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Alevel IGCSE Biology Revision-Bullet Points

Binomial naming: Genus Species Five kingdom

1.Animals

2.Plants

3.Fungi

4.Protoctists/Protista(virus)

5.Prokaryotes(bacteria)

Phylum Vertebrates

1.Class fish: scaly skin, gills, fins

2.Class amphibian: moist, scale-less skin, lay eggs in water, larva lives in water; adult on land,

larva has gills; adult has lungs

3.Class reptiles: scaly skin, lay eggs with rubbery shells

4.Class bird: feathers, wings, eggs with hard shells, homeothermic, beak

5.Class mammal: hair, placenta, young feed on milk from mammary gland, homeothermic,

diaphragm, heart has four chambers

Phylum Arthropods

1.Crustaceans(甲壳类): more than four pairs of jointed legs, breathe through gills

2.Arachnids(蛛形纲): four pairs of jointed legs, gills called book lungs

3.Insects: three pairs of jointed legs, two pairs of wings, breathe through tracheae

4.Myriapods(centipede, millipede): many segments of bodies, each has jointed legs

Phylum Annelids(e.g. earthworm)

Ring-like segments

Phylum Molluscs(e.g. snails, squid[章鱼])

Soft, unsegmented bodies, may have shell

Phylum nematodes(线虫)

Long, thin, unsegmented bodies

Monocotyledonous plants

Have strap(带)-shaped leaves with parallel veins

Have on cotyledon inside each seed

Dicotyledonous plants

Have board leaves, a network of branching veins

Unicellular(single-celled)

Have no nucleus

Multicellular(many-celled)

Have nuclei

Have cell walls

Do not have chlorophyll

腐生) or parasitic nutrition

Nitrogen: make protein

Magnesium: make chlorophyll

Glucose is stored as starch: starch is polysaccharide, not very react and not very soluble, starch can be made into granules which can be easily stored inside the chloroplast

See P72 Figure 7.11

Digestion in the alimentary canal

Peristalsis for transporting food

1.Stomach: wall contains goblet cells which secrete mucus, have enzyme pepsin and rennin, have

hydrochloride acid

2.Small intestine: digestion completes here, duodenum and ileum are covered with villi, larger

surface area

3.Pancreatic juice flow into duodenum to help digestion, contain amylase, trypsin and lipase,

sodium hydrogen carbonate to neutralize the acid

4.Bile helps digest fats, made in liver, stored in the gall bladder, it breaks large drops of fat into

small ones, also done by salts, bile salts(the process of emulsification)

Most absorbed food goes straight to the liver

Deal with excess amino acids or proteins

Deamination: remove the nitrogen from them, nitrogen-containing part is made into urea

Heats

See P85 Figure 8.2

Blood

1.Red blood cell: doughnut-shaped, no nucleus, contains hemoglobin(a protein contains iron,

the red pigment) to carry oxygen

2.Platelets: help blood clotting, make fibrinogen(insoluble) to fibrin(soluble) by releasing

chemicals to cause a chain of reactions

3.White cells

a.Lymphocyte: with large nucleus, directly contact with pathogens and make specific

antibodies to against with pathogens

b.Phagocyte: with lobed nucleus, to engulf bacteria, destroy/digest them

Xylem

Made up by many hollow, dead cells; contains no cytoplasm or nuclei, the wall is made of cellulose

and lignin(long and strong, to help xylem keeps plants straight up) e.g. wood is entirely of lignified xylem vessels

One-way transport

Transport water and minerals

Phloem

Wall is made of sieve plates(have small holes in them, contains cytoplasm but no nucleus, no lignin) Companion cells supply sieve tube elements with some of their requirement, they contain nucleus and other organelles.

Multi-ways transport

Organic nutrients which the plant has made(process of translocation) e.g. sucrose, amino acids, systemic pesticide

Vascular bundle

Contain xylem and phloem, support the plants

1.In root- See P101 Figure 8.27

2.In stem- see P101 Figure 8.28

Root

Absorb water by osmosis from root hairs

Absorb minerals by active transport

Root may change some of the sucrose to starch and store it

Flowers may use the sucrose to make fructose(sweet-tasting sugar)

Nose

Nose allows air to become warm and moist and filtered

Inside nose is covered with layer of goblet cells, release mucus

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs, gas take place here

Alveolar walls are the surface of gas exchange

Oxygen diffuses through walls into blood

Carbon dioxide diffuses the other way

Feature of alveoli

1.Thin, one cell thin

2.They are moist, special cells secrete liquid to cover the surface of cells, so they won’t dry out

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0f8935992.html,rge surface area

4.Good supply of oxygen, breathing movement keep lungs well supplied with oxygen

5.An excellent transport system, double circulatory system, quick exchange of blood

Muscles cause breathing: external/internal intercostal muscles(between the ribs), diaphragm(large sheet of muscle and elastic tissues)

Inspiration: breathing in

Expiration: breathing out

Inspiration

Rib cage is raised, diaphragm is lowered, volume of the thorax increases. Air is drawn into lungs Expiration

Rib cage is lowered, diaphragm springs up, volume of the thorax decreases. Air is forced out of

lungs

See P121 table 9.2 to understand the differences between respiration, gas exchange, breathing and ventilation

Anaerobic respiration during exercise

glucose → lactic acid + energy

Process to release energy

1.Photosynthesis: makes glucose

2.Respiration: breaks down glucose and release energy

1.Nervous system

2.Endocrine system

Central nervous system(CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

Reflex arcs

Receptor → sensory neurone →relay neurone →motor neurone → effector

Retina

Actually sensitive to light

Orbit

Contain eyes

Conjunctive

Transparent membrane, protection to parts behind, tear glands- moist by fluid, contain enzyme lysozyme to kill bacteria

Iris

Adjust light goes into eyes, contain pigment to absorb light, stop light getting through retina Pupil

Where light can go through and reach retina

Cornea and lens

Focus light

Receptor in retina

1.Rods: Are sensitive to quite dim light, but do not respond to color. In dark, we can only see

black and white.

2.Cones: Are able to distinguish between different colors of light, only function when light is

1.Wide pupil: More light goes through retina

Narrow pupil: Less light goes through retina

2.Bright: Circular muscles in iris contract

Dim: Radical muscles in iris contract

Thick lens bend light more greatly- nearby object- ciliary muscle contracts

Thin lens bend light less greatly- distant object- ciliary muscle relaxes

DISTANT OBJECT NEARBY OBJECT

CILIARY MUSCLE relax Contract

SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS Pulled tight Slackened(松弛)

LENS Pulled thin Allowed to bulge(膨胀)

Cardiac muscle

Only in the heart, made up the walls of atria and ventricles

Smooth muscle

Found in organs such as the wall of alimentary canal, bladder and blood vessels

Involuntary muscle, do not need to control consciously

Striated muscle

The muscle that is attached to bones

Bones meet at joints

Endocrine glands make hormones, they directly go into blood

Adrenaline

Secrete by adrenal gland

Adrenaline prepares the body for action

Animal hormones are sometimes used in food production

Geotropism

Respond to gravity

Phototropism

Respond to the direction of light

Auxin

A kind of plant hormones

Is being made all the time by cells in the tips of shoot

It diffuse down to all the shoot

More auxin, grow quicker; no auxin, do not grow

Auxin makes plants’ shoot grows towards light

Plants hormones are used in food production

See P147 Figure 11.2

Hypothalamus(下丘脑)

The center of control mechanism that keep internal temperature constant, Coordinates temperature control.

Temperature regulation

1.When cold, the body produces and save energy

This regulation is carried out by pancreas and liver

Waste products of metabolism are excreted

Excretory productions of animals

Carbon dioxide from respiration is excreted from lungs, gills and other gas exchange surface Excess water and salt are removed by kidneys

Urea is produced by deamination of excess proteins in liver, and excreted by kidney in the urine Bile pigments are produced by the breakdown of hemoglobin in the liver, and are excreted in feces Hepatic portal vein

Takes the absorbed food to liver

Process of hepatic portal vein

1.Proteins are breakdown to amino acids in stomach, duodenum and ileum

2.Amino acids are absorbed into blood capillaries in the villi of ileum

Liver split up amino acid

Enzymes in liver split up amino acid molecules

Part containing energy is kept, turned to carbohydrate and stored

Rest part contains nitrogen is turned to urea(the process of deamination)

Function of liver

Kidney are full of tiny tubules or nephron(the small unit of kidney)

Process to make urine

Filtration and reabsorption

Filtration

Happens in renal capsules(like cups)

Blood is brought to renal capsules. Small molecules, water, salt, glucose and urea are squeezed out of blood into renal capsules

Protein molecules are too big, they still remain in the blood, along with blood cells Glomerulus, a tangle of capillaries, build up high pressure squeeze blood against the capillary walls(because glomerulus is quite narrow)

Capillary walls have small holes, so do renal capsules

Reabsorption

Useful substance such as water and glucose will be reabsorbed from tubules and pass back into blood in the capillaries

Bladder stores urine

Ureter take urine into bladder

It contains stretchy wall to be able to hold quite large quantities of urine

Bladder is connected to urethra

Sphincter muscle controls urine goes through urethra

Sphincter muscle can be consciously controlled by adult mammals

It automatically opens when the bladder get full in young mammals

Dialysis does the work of damaged kidneys

Improper working of kidney cause infection

Replace waste product in blood with dialysis fluid

Dialysis fluid contains water, glucose, salts and other substances that should be presented in the blood

See P156 Figure 11.12

Best way to treat damaged kidney is kidney transplants

Immune system can reject transplants

1.Asexual reproduction

Production of genetically identical offspring from one parents

Bacteria

Do not contain chromosomes in the nuclei

Produce by binary fission, split into two, they DO NOT produce by mitosis

DNA of a bacterium is a single, circular molecules

DNA is exactly copied when the bacterium is about to divide into two

Fungi

They are neither plants nor animals, nor bacteria

They contain chitin in cell wall instead of cellulose

They feed on organic food materials

Structure and feature of fungi

Mycelium is made by hyphae(each hypha is one cell thick)

Hyphae secrete enzymes which digest starch, protein and fat

Substrates glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into the hypha

Aerial hyphae grow upwards, sporangium forms at tip of them

Sporangium cells divide asexually to form spores

Spores can be blew away by air current or carried by sticking to the feet of houseflies

They may land on another suitable piece of food to germinate and grow into a new mycelium Potatoes

Potatoes reproduce by producing stem tubers

The stuff we eat is stem tuber or potatoes

Sucrose is transported from the leaves into underground stem tubers

Stem tubers convert sucrose to starch and store

Tubers can grow new shoots from buds(“eye s”) next year

Or can be cut in small pieces, as long as they have one bud on them, and grow into new plants

Sexual reproduction produces genetically different offspring. Cell divide in different way is meiosis Parent organisms produce sex cells called gametes

Two of these gametes join and their nuclei fuse together(fertilization)

New cell formed is zygote

Zygote divides again and again and eventually grow into a new organism

Gamete

Contain half of the normal number of chromosomes

They are haploid cells

A cell has full number of chromosomes, with two complete sets is diploid cell

Male

Testes(sing. testis) make sperm

Sperm production is very sensitive to heat, sperm wills stop developing when it’s too hot Seminal vesicle and prostate gland secret seminal fluid which makes sperm swim in

Female

Ovary make eggs

Follicles begin to develop usually one a time when girl reach puberty

When it is mature, an egg bursts out of the ovary and into the funnel at the end of the oviduct(ovulation)

Ovulation happens once a month

Fertilization happens in the oviduct

Only the head of sperm will enter the egg

Process of development after fertilization

Zygote implant in the uterus wall

Embryo is supported by placenta

Placenta grows as embryo grow, it is connected to the uterus wall

Embryo will develop to fetus after eleven weeks

Umbilical cord joints placenta and the fetus

Vein and two arteries in the umbilical cord

Oxygen and food materials in the mother’s blood diffuse across the placenta into the fetus’s blood, and are later carry along the umbilical cord to the fetus

Amnion protects fetus

Amnion is a strong membrane surround fetus

Inside amnion is amniotic fluid to regulate temperature and prevent shaking and quick hitting Muscular construction cause birth

Muscle of uterus contracts to push the baby out

Wall of cervix gradually gets wide enough for baby to be pushed through

Wall of vagina will stretch to allow baby to be pushed through

Hormones

Male: testosterone

Female: estrogen, progesterone

Female hormones

LH, FSH are produced in the head by pituitary gland

They control the secretion of estrogen and progesterone

Process of female hormones regulation

1.Follicle develops inside an ovary, developing follicle secrete estrogen. Concentration of

estrogen in blood increase. It makes the lining of uterus grow thick and spongy. LH, FSH secrete more to stimulate estrogen produces

2.LH, FSH get lesser to cause ovulation to take place

3.Empty follicle stop secreting estrogen

4.It becomes corpus luteum. Corpus luteum secrete progesterone. LH, FSH levels fall.

Progesterone keeps uterus lining thick and spongy, and well supplied of blood. Menstruation won’t happen during pregnancy

5.If egg is not fertilized, corpus luteum gradually disappear, lining of uterus breaks down.

Menstruation happens

6.Start over, new follicle develops

Menstruation cycle

Menstruation Menstruation

Birth control

See P179 Table 13.1

Hormones can be used to increase fertility

Fertility drugs

Disease

Gonorrhea, pass during sex intercourse

AIDS, caused by HIV which is transmitted by body fluid, through sex intercourse, through blood

Sepal: protect flower when it is a bud

Petal: colored to attract insects

Nectary: make sugary liquid called nectar to attract insects

Anther: contain male gametes, pollen grains

Ovule: contain female gametes, many of them in the ovary

Stigma: to catch pollen grains

Comparison between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

See P186 Table 13.2

Structure of a bean seed

See P187 Figure 13.34

Mitosis

Nuclear division, Duplication of chromosomes

They wall that cells divide when an organism is growing or repairing a damaged part of its body Meiosis

Reduction division in which chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid

Gametes are produced by meiosis

Variation

1.Continuous variation: height

2.Discontinuous variation: blood groups, eye color, hair color

Genetic engineering

See page 215 Figure 14.28

Revise definition of terms

Carbon cycle

See P224 Figure 15.8

Nitrogen cycle

See P225 Figure 15.9

Carnivorous plants get nitrogen from insects, digest them with enzymes

Water cycle

See P227 Figure 15.11

Harmful effect of humans on the environment

See P233 Table 16.1

Global warming

Greenhouse gas: Carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs, nitrogen oxide

See P235 Table 16.2

Deforestation is blamed for increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air

Acid rain

Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur and nitrogen oxides e.g. coal-burning power station, burning of petrol in cars

Sulfur and nitrogen oxide produce acid rain, pH of acid rain is can be as low as 4

Damage plants because acid rainwater washes out ions such as calcium, magnesium and aluminum in the soil and other nutrients from the soil

Deforestation

Destroy habitats for animals

Cause extinction

Species diversity decreases

Increasing amount of carbon dioxide

Erosion and flooding

Soil nutrients are lost

Eutrophication

I know so well of it

Sewage treatment

See P245 Figure 16.15

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