classical poetry, though he lacked the lyrical gift.
【Essay on criticism: It tells the poet and critics to write and appreciate poetry according to the principles set up by the old Greek and Roman writers.】
【Essay on man《论人》: It is a philosophical poem in heroic couplets. It consists of 4 letters addressed to Lord Bolingbroke, a philosopher of the time. The idea is summed up in a well-known line: “One truth is clear, whatever is, is right.”】
Jonathan Swift: Swift is one of the greatest masters of English prose. His language is simple, clear
and vigorous. He said, “Proper words in proper places, makes the true definition of a style.”Swift is a master satirist, and his irony is deadly which as shown in his Modest Proposal《温和的建议》and his greatest work is Gulliver’s Travels.
Gulliver’s Travels: It is Swift’s greatest work. The first part of it appeared in October 1762 and by November the book was in everybody’s hand. In the first part Gulliver describes his shipwreck in Lilliput(小人国). In the second part, the voyage to Brobdingnag(大人国) is described. The third part is a satire on philosophers and projectors. In the last part, Gulliver’s satire is of the bitterest. Gulliver’s Travels gives an unparalleled(无与伦比的) satirical depiction of the vices of his age. 【Pamphlets on Ireland: two of the most famous ones are The Drapier’s Letters《德拉皮尔的信》and A Modest Proposal. The Irish series reached its climax in A Modest Proposal (1729), in which Swift suggested, with bitter irony, that the poverty of the Irish people should be relieved by the sale of their children “at a year old”, as food for the rich. “I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and herefore very proper for landlords.”】
Daniel Defoe: Defoe is chiefly remembered as the author of Robinson Crusoe, his masterpiece. His other interesting books are Captain Singleton(1720)《辛格尔顿船长》, Moll Flanders(1722)《摩尔弗兰德斯》and Colonel Jacque(1722)《大疫年记事》.
Robinson Crusoe: The story takes place in the middle of the 17th century, in the family of an old English gentleman, Mr. Crusoe. The old man designs his son, Robinson, for the law, but the young man has set his mind on becoming a sailor. The character of Robinson Crusoe is representative of the English bourgeoisie at the earlier stages of its development. He is most practical and exact. Samuel Richardson: He wrote a long tale, Pamela《帕米拉》【Richardson “had enlarge the knowledge of human nature.”His main achievement as a novelist lies in his technique to show characters as personalities, thinking and feeling for themselves with the author himself absent from the stage, refusing to intervene in the action.】
Henry Fielding: His first novel Joseph Andrews《约瑟夫.安德鲁传》was published in 1742. 【His Jonathan Wild《大伟人乔纳森.菲尔德传》appeared in 1743. Amelia (1751)《阿米莉亚》was his last novel. 】In the brief space of 9 years, Fielding wrote 26 plays. His plays include regular comedies, adaptations from the French, farces(闹剧), burlesques（滑稽戏）, and dramatic satires. As a satirist, he had the zeal(热心) of a social reformer. Fielding’s greatest work is the history of Tom Jones《汤姆?琼斯》. He is the founder of the English realistic novel. Some features of Fielding’s novels: 1) Fielding’s method of relating a story: The story may be told directly by the author. 2) Satire in Fielding’s novels: Satire abounds everywhere in Fielding’s works. There are 2 kinds of satire. One is the humorous satire which is meant to be instructive and corrective. On the other hand, there is a kind of grim satire, which is used to lash the cardinal evils of the corrupt ruling classes. 3) Fielding believed in the educational function of the novel. 4) Style: Fielding is a master of style. His style is easy, unlabored and familiar, but extremely vivid and vigorous. Richard Brinsley Sheridan: The School for Scandal《造谣学校》
Samuel Johnson: He is a lexicographer(词典编纂者), critic and poet and he was buried in Westminster Abbey. His dictionary was published in 1775 which marked the end of English writers’reliance on the patronage(赞助) of noblemen for support.
Oliver Goldsmith奥利弗.哥尔德斯密斯: He was a poet , novelist, dramatist and essayist, all combined in one person. He is an important writer of Johnson’s circle. His two poems, The Traveler《旅游人》and The Deserted Village《荒村》, are both written in heroic couplet, consisting of two iambic pentameter(五音步诗行/英雄诗体) lines linked by rhyme, which was the ruling poetic form in the 18th century. The vicar of Wakefield 《威克菲尔德的牧师》, The Good-Natured Man, The Citizen of the World《世界公民》.
Edward Gibbon爱德华.吉本: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire《罗马帝国衰亡史》Sentimentalism: sentimentalists appealed to sentiment, “to the human heart.”
Thomas Gray: He took 6 years to compose his famous Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard《墓园挽歌》, which is a model of sentimentalism poetry. It shows a keen interest in the English countryside and a sincere feeling for the life of common people. The poet meditates(沉思) in village cemetery(墓地) on the graves of the humble and poor that surround him.
William Cowper: He is one of the representatives of sentimentalism.
William Blake(威廉.布莱克): The best of Blake’s short poems is to be found in these two little collections of lyrics, Songs of innocence《天真之歌》, contains poems which were apparently written for children, and Songs of experience《经验之歌》. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell《天国与地狱的婚姻》is important for its expression of Blake’s spirit of revolt against oppression. The whole temper of Blake’s genius was essentially opposed to the classical tradition of that age. Blake’s revolutionary passion came near to that of Shelley. For these reasons, Blake is called a Pre-Romantic or a forerunner of the Romantic poetry of the 19th century.
【The contrast between songs of innocence and songs of experience is of great significance. It makes a progress in the poet’s outlook on life. In the earlier collection, port’s first glimpse of the world was a picture of light, harmony, peace and love. Later years, experience had brought a fuller sense of the power of evil.】
Robert Burns(罗伯特.彭斯): Burns is the national poet of Scotland. He is remembered mainly for his songs written in the Scottish dialect on a variety of subject. Numerous are Burn’s songs of love and friendship, which describes the poet’s own emotions with such vividness and simplicity. Bruce at Bannockurn is a typical song of patriotism(爱国主义).
【This patriotism is inseparately bound up with Burn’s passionate love of his native country.】Burns was an outspoken supporter of the French Revolution. Burns also achieved success in the field of satire. His songs are Scottish to the core. It is here that we have the best, the truest and fullest revelation of the poet’s mind and heart. They are entirely his own. He was himself in his own rural theme. His great success was also largely due to his comprehensive(广泛的) knowledge and excellent mastery(精通) of the old song tradition.
病生名词解释和简答题目
第一部分习题 第一章绪论 一、名词解释 1.Pathophysiology(病理生理学) 是研究疾病发生、发展过程中功能和代谢改变的规律极其机制的学科，其主要任务是揭示疾病的本质，为建立有效的疾病诊疗和预防策略提供理论和实践依据。 2.Basal pathogenesis(基本病理过程) 主要讨论多种疾病共同的、成套的功能和代谢变化。（如水、电解质、酸碱平衡紊乱，缺氧，发热，应激，缺血-再灌注损伤，休克，弥散性血管内凝血，全身炎症反应综合征，细胞增值和凋亡障碍等） 3.Animal model of human disease(人类疾病动物模型) 二、简答题 1.病理生理学的研究任务是什么？ 2.病理生理学主要包括哪些内容？ 3.病理生理学的主要研究方法有哪些？ 第二章疾病概论 一、名词解释 1.脑死亡(brain death) 脑死亡是指全脑功能（包括大脑、间脑和脑干）不可逆的永久性丧失以及机体作为一个整体体功能的永久性停止。 2.健康（health） 健康不仅是没有疾病或衰弱现象，而是躯体上、精神上和社会适应上的一种完好状态。 3.疾病（disease） 疾病是在一定病因作用下，机体内稳态调节紊乱而导致的异常生命活动过程。 4.病因 疾病发生的原因是指引起疾病必不可少的、赋予疾病特征或决定疾病特异性的因素。 5.诱因
诱因是能加强病因的作用而促进疾病发生发展的因素。 6.分子病 分子病是由遗传物质或基因（包括DNA和RNA）的变异引起的一类以蛋白质异常为特征的疾病。 7.基因病 基因病是由基因本身突变、缺失或其表达调控障碍引起的疾病。 8.条件 条件是指能促进或减缓疾病发生的某种机体状态或自然环境。条件本身不引起疾病，但可影响病因对机体的作用。 9.因果交替规律 因果交替指疾病发生发展过程中，有原始病因作用于机体所产生的结果又可作为病因，引起新的后果。这种因果的相互转化常常促进疾病的恶化，导致恶性循环。 二、简答题 1.用脑死亡概念的意义是什么？ ①可协助医务人员判断患者的死亡时间、适时停止复苏抢救。 ②有利于器官移植。 2.脑死亡的判断标准是什么？ ①自主呼吸停止。 ②不可逆性深度昏迷。 ③脑电波消失。 ④脑血液循环完全停止。 3.疾病与病理过程的区别是什么？ 4.遗传性因素与先天性因素有何区别？ 遗传因素指染色体或基因等遗传物质畸变或变异引起的疾病。先天性因素指那些损害胎儿发育的因素。 5.疾病发生的原因有哪些？ ①生物因素 ②理化因素 ③营养因素 ④遗传因素
材料力学名词解释(1)
名词解释 第一章： 1弹性比功：金属材料吸收弹性变形功的能力，一般用金属开始塑性变形前单位体积吸收的最大弹性变形功表示。 2．滞弹性：金属材料在弹性范围内快速加载或卸载后，随时间延长产生附加弹性应变的现象称为滞弹性，也就是应变落后于应力的现象。 3．循环韧性：金属材料在交变载荷下吸收不可逆变形功的能力称为循环韧性。 4．包申格效应：金属材料经过预先加载产生少量塑性变形，卸载后再同向加载，规定残余伸长应力增加；反向加载，规定残余伸长应力降低的现象。 5．解理刻面：这种大致以晶粒大小为单位的解理面称为解理刻面。 6．塑性：金属材料断裂前发生不可逆永久（塑性）变形的能力。 韧性：指金属材料断裂前吸收塑性变形功和断裂功的能力。 7.解理台阶：当解理裂纹与螺型位错相遇时，便形成一个高度为b的台阶。 8.河流花样：解理台阶沿裂纹前端滑动而相互汇合,同号台阶相互汇合长大,当汇合台阶高度足够大时,便成为河流花样。是解理台阶的一种标志。 9.解理面：是金属材料在一定条件下，当外加正应力达到一定数值后，以极快速率沿一定晶体学平面产生的穿晶断裂，因与大理石断裂类似，故称此种晶体学平面为解理面。 10.穿晶断裂：穿晶断裂的裂纹穿过晶内，可以是韧性断裂，也可以是脆性断裂。 沿晶断裂：裂纹沿晶界扩展，多数是脆性断裂。 11.韧脆转变：具有一定韧性的金属材料当低于某一温度点时，冲击吸收功明显下降，断裂方式由原来的韧性断裂变为脆性断裂，这种现象称为韧脆转变 12.弹性不完整性：理想的弹性体是不存在的，多数工程材料弹性变形时，可能出现加载线与卸载线不重合、应变滞后于应力变化等现象,称之为弹性不完整性。弹性不完整性现象包括包申格效应、弹性后效、弹性滞后和循环韧性等 13.弹性极限：式样加载后再卸载，以不出现残留的永久变形为标准，材料能够完全弹性恢复的最高应力。 14.静力韧度：金属材料在静拉伸时单位体积材料断裂前所吸收的功。 15.正断型断裂：断裂面取向垂直于最大正应力的断裂。 16.切断型断裂：断裂面取向与最大切应力方向一致而与最大正应力方向约成45度的断裂 17.解理断裂：沿解理面断裂的断裂方式。 第二章： 1.应力状态软性系数：材料或工件所承受的最大切应力τmax和最大正应力σmax比值 2.缺口效应：由于缺口的存在，在载荷作用下缺口截面上的应力状态将发生变化，产生所谓的缺口效应。（1：应力集中2.使塑性材料强度增高塑性降低） 3.缺口敏感度：缺口试样的抗拉强度σbn的与等截面尺寸光滑试样的抗拉强度σb的比值，称为缺口敏感度 4.缺口强化现象：在存在缺口的条件下出现了三向应力状态，并产生应力集中，试样的屈服应力比单向拉伸时高 5.布氏硬度：用钢球或硬质合金球作为压头，采用单位面积所承受的试验力计算而得的硬度 6.洛氏硬度：采用金刚石圆锥体或小淬火钢球作压头，以测量压痕深度所表示的硬度
英国文学史及选读__期末试题及答案
考试课程：英国文学史及选读考核类型：A 卷 考试方式：闭卷出卷教师: XXX 考试专业：英语考试班级：英语xx班 I.Multiple choice (30 points, 1 point for each) select from the four choices of each item the one that best answers the question or completes the statement. 1._____，a typical example of old English poetry ,is regarded today as the national epic of the Anglo-Saxons. A.The Canterbury Tales B.The Ballad of Robin Hood C.The Song of Beowulf D.Sir Gawain and the Green Kinght 2._____is the most common foot in English poetry. A.The anapest B.The trochee C.The iamb D.The dactyl 3.The Renaissance is actually a movement stimulated by a series of historical events, which one of the following is NOT such an event? A.The rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek culture. B.England’s domestic rest C.New discovery in geography and astrology D.The religious reformation and the economic expansion 4._____is the most successful religious allegory in the English language. A.The Pilgrims Progress B.Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners C.The Life and Death of Mr.Badman D.The Holy War 5.Generally, the Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th centuries, its essence is _____. A.science B.philosophy C.arts D.humanism 6.“So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,/So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.”(Shakespeare, Sonnets18)What does“this”refer to ? A.Lover. B.Time. C.Summer. D.Poetry. 7.“O prince, O chief of my throned powers, /That led th’ embattled seraphim to war/Under thy conduct, and in dreadful deeds/Fearless, endangered Heaven’s perpetual king”In the third line of the above passage quoted from Milton’s Paradise Los t, the phrase“thy conduct”refers to _____conduct. A.God’s B.Satan’s C.Adam’s D.Eve’s
病生名词解释
病生名词解释 跨细胞液（transcellular fluid） 跨细胞液是组织间液中的极少部分分布于一些密闭腔隙（关节囊、颅腔、胸腔、腹腔等）中，是由上皮细胞分泌产生的，为一特殊部分，也称第三间隙液。 水通道蛋白aquaporins (AQP) 是一组广泛存在于生物界的构成水通道与水通透有关的细胞膜转运蛋白。 低容量性低钠血症hypovolemic hyponatremia 又称为低渗性脱水，其特点是失Na+多于失水，血清Na+浓度〈130mmol/L，血浆渗透压〈280mmol/L，伴有细胞外液量的减少。 高容量性低钠血症hypervolemic hyponatremia 又称为水中毒，其特点血清Na+浓度〈130mmol/L，血浆渗透压〈280mmol/L，是由于过多的水分在体内潴留造成细胞内、外液量都增多，并引起重要器官功能障碍。 低容量性高钠血症hypovolemic hypernatremia 又称为高渗性性脱水，其特点是失水多于失Na+，血清Na+浓度〉150mmol/L，血浆渗透压〉310mmol/L，细胞外液量和细胞内液量均减少。 凹陷性水肿 (pitting edema) 组织间隙中积聚的液体超过胶体网状物的吸附能力时，形成游离的液体，后者在组织间隙中具有高度的移动性，当液体积聚到一定量后，用手指按压该部位皮肤，游离液体便从按压点向周围散开，形成凹陷，称为凹陷性水肿，又称为显性水肿。 异位钙化 在高钙或高磷血症时，体内多处可形成钙化，如血管壁、关节周围、软骨、肾、鼓膜钙化等，这些钙化灶引起相应器官的功能损害。 阴离子间隙 (anion gap,AG) AG指血浆中未测定的阴离子与未测定的阳离子的差值。 反常性酸性尿 碱中毒时尿液一般呈碱性，但在缺钾等引起的代谢性碱中毒时，在远曲小管因Na+-H+交换加强，导致肾泌H+增多，故尿呈酸性，称之为反常性酸性尿。 分子病(molecular disease) 是指由于DNA遗传性变异引起的一类蛋白质异常为特征的疾病。
(完整版)金属材料学(第二版)课后答案主编戴启勋
第一章钢的合金化原理 1．名词解释 1）合金元素: 特别添加到钢中为了保证获得所要求的组织结构从而得到一定的物理、化学或机械性能的化学元素。（常用M 来表示） 2）微合金元素: 有些合金元素如V，Nb，Ti, Zr 和B 等，当其含量只在0.1%左右（如B 0.001%，V 0.2 % ）时，会显著地影响钢的组织与性能，将这种化学元素称为微合金元素。3）奥氏体形成元素:在γ-Fe中有较大的溶解度,且能稳定γ相；如Mn, Ni, Co, C, N, Cu ； 4）铁素体形成元素: 在α-Fe中有较大的溶解度，且能稳定α相。如：V，Nb, Ti 等。5）原位析出: 元素向渗碳体富集，当其浓度超过在合金渗碳体中的溶解度时, 合金渗碳体就在原位转变成特殊碳化物如Cr 钢中的Cr：ε-FexC→ Fe3C→ （ Fe, Cr）3C→ （ Cr, Fe）7C3→ （Cr, Fe）23C6 6）离位析出: 在回火过程中直接从α相中析出特殊碳化物，同时伴随着渗碳体的溶解，可使HRC 和强度提高（二次硬化效应）。如V，Nb, Ti 等都属于此类型。 2．合金元素 V、Cr 、W、Mo 、Mn 、 Co、Ni 、Cu 、 Ti 、Al 中哪些是铁素体形成元素？哪些是奥氏体形成元素？哪些能在 a-Fe 中形成无限固溶体？哪些能在 g-Fe 中形成无限固溶体？答：铁素体形成元素：V、Cr、W、Mo、Ti、Al ； 奥氏体形成元素：Mn、Co、Ni 、Cu 能在a-Fe 中形成无限固溶体：V、Cr；能在g-Fe 中形成无限固溶体：Mn 、Co、Ni 3．简述合金元素对扩大或缩小γ相区的影响，并说明利用此原理在生产中有何意义？ 答：（1）扩大γ相区：使A3 降低，A4 升高一般为奥氏体形成元素分为两类：a.开启 γ相区：Mn, Ni, Co 与γ-Fe 无限互溶. b.扩大γ相区：有C，N，Cu 等。如Fe-C 相图，形成的扩大的γ相区，构成了钢的热处理的基础。 （2）缩小γ相区：使A3 升高，A4 降低。一般为铁素体形成元素 分为两类:a.封闭γ相区：使相图中γ区缩小到一个很小的面积形成γ圈,其结果使δ相区与α 相区连成一片。如V, Cr, Si, A1, Ti, Mo, W, P, Sn, As, Sb 。 b.缩小γ相区：Zr, Nb, Ta, B, S, Ce 等 （3）生产中的意义：可以利用M 扩大和缩小γ相区作用，获得单相组织，具有特殊性能，在耐蚀钢和耐热钢中应用广泛。 4．简述合金元素对铁碳相图（如共析碳量、相变温度等）的影响。 答：答：1）改变了奥氏体区的位置 2）改变了共晶温度：（l）扩大γ相区的元素使A1，A3 下降； （2）缩小γ相区的元素使A1，A3 升高。当Mo>8.2%, W>12%,Ti>1.0%,V>4.5%,Si>8.5% ，γ 相区消失。
英国文学史及选读 复习要点总结
《英国文学史及选读》第一册复习要点 1. Beowulf: national epic of the English people; Denmark story; alliteration, metaphors and understatements （此处可能会有填空，选择等小题） 2. Romance （名词解释） 3. “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight”: a famous roman about King Arthur’s story 4. Ballad（名词解释） 5. Character of Robin Hood 6. Geoffrey Chaucer: founder of English poetry; The Canterbury Tales (main contents; 124 stories planned, only 24 finished; written in Middle English; significance; form: heroic couplet) 7. Heroic couplet (名词解释)8. Renaissance（名词解释）9.Thomas More——Utopia 10. Sonnet（名词解释）11. Blank verse（名词解释）12. Edmund Spenser “The Faerie Queene” 13. Francis Bacon “essays” esp. “Of Studies”（推荐阅读，学习写正式语体的英文文章的好参照，本文用词正式优雅，多排比句和长句，语言造诣非常高，里面很多话都可以引用做格言警句，非常值得一读） 14. William Shakespeare四大悲剧比较重要，此外就是罗密欧与朱立叶了，这些剧的主题，背景，情节，人物形象都要熟悉，当然他最重要的是Hamlet这是肯定的。他的sonnet也很重要，最重要属sonnet18。（其戏剧中著名对白和几首有名的十四行诗可能会出选读） 15. John Milton 三大史诗非常重要，特别是Paradise Lost和Samson Agonistes。对于Paradise Lost需要知道它是blank verse写成的，故事情节来自Old Testament，另外要知道此书theme和Satan的形象。 16. John Bunyan——The Pilgrim’s Progress 17. Founder of the Metaphysical school——John Donne; features of the school: philosophical poems, complex rhythms and strange images. 18. Enlightenment（名词解释） 19. Neoclassicism（名词解释） 20. Richard Steele——“The Tatler” 21. Joseph Addison——“The Spectator”这个比上面那个要重要，注意这个报纸和我们今天的报纸不一样，它虚构了一系列的人物，以这些人物的口气来写报纸上刊登的散文，这一部分要仔细读。 22. Steel’s and Addison’s styles and their contributions 23. Alexander Pope: “Essay on Criticism”, “Essay on Man”, “The Rape of Lock”, “The Dunciad”; his workmanship (features) and limitations 24. Jonathan Swift: “Gulliver’s Travels”此书非常重要，要知道具体内容，就是Gulliver游历过的四个地方的英文名称，和每个部分具体的讽刺对象; （我们主要讲了三个地方）“A Modest Proposal”比较重要，要注意作者用的irony 也就是反讽手法。 25. The rise and growth of the realistic novel is the most prominent achievement of 18th century English literature. 26. Daniel Defoe: “Robinson Crusoe”, “Moll Flanders”, 当然是Robinson Crusoe比较重要，剧情要清楚，Robinson Crusoe的形象和故事中蕴涵的早期黑奴的原形，以及殖民主义的萌芽。另外注意Defoe的style和feature，另外Defoe是forerunner of English realistic novel。 27. Samuel Richardson——“Pamela” (first epistolary novel), “Clarissa Harlowe”, “Sir Charles Grandison” 28. Henry Fielding: “Joseph Andrews”, “Jonathan Wild”, “Tom Jones”第一个和第三个比较重要，需要仔细看。他是一个比较重要的作家，另外Fielding也被称为father of the English novel. 29. Laurence Sterne——“Tristram Shandy”项狄传 30. Richard Sheridan——“The School for Scandal” 31. Oliver Goldsmith——“The Traveller”(poem), “The Deserted V illage” (poem) (both two poems were written by heroic couplet), “The Vicar of Wakefield” (novel), “The Good-Natured Man” (comedy), “She stoops to Conquer” (comedy),
病生名词解释
病生名词解释 1、疾病：指一定病因的损害作用下，因机体自我调节紊乱而发生的异常生命活动过程 2、水肿：是指过多液体在组织间隙或体腔中积聚的一种常见的病理过程。 3、低渗性脱水：因失钠大于失水，血清钠浓度＜130mmol/L，血浆渗透压＜280mOsm/L，以 细胞外液减少为主的病理变化过程 4、血液性缺氧：由于血红蛋白数量减少或性质改变，以致血氧含量降低或血红蛋白结合的 氧不易释放出来所引起的组织缺氧。动脉血氧含量大多降低而氧分压正常，故又称等张性低氧血症 5、循环性缺氧：由于组织血流量减少使组织供氧量减少所引起的缺氧，又称低动力性缺氧 6、发热：是一种全身炎症反应或伴有全身炎症反应，是指在内外致炎因素（发热激活物） 作用下，体温调节中枢调定点上移而引起的调节性体温升高超过正常值0.5摄氏度的病理过程 7、过热：是由于体温调节机构功能受损或调节障碍，致使机体不能将体温控制在与正常调 定点相适应的水平而引起的非调节性体温升高 8、心力衰竭：是指由于心脏舒缩或泵功能障碍，以致心输出量绝对或相对的减少，不能满 足全身组织代谢需要一种病理过程 9、心脏前负荷：又称容量负荷，是指心脏收缩前所承受的负荷，相当于心腔舒张末期容量 10、氨中毒：此学说认为肝性脑病的发生是由于肝功能严重受损，尿素合成发生障碍而 导致血氨水平升高，增高的血氨通过血脑屏障进入脑组织，引起脑功能障碍 11、假性神经递质：指肝性脑病患者脑内产生的生物胺，例如苯乙醇胺和羟苯乙醇胺， 它们的化学结构与正常的神经递质去甲肾上腺素和多巴胺相似，但生理效应远较正常递质为弱，故称为假性神经递质 12、低钾血症：血清钾离子浓度＜3.5mmol/L的状态 13、高钾血症：指血清钾浓度＞5.5mmol/L的状态 14、呼吸性碱中毒：因肺通气过度引起的以血浆H2CO3原发性降低为特征的酸碱平衡 紊乱类型称为呼吸性碱中毒 15、代谢性酸中毒：是由于细胞外液氢离子增加或碳酸氢根离子丢失而引起的血浆碳酸 氢根离子浓度原发性降低的酸碱平衡紊乱 16、休克肺：休克时，肺血液灌流降低而且持续，引起肺淤血、水肿、出血、局限性 肺不张、微血栓栓塞和肺泡内透明膜形成的病理改变，称为肺休克。
金属学金相学名词解释
金属：具有正的电阻温度特性的物质。 晶体：物质的质点（原子、分子或离子）在三维空间作有规则的周期性重复排列的物质叫晶体。原子排列规律不同，性能也不同。 点阵或晶格：从理想晶体的原子堆垛模型可看出，是有规律的，为清楚空间排列规律性，人们将实际质点（原子、分子或离子）忽略，抽象成纯粹几何点，称为阵点或节点。为便于观察，用许多平行线将阵点连接起来，构成三维空间格架。这种用以描述晶体中原子（分子或离子）排列规律的空间格架称为空间点阵，简称点阵或晶格。 晶胞：由于排列的周期性，简便起见，可从晶格中取出一个能够完全反映晶格特征的最小几何单元来分析原子排列的规律性。这个用以完全反映晶格特征最小的几何单元称为晶胞。 多晶型转变或同素异构转变：当外部条件（如温度和压强）改变时，金属内部由一种晶体结构向另一种晶体结构的转变称为多晶型转变或同素异构转变。 空位：某一温度下某一瞬间，总有一些原子具有足够能量克服周围原子约束，脱离原平能位置迁移到别处，在原位置上出现空节点，形成空位。到晶体表面，称为肖脱基空位；到点阵间隙中，称弗兰克尔空位； 位错：它是晶体中某处有一列或若干列原子发生了有规律的错排现象，使长达几百至几万个原子间距、宽约几个原子间距范围内原子离开平衡位置，发生有规律的错动，所以叫做位错。基本类型有两种：即刃型位错和螺型位错。 晶界：晶体结构相同但位相不同的晶粒之间的界面称为晶粒间界，简称晶界。小角度晶界位相差小于10°，基本上由位错组成。大角度晶界相邻晶粒位相差大于10°，晶界很薄。 亚晶界和亚结构：分别泛指尺寸比晶粒更小的所有细微组织及分界面。 柯氏气团：刃型位错的应力场会与间隙及置换原子发生弹性交互作用，吸引这些原子向位错区偏聚。小的间隙原子如C、N 等，往往钻入位错管道；而大置换原子，原来处的应力场是受压的，正位错下部受拉，由相互吸引作用，富集在受拉区域；小的置换原子原来受拉，易于聚集在受压区域，即位错的上部。使畸变能降低，同时使位错难以运动，造成金属的强化。这就是利用溶质原子与位错交互作用的柯垂尔气团--柯氏气团。用以解释钢的脆化、强度提高等宏观现象。 元：组成合金的最基本的独立的物质，简称元 相：合金中结构相同、成分和性能均一并以界面互相分开的组成部分，称之为相。 组织：由于形成条件不同，形成具有不同形状、大小数量及分布的相相互结合而成的综合体。 固溶体：组元以不同比例混合后形成的固相晶体结构与组成合金的某一组元相同，这种相称固溶体 化合物：是构成的组元相互作用，生成不同与任何组元晶体结构的新物质 相图：是表示合金系中合金的状态与温度、压力与成分之间关系的一种图解。又称状态图或平衡图。
(完整word版)吴伟仁--英国文学史及选读--名词解释
①Beowulf: The national heroic epic of the English people. It has over 3,000 lines. It describes the battles between the two monsters and Beowulf, who won the battle finally and dead for the fatal wound. The poem ends with the funeral of the hero. The most striking feature in its poetical form is the use if alliteration. Other features of it are the use of metaphors(暗喻) and of understatements(含蓄). ②Alliteration: In alliterative verse, certain accented(重音) words in a line begin with the same consonant sound(辅音). There are generally 4accents in a line, 3 of which show alliteration, as can be seen from the above quotation. ③Romance: The most prevailing(流行的) kind of literature in feudal England was the Romance. It was a long composition, sometimes in verse(诗篇), sometimes in prose(散文), describing the life and adventures of a noble hero, usually a knight, as riding forth to seek adventures, taking part in tournament(竞赛), or fighting for his lord in battle and the swearing of oaths. ④Epic: An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significantly to a culture or nation. The first epics are known as primacy, or original epics. ⑤Ballad: The most important department of English folk literature is the ballad which is a story told in song, usually in 4-line stanzas(诗节), with the second and fourth lines rhymed. The subjects of ballads are various in kind, as the struggle of young lovers against their feudal-minded families, the conflict between love and wealth, the cruelty of jealousy, the criticism of the civil war, and the matters and class struggle. The paramount(卓越的) important ballad is Robin Hood(《绿林好汉》). ⑥Geoffrey Chaucer杰弗里.乔叟: He was an English author, poet, philosopher and diplomat. He is the founder of English poetry. He obtained a good knowledge of Latin, French and Italian. His best remembered narrative is the Canterbury Tales(《坎特伯雷故事集》), which the Prologue(序言) supplies a miniature(缩影) of the English society of Chaucer’s time. That is why Chaucer has been called “the founder of English realism”. Chaucer affirms men and women’s right to pursue their happiness on earth and opposes(反对) the dogma of asceticism(禁欲主义) preached(鼓吹) by the church. As a forerunner of humanism, he praises man’s energy, intellect, quick wit and love of life. Chaucer’s contribution to English poetry lies chiefly in the fact that he introduced from France the rhymed stanza of various types, especially the rhymed couplet of 5 accents in iambic(抑扬格) meter(the “heroic couplet”) to English poetry, instead of the old Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse. ⑦【William Langland威廉.朗兰: Piers the Plowman《农夫皮尔斯》】
病生名词解释汇总
名词解释 1.健康健康是一种躯体、精神和社会适应上的完好状态，而不仅仅是没有疾病或衰弱现 象。 2.疾病疾病是在一定病因作用下，机体稳态发生紊乱而导致的异常生命活动过程。 3.脱水体液容量的明显减少在临床上称为脱水。 4.低渗性脱水是指体液容量减少，以失钠多于失水，血清钠浓度＜130mmol/L,血浆渗透 压＜280mmol/L为主要特征的病理变化过程。 5.高渗性脱水是指体液容量减少，以失水多于失钠，血清钠浓度＞150mmol/L，和血浆渗 透压＞310mOsm/L为主要特征的病理变化过程。 6.水肿过多的液体在组织间隙或体腔中积聚的病理过程称为水肿。 7.低钾血症血清钾浓度低于3.5mmol/L称为低钾血症。 高钾血症血清钾浓度高于5.5mmol/L称为高钾血症。 8.代谢性酸中毒是指血浆中HCO3-原发性减少，而导致pH降低的酸碱平衡紊乱。 呼吸性酸中毒是指血浆中PaCO2原发性增高，而导致pH降低的酸碱平衡紊乱。 代谢性碱中毒是指血浆中HCO3-原发性增高，而导致pH升高的酸碱平衡紊乱。 呼吸性碱中毒是指血浆中PaCO2原发性减少，而导致pH升高的酸碱平衡紊乱。 9.乏氧性缺氧是由于动脉血分压降低，血氧含量减少，导致组织供氧不足的缺氧。 血液型缺氧是由于血红蛋白含量减少或性质改变导致的缺氧。 循环型缺氧是指因组织血液灌流量减少而引起的缺氧。 组织性缺氧是指因组织、细胞利用氧的能力减弱而引起的缺氧。 10.发热发热是指在发热激活物作用下，体温调节中枢调定点上移而引起的调节性体温升 高，当体温升高超过正常值的0.5·C时，称为发热。 11.过热是由于体温调节机构功能失调或调节障碍，使得机体不能将体温控制在与调定点 相适应的水平而引起的非调节性的体温升高。 12.内生致热源在发热激活物的作用下，体内某些细胞产生和释放的能引起体温升高的物 质，称为内生致热源。 13.热限发热时，体温升高很少超过41。C，通常达不到42。C，这种发热时体温上升的高 度被限制在一定范围内的现象称为热限。 14.APP 感染、烧伤、创伤、大手术等应急原诱发的血浆中浓度迅速升高的蛋白质称为急性 期蛋白（APP）。 15.HSP 在热应激时新合成或合成增多的一组蛋白质称为热休克蛋白。 16.应激性溃疡是指在大面积烧伤、严重创伤、休克、败血症、脑血管意外等应激状态下 所出现的胃、十二指肠粘膜的急性损伤。 17.心身疾病以心理社会因素为主要病因或诱因的一类躯体疾病称为心身疾病。 18.细胞信号转导是指细胞外因子通过与受体(膜受体或核受体)结合,引发细胞内的一系列 生物化学反应以及蛋白间相互作用,直至细胞生理反应所需基因开始表达、各种生物学效应形成的过程。 19.缺血-再灌注损伤缺血组织、器官在恢复血流灌注后反而加重组织器官的功能障碍和结 构损伤的现象称为缺血-再灌注损伤。 20.自由基指外层轨道上含有单个不配对电子的各种原子、原子团或分子。 21.钙超载各种原因引起的细胞内钙含量异常增多并导致细胞结构损伤和功能代谢障碍的 现象称为钙超载。 22.细胞凋亡细胞凋亡是指在体内外因素诱导下，由基因严格调控而发生的自主性细胞有 序死亡。
金属材料学名词解释总
二.名词解释 1）合金元素: 特别添加到钢中为了保证获得所要求的组织结构从而得到一定的物理、化学或机械性能的化学元素。(常用M来表示) 2）微合金元素: 有些合金元素如V，Nb，Ti, Zr和B等，当其含量只在0.1%左右（如B 0.001%，V 0.2 %）时，会显著地影响钢的组织与性能，将这种化学元素称为微合金元素。3）奥氏体形成元素: 在γ-Fe中有较大的溶解度,且能稳定γ相；如Mn, Ni, Co, C, N, Cu；4）铁素体形成元素: 在α-Fe中有较大的溶解度，且能稳定α相。如：V，Nb, Ti 等。 5）原位析出: 元素向渗碳体富集，当其浓度超过在合金渗碳体中的溶解度时, 合金渗碳体就在原位转变成特殊碳化物如Cr钢中的Cr： ε-FexC→Fe3C→（Fe, Cr）3C→（Cr, Fe）7C3→（Cr, Fe）23C6 6）离位析出: 在回火过程中直接从α相中析出特殊碳化物，同时伴随着渗碳体的溶解，可使HRC和强度提高（二次硬化效应）。如V，Nb, Ti等都属于此类型。 7）液析碳化物：由于碳和合金元素偏析，在局部微小区域内从液态结晶时析出的碳化物。8）网状碳化物：过共析钢在热轧（锻）加工后缓慢冷却过程中由二次碳化物以网状析出于奥氏体晶界所造成的。 9）合金渗碳体：渗碳体内经常固溶有其他元素，在碳钢中，一部分铁为锰所置换；在合金钢中为铬、钨、钼等元素所置换，形成合金渗碳体。 10）二次硬化：淬火钢在较高温度下回火，硬度不降低反而升高的现象称为二次硬化 11）变质处理：就是向金属液体中加入一些细小的形核剂（又称为孕育剂或变质剂），使它在金属液中形成大量分散的人工制造的非自发晶核，从而获得细小的铸造晶粒。 12）回火稳定性：淬火钢对回火过程中发生的各种软化倾向（如马氏体的分解，碳化物的析出与铁素体的再结晶）的抵抗能力。 13）固溶处理：指将合金加热到高温单相区恒温保持，使过剩相充分溶解到固溶体中后快速冷却，以得到过饱和固溶体的热处理工艺。 14）红硬性：指材料在一定温度下保持一定时间后所能保持其硬度的能力。 15）微合金钢：指化学成分规范上明确列入需加入一种或几种碳氮化物形成元素。 16）蠕变极限：在某温度下，在规定时间达到规定变形时所能承受的最大应力。 17）固溶强化：通过融入某种溶质元素来形成固溶体而使金属强化的现象称为固溶强化。 18）细晶强化：通过细化晶粒而使金属材料力学性能提高的方法称为细晶强化 19）晶间腐蚀：晶界上析出连续网状富铬的Cr23C6引起晶界周围基体产生贫铬区，贫铬区成为微阳极而发生的腐蚀。
病理生理名词解释(1)
第一章绪论 1.病理生理学: Pathophysiology 是研究疾病发生、发展和转归的规律和机制的科学。具体来讲， 它是以患病机体为研究对象，研究疾病发生的原因和条件，研究疾病过程中机体功能、代谢的变化以及这些变化的机制，从而揭示疾病发生、发展和转归的规律的一门科学。 2.基本病理过程：是指在多种疾病中可能出现的共同的、成套的功能、代谢和结构的变化，如水、 电解质和酸碱平衡紊乱，缺氧、发热、应激、弥散性血管内凝血、休克等。 第二章健康与疾病 1.健康：WHO对健康的定义：健康不仅是没有疾病和虚弱，而且是一种躯体上、精神上以及社会上 的良好状态。 2.疾病：是指机体在一定致病因素的作用下，机体的功能、代谢、形态、结构发生病理性变化，甚 至引起各种症状、体征和社会行为异常，从而使机体对内环境的适应能力和劳动力减弱甚至丧失这样一种异常的生命活动过程。 3.致病原因：是指能够引起某一疾病的某种特定因素。 4.致病条件：也叫诱因，是指在疾病的原因的作用于机体的前提下，影响疾病发生、发展的因素。 5.遗传性疾病：是指因遗传物质改变而直接引起的疾病。 6.先天性疾病：在胚胎发育过程中，由于受到某些有害因素的作用，使胎儿发育异常而在出生时即 表现出某种疾病，称为先天性疾病。 7.脑死亡：是指全脑（包括大脑、间脑和脑干等）功能的不可逆丧失以及机体作为一个整体功能的 永久性停止。 第三章水钠代谢紊乱 1.水中毒：当水的摄入过多，超过神经-内分泌系统调节和肾脏的排水能力时，大量水分潴留在体内， 导致细胞内、外液容量扩大并出现包括稀释性低钠血症在内的一系列病理生理改变时，称为水中毒water intoxication。 2.等渗性脱水：主要特征是水和钠按等渗比例丢失，即使开始时不按比例丢失，但经机体调节性代 偿活动，血清钠仍维持在130-150mmol/L，血浆渗透压仍然保持在280-310 mmol/L的病理过程，属等渗性脱水。 3.低渗性脱水：又称低血容量性低钠血症其主要特征是是钠多于失水，血清钠浓度<130 mmol/L,血 浆渗透压<280mmol/L的病理过程。 4.高渗性脱水：又称低血容量性高钠血症，主要特征是失水多于失钠，患者血清钠浓度>150mmol/L, 血浆渗透压>310mmol/L的病理过程。 5.水肿：edema 是指过多液体在组织间隙或体腔中积聚，是临床常见的一种病理生理过程。 6.心性水肿cardiac edema 时水肿液的分布与心力衰竭发生的部位有关，左心衰竭主要引起肺水肿， 又称心源性肺水肿。右心衰竭引起全身性水肿，又称心性水肿。心性水肿一般先出现在身体的下垂部位，严重时水肿可波及全身，并可出现胸水、腹水和心包积水。 第四章钾钙磷代谢紊乱（课本第八章P52-56主要看钾的代谢紊乱） 1.反常性酸性尿：低钾血症常常诱发代谢性碱中毒，这是因为细胞外液钾浓度降低时，肾脏排H+增 多。此时机体为碱中毒，但是尿液中H+增多而成酸性，故将这种碱中毒时排出酸性尿的现象，称为反常性酸性尿。 第五章酸碱平衡紊乱（课本第九章） 1.挥发酸：volatile acid 糖类、脂肪、蛋白质在其分解代谢中，氧化的最终产物是CO 2，CO 2 与水 结合生成碳酸，是机体在代谢过程中产生最多的酸性物质。碳酸可稀释出H+，也可形成CO 2， 从肺排出体外，所以称挥发酸。 2.固定酸：fixed acid 主要包括蛋白质分解代谢产生的硫酸、磷酸和尿酸；糖酵解生成的甘油酸、 丙酮酸和乳酸，糖氧化过程生成三羧酸；脂肪代谢产生的β-羟丁酸和乙酰乙酸等。这类酸性物质只能通过肾由尿排出，所以又称非挥发酸。 3.代谢性碱中毒：血浆内NaHCO 3 原发性增多而使血液PH趋向高于正常范围的情况，称为代谢性碱
病生名词解释
病生---名词解释 1.健康：健康是一种躯体上、精神上和社会适应上的完好状态。 2.亚健康：亚健康是指非健康、非患病的中间状态。 3.疾病：疾病是在一定病因作用下，机体稳态调节紊乱而导致的异常生命活动过程。 4.脑死亡：脑死亡是指全脑功能（包括大脑、间脑和脑干）不可逆的永久丧失以及机体作 为一个整体功能的永久性停止。 5.脱水（各型）：体液容量的明显减少。 低渗性脱水：低血钠性体液容量减少，失钠多于失水，血清钠浓度<130mmol/L，血浆渗透压<280mOsm/L。 高渗性脱水：高血钠性体液容量减少，失水多于失钠，血清钠浓度>150 mmol/L，血浆渗透压>310mOsm/L。 等渗性脱水：水、钠按正常血浆浓度比例丢失引起的血钠性体液容量减少，血钠维持在130-150mmol/L，渗透压浓度280-310mOsm/L。 6.脱水体征：由于细胞外液明显减少时，皮肤弹性丧失、眼窝或婴儿囟门凹陷的脱水外貌 7.脱水热：在高渗性脱水时因汗腺细胞脱水，汗液分泌减少，从皮肤蒸发水分减少，以致 散热功能降低，同时因体温调节中枢神经性细胞脱水，功能减退，导致体温升高。 8.水肿（包括显隐性）：过多的液体在组织间隙或体腔中积聚的病理过程。显性水肿：皮 下组织有过多的液体积聚时，皮肤肿胀，弹性差，皱纹变浅，用手指按压时，留有凹陷。 隐形水肿：全身性水肿时，皮下组织液增多，当水肿液不超过原体重的10%时，手指按压不会出现凹陷征。 9.水中毒：是一种因为人体摄取了过量水分而产生脱水低钠症的中毒征状 10.低钾血症：血清钾浓度低于3.5mmol/L，常同时有机体总钾含量缺乏。 高钾血症：血清钾浓度高于5.5mmol/L。 11.代酸：是指原发性HCO3-减少而导致的pH下降，是常见的酸碱平衡紊乱之一。 代碱：是指原发性HCO3-增多而导致的pH升高。 呼酸：是指因原发性PaCO2升高而导致的血液中pH下降。 呼碱：是指因通气过度，使PaCO2原发性升高而导致的血液中pH升高。 12.AG：阴离子间隙，实质血浆中未测定的阴离子与未测定阳离子的差值. 13.氧中毒：机体吸入高压氧，超过一定的压力和时程，引起一系列生理功能的紊乱或导致 的病理现象。 14.反常型酸性尿：低钾血症碱中毒时，由于肾小管上皮细胞内钾离子浓度降低，使排钾减 少而排氢离子增多，尿液呈酸性，故称反常性酸性尿。 15.缺氧（包括四型）：乏氧性缺氧（低张性）：主要表现为动脉血氧分压降低，外界环境 氧气不足，呼吸功能障碍引起血氧含量减少，组织供氧不足。 血液性缺氧（等张性低氧血症）：由于血红蛋白含量减少或性质改变，血氧含量降低，或与血红蛋白结合的氧不易释放而导致的组织缺氧。 循环性缺氧：是指因组织血流量减少使组织供氧量减少所引起的缺氧。 组织性缺氧：是指因组织细胞利用氧的能力减弱而引起的缺氧。 16.发绀：是指血液中脱氧血红蛋白增多使皮肤和粘膜呈青紫色改变的一种表现, 17.肠源性发绀：食用大量含硝酸盐的腌菜偶，硝酸盐经肠道细菌作用还原为亚硝酸盐，大 量吸收入血后，导致高铁血红蛋白症。当血液中HbFe3+OH达到1.5g/dL时，皮肤粘膜可呈咖啡色，称为肠源性发绀。 18.发热：在激活物的作用下，体温调节中枢调定点上移而引起的调节性体温升高，体温超