英语语言学
英语语言学----简答题
Chapter 1: Introduction
1. List important distinctions in linguistics.
2. List design features.
3. What are the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics?
4. T alk about speech and writing and which one is prior and why?
5. What are the difference and similarity, langue and parole VS. competence and performance?
6. What should we take superior, diachronic study or synchronic study?
Chapter 2: Phonology
1. Broad transcription and narrow transcription.
2. Classification of English speech sound.
3. Distinction of phone, phoneme and allophone.
4. phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.
5. some rules in phonology.
6. suprasegmental features.
Chapter 3: Morphology
1. open class and closed class.
2. suffixes and prefixes.
3. bound morpheme and free morpheme.
4. derivation and inflection.
5. compound words.
Chapter 4: Syntax
1. categories.
2. How to define a word’s category ?
3. Phrase categories.
4. Four properties of coordination rule.
5. What are phrase elements.
6. What is S rule?
7. Transformation.
8. deep structure and surface structure.
9. constraints on transformation.
10. Master the way to draw a tree diagram once a sentence is given.
Chapter 5: Semantics
1. some views concerning the study of meaning.
2. sense and reference.
3. major sense relations.
4. sense relations between sentences.
5. analysis of meaning.
Chapter 6: Pragmatics
1. pragmatics and semantics.
2. sentence meaning and utterance meaning.
3. T alk about Speech Act Theory.
4. constatives and performatives.
5. What is Austin’s opinion about Speech Act Theory.
6. How did Seale classify illocutionary act into five categories?
7. What is cooperative principle?
Chapter 7: Language Change
1. Morphological and syntactic change of language.
2. vocabulary change.
3. some recent trends of language change.
4. causes of language change.
Chapter 8: Language And Society
1. the relationship between language and society.
2. two approaches to sociolinguistic studies.
3. dialectal varieties.
4. What characteristics does Black English possess?
5. What is regidter theory?
6. Degree of formality.
7. What is standard English?
8. Pidgin and Creole.
9. bilingualism and diglossia.
Chapter 9: Language And Culture
1. the relationship between language and culture.
2. talk about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
3. List linguistic evidence of cultural differences.
4. cultural overlap and diffusion.
5. linguistic imperialism and linguistic nationalism.
Chapter 10: Language Acquisition
1. Theories od child language acquisition.
2. cognitive factors in child language development.
3. language environment and Critical Period Hypothesis.
4. stages in child language development.
5. T alk about vocabulary change in child language acquisition.
Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition
1. connection between First language acquisition and Second language acquisition.
2. contrastive analysis.
3. positive transfer and negative transfer.
4. Error analysis.
5. error and mistake.
6. interlanguage and fossilization.
7. the role of native language in Second language acquisition.
8. Input Hypothesis.
9. learning and acquisition.
10. input and intake.
11. individual difference in SLA.
Chapter 12 : Language And Brain
1. What methods in the study of the brain and evidences for lateralization can we
use?
2. What characteristics does Broca’s aphasia have?
3. What’s distinctions do Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia have?
4. phonological dyslexia and surface dyslexia?
5. What research methods can be used to see the language representation and processing in the mind?
6. distinction between lexical decision and the priming experiement.
7. Two ways to process the information in the mind?
8. T alk about psycholinguistic modeling.
南师大英语语言学卷子的题型，一直都保持着同样的类型。所以复习时，我们就可以根据这些规律，按照题型进行“应试”复习。
这里附上我自己做问答题时的答案。不过，这只是一些我个人的见解。仅供参考！如果能够对大家有所帮助，就是我的快乐哦。
1.Explain with examples the three notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, and also how they are related.
(1)A phone is a speech sound, it is phonetic unit. Any sound we hear in the course of communication s a phone, such as /u:/, /l/, /p/, /p’/.
(2)A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is not a concrete sound but an abstract notion. It is a collection of features. It can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Foe example, the phoneme/l/ can be realized as a clear [l] or a dark [l], depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.
(3)The actually phonetic realizations of a phoneme are called its allophones. Allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.
2.Explain what is sense and what is reference with examples.（07初试考过）(1)Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is a collection of semantic meanings, it is abstract and decontextualized while reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world. It is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality. Foe example, the sense of the word “dog” is often defined as “a domesticated, canine mammal”. This does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition.
(2)Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world, which deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The reference of the word “dog” in “The dog is barking” for example refers to a particular dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in a particular situation where a conversation is taking place.
3.Explain how the inventory of sounds can change, giving some examples in English for illustration.
The inventory of sounds can change, and sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, sound loss, sound addition, and sound movement.
(1)Vowel sound change: English had undergone the systematic and regular changes in the vowel sounds, known as the Great Vowel shift which occurred at the end of
the Middle English period and which involved seven long, or tense vowels. These changes led to one of the major discrepancies between the phonemic representations of words and morphones, i.e. between pronunciation and the spelling system of modern English, e.g. five-à/fi:v/ (middle English)--->/faiv/ (modern English).
(2)Sound loss: Sounds can change by the loss of phonemes. In the history of English the velar fricative /x/ was lost. This sound existed in Old English so “night”was pronounced as /nixt/, but in Modern English, it pronounced as /nait/.
(3)Sound addition: Sound addition includes the gain or insertion of a sound. For example, the word leisure was borrowed from French, so the phoneme /З/ was added to the inventory of English sounds. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis, e.g. spinle--àspindle.
(4)Sound movement: Sound change as a result of sound movement known as metathesis involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments. Metathesis is less common, but it does exist. In some dialects or English, for example, the word “ask” is pronounced as /aks/. “Bridd” is changed to the form of “bird”.
4.Briefly discuss the individual factors which affect the acquisition of a second language.（06初试考过）
The acquisition of a second language is dependent on a combination of factors.
The rate and ultimate success in SLA are affected not only by learner’s experience with optional input and instruction, but also by individual learner factors. The learner factors that have captured the attention of SLA researchers include language aptitudes, motivations, learning strategies, age, and personality etc. (1)Language aptitude refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence. It had been accepted that learners who achieve high scores in language aptitude tests learn rapidly and achieve high proficiency in second language learning.
(2)Motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive. Four types of motivations, namely, instrumental motivation, integrative motivation, resultative motivation and intrinsic motivation, promote learning and they are complementary to each other. As learners’strong motivation promotes their learning, their learning progress or achievement will in return enhance their language learning motivation further.
(3)Learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. Three learning strategies are identified, namely, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies and affect/social strategies. Successful learners tend to use more strategies and use them more selectively and flexibly.
(4)Age of acquisition for SLA doesn’t mean “the younger the better”, but it has been demonstrated that adolescents are quicker and more effective Second language learners than young children. The early teenagers are good learners
because their flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost and their cognitive skills have developed considerably to facilitate the processing of linguistic features of a new language.
(5)Personality characteristics are likely to affect second language learning. The general outgoing adult learners learn more quickly and therefore are more successful than the generally reserved ones.
5.Please explain the route of first language acquisition.
Language is acquired in sequence of identifiable stages during a very specific maturational period of human development with each successive stage more closely approximating the adult grammar. Children follow the similar development stages, that is, the prelinguistic stage and the linguistic stages. The linguistic stages include the one-word stage, the two-word stage and the multiword stage.
6.How can children master their first language grammatical system?
It is the most remarkable and yet the most natural feat of mankind that children eventually acquire all grammar rules of their native language. They must acquire the various aspects of the grammar, phonology, syntax, morphology, vocabulary and semantics. In general, children have virtually acquired the basic fabric of their native language at the age of five or six and they must pay attention to the pre-school years, a crucial period for first language acquisition.
1. NP----名词短语
VP----动词短语
AP----形容词短语
PP----介词短语
2. XP rule: XP--à(specifier) X (complement) 扩展后变成：XP--à(Spec)
(Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)
3. X^ Theory: a. XP--à(specifier) X^
b. X^--à X (complement)
4. Coordination rule: X--àX* Con X
5. The S rule: S--àNP VP
6. CP --------------------Cooperative principle (Paul Grice)
7. SWH--------------------Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
8. LAD--------------------Language Acquisition Device (Noam Chomsky).
9. UG---------------------Universal Grammar (Noam Chomsky)
10. CDS-------------------Child Directed Speech
11. CPH-------------------Critical Period Hyphothesis (Eric Lenneberg)
12. SLA-------------------Second Language Acquisition
13. TL--------------------T arget Language
14. FL--------------------Foreign Language
15. IL--------------------Interlanguage
16. CA--------------------Contrastive Analysis
17. EA--------------------Error Analysis
1. prescriptive VS descriptive
2. synchronic VS diachronic
3. speech VS writing
4. Langue VS parole
5. Competence VS performance
6. traditional grammar VS modern linguistics
7. phonetics VS phonology
8. broad transcription VS narrow transcription
9. phone VS phoneme
10. open class VS closed class
11. derivation VS inflection
12. root VS stem
13. free morpheme VS bound morpheme
14. deep structure VS surface structure
15. semantics VS pragmatics
16. conceptualism VS contextualism
17. sense VS reference
18. polysemy VS complete homonymy
19. entailment VS presupposition
20. componential analysis VS predication analysis
21. sentence meaning VS utterance meaning
22. a bird’s-eye view VS a worm’s-eye view
23. Pidgin VS Creole
24. bilingualism VS diglossia
25. denotative meaning VS connotative meaning VS iconic meaning
26. cultural overlap VS cultural diffusion
27. linguistic imperialism VS linguistic nationalism
28. under-extension VS over-extension
29. content word VS function word
30. interlanguage VS target language
31. second language VS foreign language
32. positive transfer VS negative transfer.
33. intralingual error VS interlingual error
34. overgeneralization VS cross-assiation
35. error VS mistake
36. learning VS acquisition
37. input VS intake
38. instrumental motivation VS integrative motivation
39. resultative motivation VS intrinsic motivation
40. cognitive strategies VS metacognitive strategies
41. bottom-up processing VS top-down processing
1. langue and parole----------------------Swiss (F.de. Saussure)
2. competence and performance-------------USA (Noam Chomsky)
3. Design features------------------------USA (Charles Hockett)
4. naming theory--------------------------Greek (Plato)
5. the conceptualist view(semantic triangle)------- (Odgen & Richards)
6. the contextualist view-----------------Britain (J.R. Firth)
7. the behaviorism (Jill and Jack)--------(Bloomfield)
8. predication analysis--------------------Britain (G. Leech)
9. The speech act theory-------------------Britain (John Austin)
10. classification of illocutionary act-------------USA (John Searle)
11. cooperative principle------------------(Paul Grice)
12. register theory-------------------------Britain (Halliday)
13. degree of formality---------------------USA (Martin Joos)
14. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis------------USA (Edward Sapir & Benjamin Whorf)
15. behaviorism view on child language acquisition---------(B.F. Skinner)
16. innatist view on child language acquisition----USA (Noam Chomsky)
17. LAD/ TG/UG------------------------ USA (Noam Chomsky)
18. CPH (Critical Period Hypothesis)--------(Eric lenneberg)
19. Interlanguage---------------------(S. Pit. Corder & Larry Salinker)
20. Input Theory----------------------(Krashen)
21. learning strategies---------------(Chamot & Oxford)
22. Two areas: Broca and Wernicke------- Frence (Broaca) and Germany (Wernicke)
23. Psycholinguistic modeling--------(Levelt)
英语语言学讲解
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
2016-英语语言学期末试题练习-+答案
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0e9886716.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0e9886716.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0e9886716.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0e9886716.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
英语语言学试题及答案
英语语言学试题（1） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%) 1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___. A、prescriptive B、sociolinguistic C、descriptive D、psycholinguistic 2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible. A、mouth B、lips C、tongue D、vocal cords 3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___. A、bound morpheme B、bound form C、inflectional morpheme D、free morpheme 4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A、coordinator B、particle C、preposition D、subordinator 5、"Can I borrow your bike?" _____ "You have a bike." A、is synonymous with B、is inconsistent with C、entails D、presupposes 6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A、semantics B、pragmatics C、sociolinguistics D、psycholinguistics 7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization. A、elaboration B、simplification C、external borrowing D、internal borrowing 8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua franca B、Creole C、Pidgin D、Standard language 9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ . A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortex C、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neurons D、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area 10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. A、learning B、competence C、performance D、acquisition II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k_______ of the rules of his language. 12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______ . 13、M_______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 14、A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c______ synonyms. 16、The illocutionary point of r_____ is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. 17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c______.
英语语言学框架知识中文版
一、绪论 语言学的定义 语言学的研究范畴 几对基本概念 语言的定义 语言的甄别特征 What is linguistics 什么是语言学 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。 The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学 \Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior. Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: （1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution （2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing （3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language Language and parole 语言与言语 Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use Competence and performance 能力与运用 Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication What is language 什么是语言 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Characteristics of language: 语言的特性 Language is a rule-governed system Language is basically vocal Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.docx
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
最新英语语言学超强总结
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语言学(第五版) 笔记 重点
第一章 1.What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication 2.Design features of language ①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings) ②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. ③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. ④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7) 3.Functions of language ①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational) ②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status) ③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare) ④. Emotive/Expressive(情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. ⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather) ⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry) ⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself. 4. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 5. Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive & prescriptive Synchronic & diachronic Langue & parole Competence & performance 6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for“correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar:“never use a double negative”) 7.Synchronic study(共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time) 第四章 1．What is Syntax（句法）? Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form