毕业论文中英文文献翻译 建筑学毕业论文
玻璃纤维时代的来临
超耐用的框架使如今的窗户可持续发展、高能源效率及美观
过去木制窗户几乎无处不在，但随着技术的进步，产生了一系列有更好的替代品。在1980年代后期的开发中，为满足更高性能和更低维护的需求，玻璃纤维窗户逐渐成为人们关注的重点。由AAMA/WDMA 2009/2010美国工业市场研究显示，在2005年至2009年，经济从高峰到低谷的经济不景气时期，对窗户种类的需求下降了惊人的44.8%，但与此同时玻璃纤维窗户种类增长了近一倍，市场份额从1.6%的达到3.1%。随着全球的建筑运动带动对可持续产品的全生命周期低消耗的需求越来越多，预计市场份额到2013年将达到4.3%。随着越来越多的主流门窗制造商为了建筑的新建或改建，引入建筑玻璃纤维生产线，产品在一系列节能细节上越来越齐全，包括低辐射氩填充中空玻璃及各种可单扇或双挂窗扇窗户及到多种复杂的可选择配置的窗户。本文将讨论玻璃窗户的未来，并且对玻璃纤维窗户和其他材料窗户提供了一个比较与分析。还包括将对指定相应的玻璃纤维窗户做专门和设计考虑的总结。
玻璃纤维窗户细节
据https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0b7893888.html,（一个非盈利网站，其唯一的使命是鼓励用可持续材料精心打造建筑）的调查“在某些情况下，使用玻璃纤维作为窗户结构材料，比其他材料更好，诸如木材，塑料或金属。”作为一个相对新生的产品，玻璃纤维窗框有很多类型。其中主要有全玻璃纤维结构，包含了传统的木结构的强度、稳定性和玻璃纤维低维护的特点。这些窗户使用工业用的外观颜色，使之与传统涂色木窗类似。最近，制造商也引进了一种窗户生产线，通过玻璃纤维的生产过程，其复杂轮廓的不仅满足窗户外观需要的，而且与内部天然木材相结合。对家具的档次、洁净度、垂直纹理的道格拉斯冷杉、红木或其他材料用钉子或短孔连接、电涂层表面光洁度和内置系统，这一系列在细节上的把握，能提高能源效率和窗户使用寿命。
玻璃纤维：它是什么及它是怎样制作的？
玻璃纤维是一种强化纤维的复合结构材料，而一般玻璃，只是由树脂基体束
缚在一起组成的。不同于常见的用于水池、船只，及储存罐的玻璃纤维，玻璃纤维框架通过电弧拉挤，在其中玻璃层和密封垫拉着巨大的力量，通过树脂浴和一系列所需形状和材料的树脂模具相结合和促进的过程，提供了高强度和抗扭强度。然后用这些尺寸稳定的玻璃纤维系列组装成窗框，可以用绝缘泡沫和高性能低辐射中空玻璃釉面填充以获得更高的性能。玻璃纤维窗框产生类似于乙烯基，但其中玻璃纤维是拉挤、或拉，乙烯则是挤压或推通过模具创建一个类似的形状。
框架材料特性
窗户框架，差不多占了总窗户面积
的百分之二十，是一个窗户的整体性能
的重要因素。
木
木材是一个现成的框架材料。满足
房屋的强度要求，并且易加工，是一种
最常见的选择，木材是一种天然的绝缘
体，满足许多传统的家庭结构形式。它
可以直接漆上纯色，或者通过染色和包
浆显现的木纹。
因为实木门窗的一些重大的缺点，
其逐渐被替换为其他的框架材料。木结
构外部需要大量的维护，经常涂刷和定
期整修。需要打磨和油漆新表皮。实木门窗也容易出现腐烂，完整性则易受到破坏，使其容易剥落掉色。虽然某些木窗的制造商将提供包壳。然而，一些包壳材料容易传导热量，同时提供的色彩选择有限，并且不能涂色。除了由两种不同的材料扩张速度引起的固有问题，所有的包壳木的下方易受到渗水损害，而水是背后的包壳材料和腐烂木头渗漏的。
木材的特性包括：
?可自定义的颜色和设计
?提供良好的绝缘能力
?传统的外观风格适合许多家庭风格
?易腐烂，受水害
?常需要维护
乙烯
乙烯基窗户价格低廉，耐用和节能，正确的设计可适当地减少热传递。虽然早期乙烯基窗户（因为与玻璃的热涨率不同，乙烯窗框会发生变形，并造成泄漏热量），在炎热的环境中存在稳定与热膨胀问题，现在的乙烯基窗户更耐用，尺寸稳定。乙烯窗框热焊接比机械连接更严密，从而提供更好的抗温度应力。内部的拉筋加强了框架并提高其热性能。
乙烯窗户主要材料是聚氯乙烯（PVC），这是几乎不需要维护的材料。乙烯框架不容易上色，往往以白色和各种中性色调，补充现有的许多设计方案。因为是颜料易渗透的材料，划痕和钉痕是几乎不可能看到的。新技术使一些乙烯窗户厂家生产出乙烯涂料，但是，他们只能选择有限的颜色和正确的涂料配方，以防止热量累积导致乙烯变形。
各不相同的制造商和乙烯基化合物，使得乙烯基窗户质量参差不齐，这只得用时间来鉴定它的性能。乙烯基添加剂配方有助于决定最终产品的特色，如它所承受的天气环境，耐冲击性能等；例如，添加二氧化钛使得产品更好适应于天气，防止其变黄了。乙烯基配方的差异，以及如何利用乙烯基结构，将决定其结构强度和绝缘性能。
乙烯的特性包括：
?节能
?耐用
?非腐蚀
?免维护
?提供广泛的风格和形态
?成本效益
?易于安装
表1一比较框架材料的物理性质
*基于双低辐射（太阳低增益）窗户玻璃大小类似的窗户比较
**最高几乎达到的性能的值的变化与纤维体积分数呈线性关系
资料1：Residential Windows: A Guide to New Technology and Energy Performance, Second Edition, J. Carmody, s. Selkowitz,& L. Heschong, Oct 2000.
来源2：Principles of Polymer Engineering, McCrum, Buckley & Bucknail, Oxford University Press, Oxnard 1990
Source3：Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook, Sixth Edition, D .Green, McGraw-Hill, New York
铝
由于其硬度，耐用性和精巧的框架，铝窗可以配置成丰富组合，最大限度满足各种要求。铝窗只需低成本维护，不会生锈或腐烂。它们可以氧化或烤漆。在过去
的铝窗的缺点是缺乏能源效率。铝容易传导热与冷。在寒冷的天气，建筑物的热通过窗扇和框架渗出。现在有了质量更好的铝窗，使内部和外表面隔离的断桥处理，提高了能源效率。
铝的特性包括：
?持久，可靠运行
?坚固耐用
?抗老化
?宽视域
?斯利姆框架补充现代建筑风格
?耐用的工厂用的颜色
玻璃纤维
玻璃纤维曾在航海业和工业应用多
年，只是在最近，制造商才按窗户设
计的
要求生产复杂配置的零件。作为一
个窗框材料，玻璃纤维因其强度、耐
用性和性能而闻名。它具有天然的耐化学性和防渗水、冷、热、虫、含盐空气和污染物腐蚀，具有很好的抗紫外线的侵蚀、防潮、防腐、抗氧化、防锈，解决了所有的窗户和门的传统问题。而木材，则一定程度上弱一些，乙烯和铝合金窗，可因翘曲、轧制、开裂、弯曲和收缩导致问题，玻璃纤维不具有脆性、易保持表面光洁度和最高的抗变形和扭曲的能力。纵观任何气候环境中，玻璃纤维保持刚性、稳定、几乎免维护。不同于木材，玻璃纤维不会干燥、肿胀、剥离或变形。
强度玻璃纤维是最结实的窗户材料，在专门的维护下它三倍强于铝及九倍强于乙烯。据美国建筑制造商协会（AAMA），玻璃纤维型材与钢有大致相同的强度（抗张强度计算）。它的强度使玻璃纤维可以按大尺寸制造，可安装无需另添支撑或加固的大面积玻璃，使得大型观景窗成为可能并且能源效率高，
高强重比重量轻的玻璃纤维提供了一个高强重比，增加其对大型、复杂的轮廓采光适宜性的同时最大限度地提高效益和在恢复项目，加强修复项目的历史准确性。
罐头厂街酒店获得玻璃纤维窗帘
在加州的蒙特利克莱门特洲际酒店，开业于2008年5月，玻璃纤维窗户产生了各种各样的好处。由两个四层建筑组成，它们之间用封闭的桥相连。而桥跨越繁忙的旅游目的地——罐头厂街上，酒店设有208间客房和用天然木材，大理石和玻璃装饰的豪华套房。许多房间直接提供了
海景，部分客房更是可以直接看到蒙特利海湾
全景。天井得推拉玻璃门，单悬和图片窗户在多年使用中，承受侵蚀和充满水分的空气。它的目的是重新创建罐头厂街地区的老式木头窗户复古流行的审美习惯。
刚度高弹性模量是指在玻璃窗户可承受负荷造成的弯曲或变形，从而在长期使用寿命中运行平稳。因为它是强大的和坚韧，玻璃纤维易于安装。玻璃纤维窗户在安装过程中，保持方正及水平并且抵御变形和扭曲，这是其他类型的窗户安装则存在一个常见问题。它非常结实，因此耐划伤、凹痕和耐冲击，其强度是不受时间和温影响。
适度热膨胀由于玻璃钢框架基本上是玻璃纤维和树脂，框架的扩张和收缩很小，和玻璃本身伸缩比率差不多。如果有任何扩张和收缩，各组件如同一个统一单位，不像大多数窗口和门的框架，会有一个不同的材料界面：玻璃和木材，玻璃和铝材或玻璃和乙烯基。铝材的扩张和收缩率是玻璃纤维的三倍之多，超过乙烯基七倍。玻璃纤维最小扩张和收缩，给封条和密封连接更小的压力，保持期间全天和季节温度的变化，从而减少了可能的空气渗透，这是一个建筑的能源效率损失主要原因。
玻璃纤维窗户的历史性的革新
在波特兰，俄勒冈州，里德学院以都铎式的哥特式建筑和以森林峡谷荒野保护为中心的面貌为特色。当学校的行政大楼进行了常规的升级与恢复时，第一期包括200个窗户的更换。用双悬拉挤玻璃纤维框架进行改造安装。因为需求超过
窗户平常的高度线的限制，需
要进行单位定制设计，以符合
历史的承袭。砖和花岗岩筋膜
必须横跨中，顶层窗口的中心
进行分割。在内饰方面，清晰
的垂直杉木纹理很容易与现
有的进行匹配。玻璃纤维窗
户，也因为高能源效率和低环
境影响的选择，取代单窗格双悬窗，因为它几乎没有隔热效果。伴随窗户是一个为期十年的商业保险。“这是一个理想的产品，是窗户行业中向下一代产品的自然过渡。这是一个值得期待的、有许多不同的配置窗户。”总承包商格伦谢泼德指出。
天然绝缘玻璃纤维是一种高级的绝缘体，因为它是从一个简单的用玻璃基与拉钢筋束制成的聚合物.。空气是被包裹在里面，也不会传导热或冷。因此，它的温度应保持恒定。由于玻璃纤维绝缘材料是如此有效，因为外面的温度不会影响的玻璃纤维窗户本身，不会形成凝结水。玻璃纤维抗结露，有助于保持一个合适的湿度范围，限制了霉菌及霉菌的生长
低的热传导玻璃纤维具有低U值，对能源效率的最终决定因素，有助于降低建设运行成本，增加人员舒适度。用绝缘泡沫填充玻璃纤维框架和用高效率的中空玻璃窗户大大增加了门窗性能和高效节能策略，包括被动加热及冷却，高透光率
大幅削减能源负荷，增加乘客的舒适度。
装饰细节玻璃纤维是可绘画的，油漆对玻璃纤维具有优异的附着力，如可容纳水和溶剂型丙烯酸漆和聚氨酯以及干粉或液体涂料。此外，可以使用添加色素的树脂。低热量传导，以及玻璃纤维稳定的性能，也可以漆涂各种深颜色。
成本玻璃纤维窗户的缺点一直是成本，价格比一般乙烯基窗高百分之二十至百分之三十。其中一个关键的因素是复杂的拉挤成型过程，没有制造乙烯基框或铝框过程快。然而，随着玻璃纤维制造商采用拉挤、模具设计、制造和装配的进步工艺，大量的玻璃纤维被越来越快地生产，并且成本也相应下降。此外，玻璃纤维窗在一个玻璃窗户的前期成本可能高于其他窗户类型，而其耐用性可能会随着时间的推移体现出更好的价值。
Fiberglass Fenestration Comes into its Own
Ultra-durable frames bring sustainability, energy efficiency and beauty to today'swindows.
Provided by Milgard Windows & Doors
It used to be that wood windows werevirtually ubiquitous,but technological advances have generatedalternatives with added benefits. Developed in the late 1980s to meet demand for lower maintenance and higher performance,fiber glass windows are now gaining traction nationwide. The AAMA/WDMA 2009/2010 U.S. Industry Market Studies show that while demand for all types of window units dropped a staggering 44.8 percent during the 2005 to 2009 peak-to-trough economic downturn, market share for fiberglass window units nearly doubled from 1.6 percent to 3.1 percent. That share is expected to reach 4.3 percent in 2013 as the global green building movement spurs ever more demand for sustainable products with low life cycle costs. As more mainstream window and door manufacturers introduce fiberglass lines for new construction and replacement situations, products have
become available in a full range of energy-efficient options including low-E argon-filled insulating glass units and in a variety of styles from casement to single- and double-hung to complex custom profiles. This article will discuss next generation offerings in fiberglass windows and provide a comparative analysis of fiberglass and other framing materials. Also covered will be code and design considerations in specifying an appropriate fiberglass window
FIBERGLASS WINDOW OPTIONS
According to https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0b7893888.html,, a non profit website whose sole mission is to encourage the creation of well-built buildings made with sustainable materials, "using fiberglass for a window frame material is, in some cases, preferable to other window frame materials like wood, vinyl, or metal”A relatively young product,fiberglass window frames are available in several versions Chief among them are the all-fiberglass frame that combines a traditional wood-frame profile with the strength, stability and low maintenance characteristics of fiberglass. These windows resemble traditional painted wood windows with factory- applied exterior colors. Quite recently, manufacturers have also introduced a line of windows in which the fiberglass production process enables complex profiles required for the look of painted wood windows on the exterior, combined with a natural wood interior. Better options in this category feature furniture-grade, clear, vertical-grain Douglas fir, mahogany or other species on the interior unmarred by nail or staple holes, a powder-coated exterior finish and built-in systems to increase both energy efficiency and window longevity.
FIBERGLASS: WHAT IS IT AND HOW IS IT MADE?
Fiberglass is a composite structural
material that consists of fiber
reinforcements, typically glass, that are
bound together in a resin matrix. Unlike
common fiberglass used in pools, boats,
and storage tanks, fiberglass frames are
produced via pultrusion, a process in
which glass rovings and mats are pulled
at tremendous force through a resin bath
and a series of dies where the resin sets to
the desired shape and the materials
combine and catalyze to provide high
tensile and torsional strength. These
dimensionally stable fiberglass lineals are
then assembled into window frames,
which can be filled with foam insulation and glazed with high-performance low-E insulating glass for higher performance. Fiberglass window frames are produced similarly to vinyl, however where fiberglass is pultruded, or pulled, vinyl is extruded, or pushed, through a form tocreate a similar
shape.
ATTRIBUTES OF FRAMING MATERIALS
The window frame which makes up some 20 percent of the total window area,is an important factor in window's total performance.
Wood
Wood is a readily available frame material, and the most commor choice for homes. Strong and easy to work with, wood is a natural insulator and complements many forms of traditional home architecture. It can either be painted a solid color or stained and sealed to show off the wood grain.
Some significant downsides to wood windows have driven a switch to other frame materials. Wood frames require considerable maintenance to the exterior, with frequent touchups and occasional refurbishing, sanding and applying new coats of paint on a regular basis. Wood windows are also prone to rot, which can damage their integrity and make it difficult for the frames to hold paint. Some manufacturers of wood windows will offer cladding. However some cladding materials can conduct heat and cold while others offer limited color options and cannot be painted. In addition to the inherent problems caused by varying expansion rates of two dissimilar materials, the wood beneath all cladding is susceptible to water damage that seeps behind the cladding material and rots the wood.
Wood's characteristics include
·Available in custom colors and designs
·Providesexcellentinsulation
·Traditional look fits many home styles
·Susceptible to rot and water damage
Vinyl
A vinyl window can be inexpensive, durable and energy-efficient when
designed properly to minimize thermal transfer. While early vinylwindows had problems with thermal expansion (the vinyl sash would expand or contract at a different rate from the glass and cause leaks) and stability in very hot environments, modern vinyl windows are much more durable and dimensionally stable. Vinyl window frames with heat-welded joints are stiffer than mechanically joined vinyl frames and thus provide better resistance to temperature stresses. Interior webs also strengthen the frame and improve its thermal performance
Vinyl windows are made primarily from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) which is virtually maintenance-free. Vinyl frames can't easily be painted, but are often available in white and various neutral colors that complement many design schemes. Because the color permeates the material, scratches and dings are nearly impossible to see. New technologies have enabled some vinyl window manufacturers to paint vinyl, however, they must choose from a limited color palette and have the correct paint formulation in order to prevent deformation of the vinyl due to heat buildup.
Quality varies by manufacturer and composition of the vinyl compound, which will dictate its performance over time. Each additive to a vinyl recipe helps determine the long-term characteristics of the final product, such as its weather and impact
resistance; for example, titanium dioxide allows the product to weather better, thus preventing it from yellowing. Differences in the vinyl recipe used and how vinyl parts are formed will determine the structural strength and insulation performance.
Vinyl's characteristics include
·Energy-efficient
·Durable
·Non-corroding
·Maintenance-free
·Available in a wide range of styles and shapes
·Cost-effective
.Easy-to-install
·Requires maintenance
Strength. Fiberglass provides the strongest window material, with experts maintaining it is some threetimes stronger than aluminum and nine times strongerthan vinyl. According to the American ArchitecturalManufacturers Association (AAMA), fiberglass profiles have roughly the same strength as steel (based on tensile strength). Its strength enables fiberglass to be fabricated in large sizes, accommodating large expanses of glass without requiring added support or reinforcement, making large picture windows possible and energy-efficient High strength-to-weight ratio.lts light weight gives fiberglass a high strength-to-weight ratio, adding to its suitability for large, complex profiles-benefits in both maximizing daylighting and enhancing historical accuracy m restoration projects.
A
luminum
Because of their rigidity, durability and narrow frames, aluminum windows can be configured into a wide variety of combinations that maximize views. Aluminum windows are low-maintenance options, and will not rust or rot. They are available with tough anodized or baked-on finishes. The downside of aluminum windows in the past was the lack of energy efficiency. Aluminum readily conducts heat and cold. In cold weather, a building's heat seeps out through the sash and frame. Better quality aluminum windows are now available, equipped with thermal breaks that separate the interior and exterior surfaces of the window to improve energy efficiency Aluminum's characteristics include
·Long-lasting, reliable operation
·Strong and durable
·Resists deterioration
·Narrow sight lines maximize view
·Slim frames complement modern architectural styles
·Durable factory-applied color options
Fiberglass
Used in marine and industrial
applications for years, it is only recently
that manufacturers have been able to
produce the complex profiles required for
window designs. As a window frame
material, fiberglass is known for its
strength, durability and performance. It
is inherently chemical-resistant and impervious to water, cold, heat, insects, the corrosive effectives of salt air and pollutants and deterioration due to ultraviolet rays, moisture, rot, oxidation, rust-all the traditional enemies of windows and doors. While wood, and to a lesser extent, vinyl and aluminum windows, can result in problems with warping, rotting, cracking, bowing and shrinking, fiberglass has a lack of brittleness, deterioration of surface finish and the highest resistance to warping and twisting. Throughout any climatic environment, fiberglass stays rigid, stable, and practically maintenance-free. Unlike wood, fiberglass frames won't crack from dryness, swell, peel or warp fiberglass is easy to install. Fiberglass windows remain square and level and resist warping and twisting during installation, a common problem during installation with other types of windows. It is extremely hard and thus highly scratch, dent and impact-resistant, and its strength is unaffected by time or temperature.
Compatible thermal expansion. Because fiberglass frames are essentially glass fibers and resin, the frames expand and contract very little and at approximately the same rate as glass itself. If there is any expansion and contraction, the components expand and contract as a unit, unlike most window and door frames which have an interface of different materials: glass on wood, glass on aluminum or glass on vinyl.
Aluminum is said to expand and contract three times as much as fiberglass and vinyl over seven times more. The minimal expansion and contraction of fiberglass puts less stress on the seals and frame-to-seal connection is maintained during temperature changes throughout the day and the seasons, thereby reducing the potential for air infiltration, a major cause of a building's loss of energy emciency.
Natural insulation.
Fiberglass is a superior
insulator as it is made from a
simple polymer reinforced with
thin strands of pulled glass Air
is trapped inside, and it will not
conduct heat or cold, so that its
temperature should be neutral to the touch. Because the insulation of fiberglass is so effective, and because the temperature outside will not warm or cool the actual fiberglass in the window itsel excess condensation will not form. Fiberglass' high condensation resistance helps keep humidity within a suitable range and limits the growth of mold and mildew.
Low thermal transmittance. Fiberglass' low U-factor, the ultimate determinant of energy efficiency, helps lower building operating costs and increase occupant comfort. Filling the fiberglass frames with foam insulation and glazing the windows with high-efficiency insulating glass adds substantially to window performance and to energy-efficient window strategies including passive heating and cooling and maximum daylighting to dramatically cut energy load and increase occupant comfort.
Decorative options. Fiberglass is eminently paintable, and takes paint easily with excellent adhesion. Fiberglass can accommodate liquid coatings such as water- and solvent-based acrylic enamels and polyurethanes as well as dry powder coatings; alternatively, pigment can be added to the resin. With low conduction of heat, and the stability in fiberglass, it can also be painted in a variety of dark colors Cost. One downside of fiberglass windows has been the cost, with prices running 20 percent to 30 percent more than the average vinyl window A key factor here is the complicated pultrusion process, which is not as fast as the extrusion process used to fabricate vinyl or aluminum frames However, with fiberglass manufacturers incorporating advancements in pultrusion, die design, fabrication, and assembly, larger quantities of fiberglass are being produced faster, with a corresponding drop in prices. In addition, while upfront costs of a fiberglass window may be higher than other window types, because of their durability, fiberglass windows may be a better value over time.
Reed College in
Portland, Oregon, features
Tudor-Gothic architecture and a
forested canyon wilderness preserve at its center. When the school's Administration Building underwent a general upgrade and restoration, phase 1 included replacement of 200 windows. Pultruded fiberglass double-hung retrofit frames were installed. Because the requirements exceeded the usual height limitation for this line of windows, units were custom designed to match the historic references. The brick and granite fascia had to be equipped with dividers across the center of the middle and top story windows. On the interior, the clear vertical ir grain was easily matched with the existing finish. Fiberglass windows, which were also selected because of high energy efficiency and low environmental impact, replaced single-pane.