部分语言学课后练习答案

II.Give the description of the following sound segments in English.

1. [?] voiceless dental fricative

2. [?]: voiceless postalveolar fricative

3. [?]: velar nasal

4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop

5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop

6. [k]: voiceless velar stop

7. [l]: alveolar lateral

8. [i]: high front lax unrounded vowel

9. [u:]: high back tense rounded vowel

10. [?]: low back lax rounded vowel

III. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.

1.voiceless labiodental fricative: [f]

2.voiced postalveolar fricative: [?]

3.palatal approximant: [j]

4.voiceless glottal fricative: [h]

5.voiceless alveolar stop: [t]

6.high-mid front unrounded vowel: [i]

7.high central rounded vowel: [] 符号里没找到，就是在语音[U]上划一横

8.low front rounded vowel: [?]

9.low-mid back rounded vowel: [?]

10. high back rounded tense vowel: [u:]

V. Discuss the following questions.

4) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?

Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.

Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.

Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one?s language. It focuses on order.

II. Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes.

a.irremovable m. dissyllabic

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/098648714.html,rmal n. abnormal

c.impracticable o. unworkable

d.insensible p. unwritten

e.intangible q. unusual

f.illogical r. unthinkable

g.irregular s. inhuman

h.disproportionate t. irrelevant

i.ineffective u. uneditable

j.inelastic v. immobile

k.inductive w. illegal

l.irrational x. indiscreet

III. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole?

Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, that is, it is involved both in grammatical and semantic aspects.

A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. For example, the phoneme /s/ in …looks?, …tapes?, …Frank?s?, …race? is the same one, yet they represent different morphemes or even is not a morpheme individually. The phoneme /s/ in …looks?: the third-person singular present tense morpheme; the phoneme/s/ in …tapes?: the plural morpheme; the phoneme /s/ in …Frank?s?: the possessive case morpheme; the phoneme /s/ in …race?: is not a morpheme, for it has neither lexical meaning or grammatical meaning.

Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structure other than a single phoneme. In other words, a morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. an independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.

Chapter 4

III. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence.

1.((I) ((rode) (back))) ((when) ((it) ((was) (dark)))).

2.((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).

3.(Shut) ((the) (door)).

4.((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).

5.((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((becoming) (away))).

6.(He) (((bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay) (cheque)))))).

IV. For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following. --- State whether it is headed or non-headed.

--- If headed, state its headword.

--- Name the type of constructions.

(1) Ducks quack.

non-headed; independent clause

(2) The ladder in the shed is long enough.

non-headed; prepositional phrase

(3) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.

headed; headword---damaged; adjectival phrase

(4) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.

headed; headword---singing; gerundial phrase

(5) His handsome face appeared in the magazine.

headed; headword---face; nominal phrase

(6) A lady of great beauty came out.

non-headed; prepositional phrase

(7) He enjoys climbing high mountains.

headed; headword---climbing; gerundial phrase

(8) The man nodded patiently.

non-headed; independent clause

(9) A man roused by the insult drew his sword.

headed; headword---roused; adjectival phrase

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;

(完整版)语言学练习题及答案

练习1 1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is one of the design features of language.A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 3. ___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation .A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 4. __ __ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 5. ______ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 6. ______ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 7. To say “How are you.” “Hi” to your friends is the ____ __of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 8. “Tell me the result when you finish.” If you want to get your hearer to do something, y ou should use the _____ of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __ ___. A. unnatural B. something to be feared C. natural D. abnormal 10. A linguist is interested in ___A. speech sounds only B. all sounds C. vowels only 11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A. [t] B. [m] C. [b] D. [p 12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate? A. [y] B. [t∫] C. [z] D. [dЗ] 13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel? A. [ ? ] B. [ i ] C. [ou] D. [a: ] 14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ? A. [ s ] B. [∫] C. [ l ] D. [θ] 15. In the following sounds, _____ is a voiceless affricative? A. [dЗ] B. [v] C. [t∫] D. [θ] 16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a __ __. A. fricative B. nasal sound C. semi-vowel D. vowel 17. Of the “words” listed below___ is not an English word A. [r∧b ] B. [ l? b ] C. [m?sta:∫] D. [lm?p] 18. ___ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released. A. Back vowels B. Stops C. Fricatives D. Glides 19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in _____. A. 1965 B. 1957 C. 1888 D. 1788 20. ___ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A. Phone B. Phoneme C. Allophone D. Sound 1. [ f ] is a dental consonant. F 2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. F 7. The three / p / are allophones. T 3. Phoneme is a phonological unit. T 4. Phone is a phonetic unit. T

《语言学概论》作业参考答案

《语言学概论》 一、名词解释 1.音位：最小的可以区别意义的语音单位，通常由一簇互相不区别意义的音素构成。如|A|音位里就有前A、后A、央A等几个音素。 2.塞擦音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特点是发音时，两个发音部位紧靠在一起形成阻碍，在保持这个阻碍的同时，留出一个窄缝，让气流从窄缝中磨擦成声，最后除去这个阻碍。如：b‘ｐ‘ｋ‘就是。 3.递归性：语言的递归性是指，组合结构中的某个单位，可以不断地被一个同功能的 短语替换，从而使基本结构里的某个扩展为非常复杂的结构，但其作用仍然等于原始项。也即语言的整体结构与基本框架不变。语法结构的这种性质，我们称之为语言结构的递归性。语言的递归性是语言结构一种非常重要的特性。如：人打倒了|敌人/凶恶的敌人/盘踞在中国大陆的敌人/ 曾经盘踞在中国大陆的不可 以一世的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆不可一世但最终被人 民打倒的敌人 4.复综语：语言类型之一。这种语言的动词内有用不同 的形态表示各种复杂的语法 成分。多见于美洲印第安人的语言。举例。 5.自由变体：音位变体的一种类型。通常指对出现的组合条件没有硬性要求的音位变体。举例。 6.元音：音素的类型之一。即发音时气流在口腔中不受 阻碍而形成的音。举例。 7.语法形式：表示语法意义方式与材料。举例。 8.词干：一个词的主要部分，词汇意义的承担者。举例。 9.音色：语音四要素之一，又叫音质，指声音的特色。由物体振动的不同形式所决定。举例。 10.塞音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特征发音时两个发音部位紧靠在一起，保持一段时间，然后突然除阻，爆破成声。也叫爆破音。举例。 11.共同语：随着社会政治经济集中，会以一种方言为基础形成共同语，以满足整个社会交际往来。共同语又叫天下通语、雅言。举例。 12.数：语法范畴之一。指是用一个词的不同形态表示 出来的词语数的语法意义。在单数、复数、双数等。举例。 二、谈谈语言符号的特点 答：（1）.语言是一种工具， 即交际工具和思维工具；而思 维是一种能力和过程，即人脑 能动地反映客观现实的能力 和过程。 （2）.概念用词语表达，判断 用句子表达，但概念按照逻辑 规律构成的种种判断和词语 按语法规则构成的啊、种种句 子是有区别的。如：语言中的 每个词不一定都表示一个概 念，每个句子不一定都表示判 断。 （3）.思维过程是运用概念 按照逻辑规律构成种种判断， 语言运用过程则是运用词语， 按照句法构成各种句子。 （4）.语言是具有民族特点 的，各民族都有自己的语言特 点，世界上有许多种语言。但 思维是各民族共同的，全人类 具有共同的思维形式和思维 规律。 三、试分析汉字跨越方言交 际的特点与原因 答：汉字的特点:汉字本身 与汉语的语音不发生直接联 系，所以汉字是表意体系的文 字。 汉字有许多形声字，形声字 有表音的声旁，但这种声旁并 不是某种固定的表音的符号， 也不是直接标音的符号，所以 汉字虽有声旁，仍然是表意体 系的文字。 汉字跨方言交际的原因 汉语的居住地区幅员辽阔， 方言分歧有的不能通话，汉族 有悠久的文化传统，有大量用 汉字记载的文献典籍。超地 域、超时代的汉字既可以贯通 古今，也可以联系各地区的人 们的思想交流对于维护国家 的统一、民族的团结，便利各 地区人民的往来起着重要的 作用。 四、谈谈语言分化的原因与 结果 答：语言的分化有两大方 面：一方面是分化出地方变 体，即方言。方言的产生是与 社会的半分化状态相适应的。 随着社会的进一步分化，方言 进一步发展，就可能形成独立 的语言，即产生具有同源关系 的亲属语言。另一方面是分化 出社会变化。社会变化即社会 方言，如行业语，阶级或阶层 习惯语，隐语等。地域方言之 间的区别主要表现在语音方 面，同时也表现在词汇和语法 方面。而社会方言的区别主要 表现在词汇方面。 五、谈语言成分的借用与吸 收 答：要点：借用与吸收的条 件。民族之间的贸易往来，文 化交流，移民杂居，战争征服 等各种形态的接触，都会引起 语言的接触。语言的接触，也 会产生“洋泾浜”“混合 语”等特殊的语言现象。 主要形式有借词。借词也叫 外来词，它指的是音与义都借 自外语的词。 意译词是用本族语言的构 词材料和规则构成新词，把外 语里某个词的意义移植进来。 汉语在吸收外来成分的时 候，不喜欢借音，喜欢有自己 的语素来构词。在这一点上， 汉语和英语、日语等有很大不 同，而接近于德语。 意译词里面还有一种仿译 词。它的特点是，用本族语言 的材料逐一翻译原词的语素， 不但把它的意义，而且把神经 质内部构成形式，也转植过来 如“黑板blackboard,"球 "footba1l等。 有时候，在吸收外来外来成 分的时候，为了便于理解采用 音译加意译的方法。 如汉语中啤酒beer，卡车car 等等。 在词的借用过程中，还可能 有借出去的词再借回来的现 象。一出一进之间，音义等方 面都会有一些变化。汉语的 “百姓”借入蒙古语后成为 [paicing]意思是土房子后来 变成店铺的意思汉语后来又 把这个词从蒙古语中借回来 叫做板生简称板。 七、谈谈语言与思维的关系 思维离不开语言，语言和思 维是两种独立的现象，但形影 相随，不可分离，思维必须在 语言材料的基础上进行。语言 是思维的工具，也是认识成果 的储存。 学习语言的过程也就是认 识世界的过程，思维发展的过 程。 思维必能推语言，还有神经 生物学的根据。 抽象的思维总得以某种物 质的形式作为依托，最方便、 最灵活的依托是声音，也就是 有声语言。 八、试分析词义的派生及其 派生意义的相互关系 答：1．词义派生的条件2．词 义派生的类型3．派生义之间 的关系 词义的派生有现实的基础， 这就是派生义和派生它的那 个意义所指的事物的某一方 面特征有联系。这种联系怎么 被利用来作为派生新义的线 索，那与语言社会的生活环 境、劳动条件、风俗习惯以及 人的思维活动、语言成分之间 的相互作用等等有关。因而表 达同一类现实现象的词义在 不同的语言中各有自己的派 生历程。多义词的派生意义和 它所从出的意义之间存在着 内存的联系。而两者所表示的 事情之间的共同特征，则建立 这种联系的桥梁派生意义就 是顺着这样的桥梁从本义一 步一步扩散开去的。 派生意义产生的途径，就是 引申。引申大体上可分为隐喻 和换喻两种方式。隐喻建立在 两个意义所反映的现实现象 的某种相似的基础上。换喻的 基础是两类现实现象之间存 在着某种联系。这种联系在人 们的心中经常出现而固定化， 因而可以用指称甲类现象的 词去指称乙类现象。一个词的 意义通过隐喻和换喻这些引 申途径可以啬很多新的意义， 使语言能够用较少的词的形 式表达较多的意义。 九、试论图画文字与文字画 答：如果把图形简化，一个 图形记录语言中的一个语素 或词，那就产生了真正的文 字。文字起源于图画，所以有 人把记事的图画叫做“图画文 字”。这种用于交际的图画， 正是原始文字符号的前身，图 形象征化的最初的、最原始的 阶段是图画文字。当图形符号 不是用来代表概念而是用来 代表相应的词的声音时，文字 史上最有意义的一步就迈出 去了。用于交际的图画演变为 文字符号的标志在于它与语 言中的词或语素建立起固定 的关系，也就是说，它在图形 上比较确定，并且有了公认的 音和意。 文字画是用整幅画与语言结 合，成了能说的图画，在一定 程度上具备了文字的性质，但 是它只能图解主要的事物形 象和它们的关系，而不能象真 正的文字那样，作为一种符号 体系来记录语言，就是说它不 能把文字记录的语法关系排 列出来，它只能在比较狭小的 范围内发挥实际作用，离开了 当时的环境。别人无法理解他 的意义，因而文字画还不是真 正的文字，只能说明文字是起 源于文字画，是文字的前身。 十一、试谈洋泾浜的发展趋 势 答：“洋泾浜”这种语言现 象的产生与十七世纪以后帝 国主义的殖民扩张有联系，是 语言接触中的一种畸形的语 言现象。它的使用范围比较狭 窄，发展的前途不外两个：一 是随着社会制度的改变而消 亡，像我国的洋泾浜语在解放 后便停止通行；一个是发展为 混合语，成为某一地区人们通 用的交际工具。 十二、语言的符号特点与作 用 答：语言的符号的最大特点 是它的音和意的结合是任意 的，由社会约定俗成。语言符 号中的形式和意义的结合完 全由社会“约定俗成”，而不 是他们之间有什么必然的、本 质的联系。 语言符号的另一重要特点 是它的线条性。语言符号只能 一个跟着一个一次出现，在实 践的线条上延绵，不能在空间 的面上铺开。 这种由社会“约定俗成”的 符号在使用中还有一个重要 的特点，就是它要象机器的零 件那样能够拼装拆卸，重复使 用。 语言符号不是互不相干的 一盘散沙，而是有组织、有条 理的系统。 十三、谈谈词的形态与形态 变化 答：形态即词形变化，是指 词与词组合时，由于表示语法 意义的需要而发生的词形上 的变化。例如英语的代词有主 格和宾格的区别，第一人称单 数作主语时用I，作宾格时用 me，词形发生了变化，就是形 态变化。 汉语属于孤立语，词很少有 形态变化，少部分形容词可以 重叠表示程度加强的意义，例 如“高高兴兴、快快乐乐、结 结巴巴”等。 例如：英语动词be的八种 形态写八个句子，说明其语法 意义。 a.Hewillbeateacher：表示 将要发生的动作行为，动词用 原形。 b.Iamateacher:现在时，单 数第一人称。 c.Sheisapainter:现在时， 单数第三人称。 d.Theyareworker:现在时， 主语是复数。 e.Hewasateacher:过去时， 主语是单数。 f.wewereworker:过去时， 主语是复数。 g.Ihavebeenateacher:现 在完成时，表示从过去延续到 现在的行为状态。 h.Thenewspaperisbeingre ad:被动语态，进行时。

语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案

Chapter 4 Revision Exercises 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ... VP→(Qual) V (NP) ... AP→(Deg) A (PP) ... PP→(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) 3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have? The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure. It has four important properties: 1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. 2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. 3)coordinated categories must be of the same type. 4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. 5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play? A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier. The role each element can play:

语言学练习总汇及答案

1. Phonetics & Language Introduction: 1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is ______one of the design features of language. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is ______ . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 3. _____ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 4. _____ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 5. ______ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 6. ______ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 7. To say “How are you. ”“Hi” to your friends is the _______of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 8. “Tell me the result when you finish.” If you want to get your hearer to do something, you should use the _____ function of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _____. A. unnatural B. something to be feared C. natural C. abnormal 10. A linguist is interested in _______.

2017《语言学概论》离线作业答案

精心整理一简答（60分） 1自言自语是个人可以控制的行为，这说明语言是一种个人现象。这种 观点是否正确？为什么？ 答：（1）表面上看，语言表现为具体的人说的话和写的文章，但语言不是个人现象。? （2）语言是社会全部成员共同创造的，语言的发展也是社会全部成员共同努力的结 果。而且，在一个人还没有出现的时候，语言就存在了，代代相传，不多是个人现 象。语言的产生与存在都是依赖于社会的，离不开社会的。个人虽然有创造性地使 用语言的权利，但仍然使用的是社会全部成员共同创造的语言材料。所以语言不是 个人现象而是社会现象。? （3）语言的社会性其实不否认个人的语言特点和个人在语言发展中的作用。这类特 点表现在两个方面：一是对语言材料的选择和应用，不同的人对共同使用的语言材 料的选择和应用是不一样的，这是构成个人语言特点的主要方面；二是每一个社会 成员在应用语言时会不同程度地超越已有语言材料和语言规则，这常常可以成为语 言发展变化的开端。? （4）总之，我们不否认个人在语言发展中的作用，但归根到底语言是社会现象，不 是个人现象 2“高”与“矮”有无明确的界限？应如何辩证地看待词义中的这类现象？答：.“高”与“矮”没有明确的界限。词义具有概括性，它把一类现象与一个名称 联系起来，从而使这类现象与其他事物区别开来。词义的概括性有3个特征：一般性、模糊性、全民性。词义的模糊性，是指词义所指的现象有一个大致的范围，但 是没有明确的界限。辩证地看待这类现象，就是要既看到词义对一类有相同特征的 现象的界定，又要看到词义没有明确的界限这样的事实。

精心整理 二论述（40分） 如何辩证地看待语言符号在使用中的规范与不规范，试举例具体阐述。 答：语言作为人类最重要的交际工具，需要得到全社会的承认，而社会的组织和成 员都要求语言有稳定的成分，有一定的社会规范，否则就会影响交际。因此，语言 规则在语言稳定中起了“语言纠察”的作用，人们使用语言得遵守语言规则，一定 的语言规则得维持相当的一段时间，特别是基本词汇和语法构造，在相当长的历史 时期不会发生重大变化，这就是语言在使用过程中的稳定性。? 但稳定并不等于排斥语言的发展变化，约定与变动可以说是一对辩证的统一。由此 也就产生了语言规范与变异的对立统一。由此也就产生了语言规范与变异的对立统 一。社会语言学家陈原认为：“没有变异就没有规范，没有规范也就看不出变异。”变异的根本原因在于社会的发展。随着社会的发展，语言也在发展，新词大量产生。 如“下岗”，“下海”，“代沟”等。再如随着网络的普及，出现了一些有关?的专业述语，?如“登陆”，“下载”，“连接”，“点击”，“聊天室”，?“宽带”，“浏览器”，“服务器”，“搜索引擎”等，有的甚至进入全民语言的词汇库。在语言符号使用过程中， 有些符号的意义或用法有了改变，这一改变又可能得到社会的认同，于是又成为规 范的用法。

语言学练习答案

《语言学概论》练习 一、名词解释： 1、语言学：语言学是研究语言的科学，研究语言的性质、功能、结构，揭示语言的发展规律的科学。 2、语言：语言是语音和语义结合的符号系统，是人类社会最重要的交际工具，是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类思维的最有效的工具。 3、符号：符号是用于传递信息、指代事物或思想的标记。 4、组合关系：组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位（如音位与音位、词与词等等）按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。 5、聚合关系：聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位（如音位、词）之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。 6、语音：语音是语言符号系统的载体，它是由人的发音器官发出的、负载着一定的语言意义的语言的声音 7、音素从音质的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。 8、发音部位：发音部位是指发辅音时形成阻碍的器官部位。 9 、音位：音位是指具体语言（或方言）中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小的语音单位。 10、音位变体：是一个音位的不同变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。 11、区别特征：一个音位之所以区别于别的音位，是因为它具有某种特殊的不同于别的音位的语音特征。这种能区别音位的语音特征叫区别特征。 12、音节：音节是音位与音位组合起来构成的最小的语音结构单位。 13、语法：语法就是用词造句的规则系统，它是词的构成规则、变化规则、组合规则的总和。 14、句子：句子是交际中最基本的表述单位，是交流思想的基本语言单位。 15、词：词是造句的时候能够独立运用的最小单位； 16、语素：语素是最小的语音语义结合体，语言的最小单位； 17、变词语素：没有构词作用，但是能改变一个词的形式的语素，是变词语素，词尾就是变词语素。 18、构词语素：具有构词作用的语素就是构词语素，词根和词缀能参与构词，就是构词语素。 19、单纯词：是由一个词根语素构成的词。例如汉语的“人、手、水、河、啊、琵琶、枇杷、哗啦、坦克”等，英语如man、teach 、book、moon、sun、long 等都是单纯词。 20、合成词：合成词是由两个以上的语素构成的词。 21、复合词：完全由几个词根语素按一定规则构成的词就是复合词。例如汉语的“思想、学习、黄瓜、大豆、胆怯”等，英语的如“snowwhite、makeblieve、earthfall 、friendship 、motherland ”等。 22、语法意义：指相对于词汇意义而言由词的变化所体现出来的意义。 23、形态：也叫做词形变化，指词与词组合时发生的词形变化所形成的聚合。 24、社会方言：社会方言是指社会内部不同年龄、性别、职业、阶级、阶层的人们在语言使用上表现出来的、在全民语言基础上产生的语言变体。

部分语言学课后练习答案

II.Give the description of the following sound segments in English. 1. [?] voiceless dental fricative 2. [?]: voiceless postalveolar fricative 3. [?]: velar nasal 4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop 5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop 6. [k]: voiceless velar stop 7. [l]: alveolar lateral 8. [i]: high front lax unrounded vowel 9. [u:]: high back tense rounded vowel 10. [?]: low back lax rounded vowel III. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below. 1.voiceless labiodental fricative: [f] 2.voiced postalveolar fricative: [?] 3.palatal approximant: [j] 4.voiceless glottal fricative: [h] 5.voiceless alveolar stop: [t] 6.high-mid front unrounded vowel: [i] 7.high central rounded vowel: [] 符号里没找到，就是在语音[U]上划一横 8.low front rounded vowel: [?] 9.low-mid back rounded vowel: [?] 10. high back rounded tense vowel: [u:] V. Discuss the following questions. 4) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ? Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one?s language. It focuses on order.

新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第五章笔记和习题

Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…