Seasonality of reproduction of wild Rhinopithecus bieti at Mt. Lasha, Yunnan, China

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Seasonality of reproduction of wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti )at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha,Yunnan,China

Zhi-Pang Huang ?Liang-Wei Cui ?Matthew B.Scott ?

Shuang-Jin Wang ?Wen Xiao

Received:9August 2011/Accepted:22February 2012/Published online:10March 2012óJapan Monkey Centre and Springer 2012

Abstract Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhin-opithecus bieti )inhabit one of the harshest habitats by any nonhuman primate.Reliable predictive cues to initiate reproduction may be particularly critical for R.bieti because they inhabit such seasonally energetically chal-lenging environments.To better understand the seasonal distribution of and predictive cues to reproduction,we collected breeding and birth data in a population of R.bieti at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha in Yunling Nature Reserve,Yunnan,China,from January 2008to May 2010,using a combination of 10-min instantaneous scans and ad libitum observations.We examined variations in temperature,rainfall,and food availability,as well as photoperiod differences between https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha and the more northerly Xiaochangdu to identify environmental in?uences on the timing of reproductive events.Our data show the area exhibited distinct seasonal ?uctuations in rainfall,temperature,and food availability.Mating occurred year-round,but peaked in August,coin-ciding with the end of the period of highest temperatures and food availability,and during the peak rainfall.

Copulation frequency peaked 1month after corresponding peaks in staple foods,rainfall,and minimum temperatures,and 3–4months after peaks in high-quality foods.Births were signi?cantly seasonal,with a birth peak from mid-February to early April,and a mean birth date of 14March.Eleven births occurred in 41days in 2009,and 16births occurred in 52days in 2010.Births occurred during peri-ods of increasing temperatures and food availability.Our ?ndings are suggestive of at least one environmental con-trol of conception timing,and support the notion that food availability during key reproductive stages is an ultimate factor for birth seasonality,but provide no supporting evidence for photoperiod during the conception season as a proximate cue to reproduction in R.bieti.

Keywords Black-and-white snub-nosed monkey áRhinopithecus bieti áBirth seasonality áReproduction áPhotoperiod áEnvironmental cues áhttps://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha

Introduction

Most mammals exhibit some degree of reproductive syn-chrony so that species breed during optimal conditions (Bronson 1989;Bronson and Heideman 1994).Reproduc-tive events are triggered by internal physiological rhythms,as well as by a suite of environmental factors such as ambient temperature,rainfall,food availability,and pho-toperiod that reliably predict future conditions (Bronson and Heideman 1994).Often,though not exclusively,births are synchronized with seasonal shifts in food availability or temperatures,but shifts in the timing of births may also occur as a result of predation pressure,paternity confusion,and infanticide avoidance (Di Bitetti and Janson 2000).Seasonal breeders,or breeders that breed within a discrete

Z.-P.Huang and L.-W.Cui contributed equally to this work.Z.-P.Huang áM.B.Scott áS.-J.Wang áW.Xiao (&)Institute of Eastern-Himalaya Biodiversity Research,Dali University,Dali 671003,Yunnan,People’s Republic of China

e-mail:xiaowen.dali@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,

Z.-P.Huang áL.-W.Cui áS.-J.Wang

Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control in Yunnan Province,Southwest Forestry University,Kunming 650224,People’s Republic of China

L.-W.Cui áW.Xiao

Kunming Institute of Zoology,Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS),Kunming 650223,Yunnan,People’s Republic of China

Primates (2012)53:237–245DOI 10.1007/s10329-012-0305-7

period of the year(Lancaster and Lee1965),are able to maximize?tness in individuals by synchronizing energet-ically demanding periods of the breeding cycle with peri-ods of maximum food availability or quality(Lancaster and Lee1965;Altmann1980;Di Bitetti and Janson2000; Brockman and van Schaik2005;Tecot2010).In primates, a wide range of seasonal breeding patterns and strategies are represented,conceptualized in the proposed income breeder-capital breeder continuum model(Drent and Daan 1980;Brockman and van Schaik2005).According to this model,breeding in some species,particularly in less pre-dictable environments,depends upon the current condition of the female(capital breeder);endogenous factors result-ing directly from food abundance(i.e.,if a given minimum energetic condition or threshold is met)regulate the initi-ation of a breeding cycle to coincide with peak food abundance(Brockman and van Schaik2005).At the other extreme,exogenous proximate cues,such as photoperiod, initiate breeding in species in seasonal or highly predict-able environments;for these species,births are timed to synchronize peak lactation or weaning with periods of peak food availability or quality(income breeder,Brockman and van Schaik2005).In between this dichotomy exists a large subset of species that exhibit intermediate patterns of reproduction(relaxed income breeders)and in which individuals respond to a combination of exogenous and endogenous cues.While the breeding cycle and contribu-tion of various proximate predictive cues that initiate breeding cycles are better understood for some primates (e.g.,Perret and Aujard2001;Fernandez-Duque et al. 2002;Lewis and Kappeler2005),the environmental factors regulating breeding in many other species remain equivo-cal;such is the case for the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus bieti).

Rhinopithecus bieti is a large-bodied colobine(15-to17-kg adult males,6.5-to10-kg adult females)endemic to the ranges of the eastern-Himalayan highlands bounded by the upper Yangtze and Mekong Rivers(Long et al.1994;Xiao et al.2003;Smith and Xie2008).The current distribution spans cool-temperate mixed broadleaved-conifer forest mountain habitats between2600and4600m above sea level(a.s.l.)from26°140N to29°200N(Kirkpatrick and Grueter2010).Lichens comprise60–70%of the diet; however,plant leaves,shoots,buds,and fruit are preferred when available(Ding and Zhao2004;Xiang et al.2007; Grueter et al.2009).Both in captivity and in the wild, females begin to reproduce at4–5years and are thought to give birth every second year thereafter(Kirkpatrick et al. 1998;Cui et al.2006).The gestation period in captive individuals has been estimated to be between195and 204days(Ji et al.1998;He et al.2001),and about 6–7months in wild populations(Kirkpatrick et al.1998; Xiang and Sayers2009).

We examined the annual distribution of mating behavior and births in a population of Rhinopithecus bieti near its southern limit,at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,ing data collected during two birth seasons(2008–2010),we evaluated the relation-ship between various environmental cues—photoperiod, rainfall,ambient temperature,and food availability—and the timing of mating behavior.Given that wild populations of R.bieti have been observed to breed seasonally in the northernmost group at Xiaochangdu(29°150N,Xiang and Sayers2009),we predicted that if photoperiod was the principle cue to breeding,populations at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha might breed during the same day length or relative day length. We also predicted a later conception period than at Xiao-changdu was possible if female reproductive condition or infant survival were ultimate factors in regulating birth season(Fooden and Aimi2003).That captive groups exposed to natural light exhibit a more relaxed birth season than that recorded in wild populations(Cui et al.2006; Xiang and Sayers2009)suggests the regulation of breeding may involve both exogenous and endogenous cues in this species(Brockman and van Schaik2005).Thus,we pre-dicted that their reproductive activity may also be in?u-enced by one or more environmental factors characteristic of their seasonal environment sometime within the previ-ous year.As the physical condition of the female may be important in the timing of copulation and conception in some species(Koenig et al.1997),we predicted an energy or nutrient threshold may be a primary trigger to the onset of breeding,such that peaks in food availability or food quality may be positively correlated with future copulation frequency.In this study,we aimed to:(1)determine the annual pattern of reproduction at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha,(2)test for differences in photoperiods between the https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha popu-lation and the Xiaochangdu population during the time of conceptions,and(3)test for relationships of copulation frequency with likely external stimuli(i.e.,rainfall,ambi-ent temperature,and food availability)at the time of cop-ulation and within the past year.

Methods

Study site and subjects

We studied a single group of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys from January2008to May2010at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha (26°200N,99°150E)in Yunling Nature Reserve,Yunnan, China.Ranging from2900to3600m a.s.l.,the study site is a primarily forested ca.1400-ha catchment with a pre-dominantly northeast aspect.The catchment is surrounded by a largely deforested ridgeline that reaches3855m a.s.l. at its highest point.The forest vegetation transitions from deciduous broadleaved forest at lower elevations,through a

belt of mixed deciduous-conifer forest to dark conifer forest(Abies georgei, A.fabri,Tsuga dumosa)at the highest elevations.Two patches(\25ha)of evergreen oak (Quercus semecarpifolia)occur around3100m a.s.l.,and several?re-induced forest clearings are found throughout the site.The forest undergrowth primarily comprises Rhododendron spp.and bamboo(Fargesia strigosa, https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,lis,F.solida).

The study group consisted of approximately100indi-viduals in11one-male multi-female units(OMU)and two all-male units(AMU;for a full description of R.bieti social units,see Kirkpatrick and Grueter2010).In2009,the OMUs consisted of24adult females,11of which gave birth;in2010,the OMUs consisted of27adult females,16 of which gave birth.R.bieti OMUs move,sleep,and eat as sub-units of the population and are clearly discernible in the?eld.We were able to distinguish newborns from 1-year-old juveniles based on a combination of key char-acters.Newborns have distinctive white coats except for a ?ne gray stripe on the top of the head and back,and a gray-tinged tail.They are mostly carried at their mother’s abdomen for the?rst2weeks.Between2weeks and 25days,infants begin to move up to2m beyond their mother,but are still unable to move agilely for the?rst month.At1year old,juveniles are distinguished from newborns by their larger size,gray pelage,and higher activity levels(Zou et al.1999).The study group was not habituated to the observers,and we were unable to identify individuals of the group;however,we were able to identify some OMUs by their composition of adults and juveniles. Climate and photoperiod

Precipitation and temperature were recorded at26°200N, 99°150E at2730m a.s.l.from January2008to May2010 using a HOBO pro RH/Temp(S1-129;RG3-M no 1175608,Bourne,MA,USA),approximately2.5km away from the center of the group’s home range.Precipitation was collected using a tipping-bucket rain gauge with 0.2-mm resolution.Temperature was recorded at2-m height every half-hour from January2008to December 2009.We obtained photoperiod data for https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha and Xiaochangdu using nautical twilight data from the US Naval Observatory Astronomical Applications Department (US Naval Astronomical Applications Department2010).

Phenology and food availability

To assess seasonal plant food availability,we monitored food tree and lichen species from June2008to September 2009.We identi?ed food tree species as species that pro-vide food resources to R.bieti diet and represent more than 1%to total stem abundance.To assess tree species relative abundance,we sampled forest composition within the study group’s home range.We established ten transects from2850to3650m a.s.l.,with10-m910-m plots every 50m gain in elevation where forested habitats existed, totaling140plots(or about0.2%of the population’s esti-mated home range).This sample size was considered suf-?cient,given the overall low species richness and uniformity of the habitat,as well as the high representa-tiveness of total tree diversity within the plots.Within each plot,we recorded tree species[10-cm diameter at breast height;using data from all the plots,we calculated the relative abundance of each species in comparison to the total number of trees at the site.From forest plot data, interviews with local hunters,and feeding records made between March2008and May2008,we identi?ed nine food tree species(Table1).Based on the same initial feeding records and interviews,we also identi?ed two fruticose lichens,Bryoria sp.,and Usnea longsissima,as R.bieti food species to monitor.

To monitor food resources,we selected a single repre-sentative tree of each species in or nearest to each of20 vegetation plots along two central transects(totaling20 trees per species).In the second week of each month,we visually estimated the percent cover of buds,leaves,?owers,and fruits in the crown for each food tree.We later

Table1Tree species,food items,stem density,and relative abundance of nine food tree species used by Rhinopithecus bieti at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha

Bd Bud,Lf leaf,Fl?ower,

Fr fruit Species Food items Stem density(no./ha)Relative abundance(%)

Betula alnoides Bd,Lf,Fl999.2

Acanthopanax gracilistylus Bd,Lf,Fl,Fr948.8

Acer oliverianum Bd,Lf,Fl71 6.6

Sorbus glomerulata Bd,Lf,Fl,Fr56 5.3

Sorbus megalocarpa Fr44 4.2

Ilex polyneura Bd,Lf,Fl,Fr25 2.3

Prunus pilosuscula Bd,Lf,Fl,Fr11 1.1

Populus adenopoda Bd,Lf11 1.0

Cornus macrophylla Fr11 1.0

compared percent cover for each given plant part for each tree as a percentage of its maximum recorded coverage, and scored each on a scale of0(total absence)to3([66% of the maximum observed coverage).In the same way,we scored lichen coverage in each plot on each of the15most abundant tree species.

From the relative stem density and phenological score data,we calculated a food availability index of food parts (FAI)using the formula:FAI=average phenological score9stem density of species(Dasilva1994;Guo et al. 2007).We summed monthly FAIs for the nine food species for each plant part and15tree species for lichen.We then classed foods as either‘‘high-quality’’(i.e.,buds,?owers, and fruit)or‘‘staple’’(i.e.,lichens and leaves)food,and summed the monthly FAIs for each class.

Mating behavior

From May2008to September2009,we recorded copula-tion events ad libitum and in conjunction with10-min instantaneous activity budget scans in which diet and activity were recorded over the course of the daylight hours (Altmann1974;Martin and Bateson1998).In total,we accumulated846h of observations(Martin and Bateson 1998).For each calendar month,we logged between38.5 and121observation hours.We transformed copulation observation numbers into time units by dividing observa-tions by observation hours in each month.

One to two observers made all?eld observations,using a Leica Televid77(Solms,Germany)?eld scope at distances ranging from80–800m.Given the sometimes imperfect viewing conditions,we were unable to always observe full copulation events(solicitation,mount,intromission,pelvic thrusts,ejaculation,and dismount,Xiang and Sayers2009); therefore,we considered observations of mounted pelvic thrusts and notable tensing of the body musculature suf?-cient evidence of a copulation event(Cui and Xiao2004). During the study,we recorded all copulation events; however,only copulation events involving opposite sex adult partners were included in further analysis.

Infant birth timing

We recorded all new-born infants between March2008and May2010ad libitum.In addition,given the birth season results of Xiang and Sayers(2009),we increased our observation time to60–120h per month between February and April each year to increase the resolution of our dataset during the predicted birthing time.As we were unable to recognize individual adult females and observe all of the females each census day,we estimated the timing of birth events based on an infant/female(I/F)ratio,using the formula:N I=I/F9N F where N I is the estimated total number of infants on a particular census day and N F is the estimated total number of adult females(Xiang and Sayers2009).While this method has the risk of giving a‘false-positive’result on a given day,we reduced the risk by including data for analysis only if more than half of the adult females in the group were observed at a given time,and pooling data by week.For days where females and infants were counted more than once,we calculated N I as the average of the counts on that day.

Data analysis

We used circular statistics to test for birth seasonality (Batschelet1981).For the analysis,we transformed birth dates into a number out of a365-day year with1January as day1and grouped days into?fty-two7-day periods.We then used the middle date within each7-day period to represent the date of all births that occurred that week,and transformed each day into degrees of a circle(360°)with a radius of1;for example,day365was transformed to the angle of360°(a).We calculated the mean vector length r, as a measure of birth season dispersion,ranging from0 (uniform)to1(clustered),using the formula:

r?

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

P n

i?1

f i cos a i

n

2

t

P n

i?1

f i sin a i

n

2

s

where n was the number of births and f was the frequency of births in1week.We used the Rayleigh test(Z?nr2)to determine whether the birth data were unevenly distributed throughout the year(Batschelet1981;Zar1999).

To test for an effect of day length on the timing of the birth period,we estimated conception dates by subtracting 204days(gestation dates)from birth dates.We then compared day length and relative day lengths during R.bieti conception periods at Xiaochangdu and https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha, and between years at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha,using a two-sample t-test (SPSS16.0;Chicago,IL,USA).Relative day lengths were standardized between the two sites using the equation:

eDay length iàMin xT=eMax xàMin xT

where Min x was the minimum day length at a particular site and Max x was the maximum day length at a particular site. We used birth times from Xiang and Sayers(2009)to estimate the conception period for the Xiaochangdu population.

We used a Spearman rank correlation(q)with a sig-ni?cance level(a)set at0.05to test for relationships between environmental factors and copulation frequency, using SPSS16.0.To test for a delayed response to an environmental cue,we also calculated correlations of environmental factors with copulation frequencies lagged

by 1–11months.Environmental factors included high-quality food availability (buds,fruit,and ?owers),staple food (lichens and leaves),maximum temperature,minimum temperature,and rainfall.We adjusted p values corrected for multiple comparisons at a =0.05using the step-up false-discovery rate,an adaptive linear step-up procedure (Benjamini et al.2006).

Results Climate

Data from the https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha site exhibited a cool mountain climate,characterized by pronounced seasonal ?uctuations in rainfall and temperature (Fig.1).The annual precipita-tion pattern at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha showed particular seasonality;total precipitation during the study period was 971mm,with 80%occurring from May to October as rain.Most precipitation between November and February came as snow (Huang Zhi-Pang,personal observation 2009).Dur-ing the study period,mean monthly temperatures ranged from 4.4°C in February to 17.4°C in July.The mean annual temperature for the site was 11.7°C.The lowest tempera-ture recorded was -5.6°C in February 2008,though tem-peratures of \0°C were regularly recorded between December and March.Food availability

All nine food tree species were deciduous,showing pro-nounced seasonal ?uctuations in the FAIs of both staple and high-quality foods (Fig.2).Buds emerged near the end of February,with peak bud abundance recorded in March and April.Through April,most deciduous species rapidly leafed,followed by a ?ush of ?owering that extended into May.High-quality foods peaked in April and May (Fig.2).

Leaf abundance continued to increase through spring,peaking in June through September,accounting for the mid-summer peak in staple foods (Fig.2).Seasonal distribution of mating behavior

Mating behavior was observed in every month of the year,with a total of 46copulations recorded over a 2-year period;however,most copulations were observed from July to October (Fig.3).Copulation frequency peaked in August at 0.13per observation hour.There was a signi?cant correlation between copulation frequency and birth events,with a delay of 6–7months (for 6-month delay,q =0.73,p \0.01;for 7-month delay,q =0.65,p \0.05).Seasonal distribution of births

Births were closely synchronized within the group and between years.According to Rayleigh test results,births

-10

-5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

35 0

100200300400500

600Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

T e m p e r a t u r e (°C )

R a i n f a l l (m m )

Month

Rainfall

Max temp

Mean temp

Min temp

Fig.1Monthly mean temperature (°C),maximum temperature,minimum temperature,and rainfall (mm)(mean ±SE)at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha from January 2008to December 2009

50010001500200025003000Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

F o o d A v a i l a b i l i t y I n d e x (F A I )

Month

Staple Food

High Quality Food

Fig.2Food availability index of staple foods (lichens and leaves)and high-quality foods (fruit,?owers,and buds)at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha

0.00

0.02

0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

2 4 6 8 10 12 14

16 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Births

Copulation frequency

C o p u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y

N u m b e r o f b i r t h s

Fig.3Number of births in 2009and 2010,and observed copulation frequency between May 2008and April 2009of Rhinopithecus bieti at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha.Shaded area shows the estimated period of conceptions in 2008and 2009based on a 6-month gestation

were not evenly distributed in either year or years com-bined(Table2).Newborns were only observed between mid-February and early April in each year(Fig.3).Of a total27births,11occurred from21February to2April in 2009(peak I/F value=0.50),and16occurred from15 February to7April in2010(peak I/F value=0.59).The mean birth date was day73(14March).

Environmental factors and reproduction

Day length at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha ranged from12.28to15.72h, annually.Mean day lengths at the time of conception of R.bieti at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha and Xiaochangdu were14.66±0.40h (range13.97–15.30,n=52)and15.35±0.30h(range 14.82–15.80,n=39),respectively(Fig.4).Day length and relative day length(relative to the range of day lengths at that site)during the period of R.bieti conceptions was shorter at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha than at Xiaochangdu(t=8.98,

df=89,p\0.001;t=6.12,df=89,p\0.001),while day length during the conception period did not differ between years at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha(t=0.11,df,=91, p=0.909).

Data on copulation were used to test the hypothesis that copulation frequency is related to past peaks in food availability and food quality.According to Spearman rank correlations between copulation frequency and environ-mental parameters,staple foods were positively correlated to copulation,with a time lag of1month(Table3);high-quality foods were positively correlated with a time lag of3 and4months.Climate factors were also correlated with copulation,with rainfall positively correlated with copu-lations at1-month lag,and minimum temperatures at1-and2-months lag.Negative correlations were observed in all measured variables between7and9months(Table3). Discussion

The physical sequence of a breeding cycle begins with conception.As with other species of Rhinopithecus(Zhang et al.2000;Ren et al.2003;Li and Zhao2007;Qi et al. 2008;Yang et al.2009),breeding behavior(copulations) occurred year-round,but peaked between July and October, or6–7months prior to the birth season(Xiang and Sayers 2009).In the present study,copulation frequency was closely related to each tested environmental factor at least once within the previous year,indicating several factors may be involved in regulating reproductive function,as well as highlighting the complex inter-connection and inter-dependence between environmental variables.How-ever,that staple foods1month and high-quality foods 3–4months prior to conception are good predictors of copulation frequency is highly suggestive of energy econ-omy or nutrition having importance in regulating the breeding cycle of R.bieti.The availability of high-quality food is known to trigger or to be requisite to the onset of estrus and mating in a number of species(Bronson1989; Koenig et al.1997;Takahashi2002).The relaxed seasonal breeding cycle observed in captive animals is also sup-portive of food as a reproductive regulator in R.bieti(Cui et al.2006).Temperature might also act as a proximate stimulus for the onset of estrus and mating;Cozzilino and Cordischi(1992)offer some convincing evidence for environmental temperature and changes in temperature regulating the onset of reproduction in captive or provi-sioned Macaca fuscata.From our results,we suggest minimum temperature,speci?cally higher minimum tem-peratures in mid-summer,could be a stimulus to repro-duction.While rainfall at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha was also a good predictor of copulation frequency,we suggest the interac-tion rainfall has with plant phenology and food availability may contribute to regulating reproductive function in

Table2Birth range,birth rates,and Rayleigh test of birth seasonality of Rhinopithecus bieti at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha

**p\0.001Years Range/days Number

of births

Birth rates

(infants/females)

Mean birth

date

r

birth

Z

2009Feb.21–Apr.02/41110.5075.670.98710.64** 2010Feb.15–Apr.07/52160.5973.130.95214.43** 2009/2010Feb.15–Apr.07/522772.870.96625.17**

R.bieti,but this interaction is unlikely to be a principle proximate trigger of reproduction.However,proof of this interaction would require controlled experimentation.

For many species at higher latitudes,birth seasons are entrained by photoperiod;neuroendocrine mechanisms that regulate reproductive activity are triggered by absolute measures of day-length and direction of day-length change (Van Horn1980;Bronson and Heideman1994;Goldman 2001).Our results show day lengths and relative day lengths were shorter at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha than at Xiaochangdu at the estimated time of conception,offering no evidence for day length or relative day length as proximate cues for reproduction in R.bieti.(Fig.4).However,our results were consistent with the prediction that the conception season would be delayed at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha in comparison to that at Xiaochangdu(Xiang and Sayers2009).This result is less easily interpreted.Several seasonally breeding primates show a similar pattern,having reproductive cycles that require additional cues or are completely independent of the photoperiod.For example,Tibetan macaques (M.thibetana)at Mt.Emei exposed to the same photoperiod give birth up to3months earlier at cooler high-altitude sites than groups at low altitude,indicating temperature and food resources are requisite proximate cues(Zhao and Deng1988).Within most of their natural range,wild populations of Japanese macaques(M.fuscata)show a general tendency for birth seasons in the northern latitudes to occur earlier than at southern latitudes,and yet trans-located animals exhibit an intrinsic reproductive rhythm that can persist independently of photoperiod or tempera-ture cues(Fooden and Aimi2003).We suggest differences related to elevation,temperature,and plant phenology could also explain the earlier reproductive period at Xiaochangdu,and still there remain untested photoperiod thresholds outside the period of conception that may be critical to the onset of ovulation and timing of conception.

Our results,based on circulation statistics of pooled weekly infant/female ratio data,showed that the wild population of R.bieti at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha exhibited strict birth seasonality,with births occurring from mid-February to early April,and females giving birth every second year. These results were not surprising;earlier studies on R.bieti (Xiang and Sayers2009),R.roxellana(Zhang et al.2000; Ren et al.2003;Qi et al.2008),and R.brelichi(Yang et al. 2009)have shown similar seasonality and annual birth rates within the genus.For primates,especially at the higher latitudes where temperatures and food resources undergo pronounced seasonal?uctuations,most species exhibit seasonality in breeding(Brockman and van Schaik 2005;Janson and Verdolin2005).The ultimate factors governing seasonality are likely to include adequate tem-peratures for infant survival,and suf?cient food resources available to support the metabolic demands of lactation and development of the offspring.Indeed,for most species, energy,its acquisition and allocation,is considered the ultimate factor controlling breeding patterns(Di Bitetti and Janson2000;Brockman and van Schaik2005;Janson and Verdolin2005).Thus,we suggest strict seasonal breeding over a2-year cycle may be particularly critical for R.bieti, as well as for other Rhinopithecus spp.,because they live in such energetically challenging https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha,near the current southern limit of R.bieti,is characteristically a seasonal environment with wide seasonal and daily tem-perature?uctuations and discernible wet and dry seasons. While food is continuously available in the form of two lichen species,the quality and quantity of food resources for R.bieti are highly seasonal,peaking during the warmer and wetter season between June and September(Figs.1,

Table3Spearman’s rank correlations(q)of Mt Lasha Rhinopithecus bieti copulation frequency(lagged0–11months)with environmental factors

Number of months lagged

01234567891011

Staple foods0.620.800.660.480.20-0.27-0.64-0.85-0.65-0.39-0.200.21 p0.080.020.050.200.560.460.070.020.060.320.560.56 High-quality foods-0.010.150.390.730.760.590.20-0.29-0.67-0.83-0.66-0.36 p0.830.640.310.040.030.090.560.460.050.020.050.34 Maximum temperature0.360.570.400.070.08-0.08-0.45-0.77-0.66-0.280.270.50 p0.340.120.310.750.750.750.250.030.050.460.460.19 Minimum temperature0.670.760.720.38-0.01-0.34-0.56-0.74-0.79-0.48-0.030.42 p0.050.030.040.320.830.350.120.030.020.200.830.28 Rainfall0.660.950.620.07-0.21-0.27-0.40-0.56-0.60-0.36-0.080.16 p0.050.000.080.750.560.460.310.120.090.340.750.62

Signi?cant values(p\0.05)are indicated in bold.p values for multiple pairwise comparisons were adjusted by the false-discovery rate(FDR) correction method(Benjamini et al.2006)

2).For mothers with year-old infants,this peak food resource period coincides with the approximate end of weaning(Huang Zhi-Pang,personal observation 2009–2010).For mothers with new infants,the peak food period coincided with mid-lactation,or when infants were about3–6months of age.Gestation and births occurred during some of the nutritionally leanest months.Thus,the presence of the strict birth seasonality in R.bieti may be an adaptation to allow energy storage prior to gestation or to avoid seasonal nutritional stress during mid-lactation (Brockman and van Schaik2005).Fooden and Aimi(2003) have suggested earlier births in more northerly populations of Japanese macaques(M.fuscata)may increase the sur-vival of weaning infants in the following winter.This may be a factor for Rhinopithecus as well,given the birth period is about1–2weeks earlier and up to13days shorter at Xiaochangdu than at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/0015250885.html,sha(Xiang and Sayers2009). Infant mortality is not well quanti?ed in R.bieti(Cui et al. 2006);however,in R.roxellana,most infant mortality was observed in the?rst year(Qi et al.2008).

Results so far indicate that R.bieti,like many species, falls somewhere along the income-capital continuum model:mid-lactation coincides with the peak food period (income breeder);captive animals exhibit a relaxed sea-sonal breeding period(relaxed income breeder);and con-ception coincides with the peak food availability and quality(capital breeder;Brockman and van Schaik2005; Janson and Verdolin2005).Current research in primate birth seasonality is particularly dominated by species in tropical and subtropical environments,so that the current model retains a low representativeness of temperate species with long breeding cycles.Given what is known of the breeding seasonality in snub-nosed monkeys,we might suppose that,where environmental conditions are ener-getically more demanding and more seasonal,species may exhibit unique intermediate responses to the ubiquitous challenge of seasonal resource?uctuations to reproduction. Clearly,the understanding of the mechanisms regulating reproductive function in these species will contribute to a better understanding of the current model. Acknowledgments This study was supported by the Committee for Research and Exploration,National Geographic Society(GRANT #7962-05),TNC‘‘Conservation Ecology of Yunnan Snub-Nosed Monkey(Rhinopithecus bieti)at Two Geographic Extremes of Spe-cies Range,’’PhD Funding from Dali University,National Natural Science Foundation of China(#31160422,#30960084,#30960085), Key Laboratory of Forest Disaster Warning and Control in Yunnan Province(ZK09A313),Key Subject of Wildlife Conservation and Utilization in Yunnan Province(XKZ200904),and‘‘Ecological assessment of priority conservation areas of trans-Himalaya’’sup-ported by MEP of China.We would have been unable to do this research without the help of our assistant,Zhang Jin-Fu.We thank the Yunling Nature Reserve for permitting us to work there,and kindly offering necessary help during our study.We would also like to thank Dr.Cyril Grueter and an anonymous reviewer for their detailed and constructive comments on the manuscript.

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人教版高中化学必修一化学方程式汇总

高中化学（人教版）必修一化学方程式汇总 1、硫酸根离子的检验: BaCl2 + Na2SO4 ==== BaSO4↓+ 2NaCl 2、碳酸根离子的检验: CaCl2 + Na2CO3 ===== CaCO3↓ + 2NaCl 3、碳酸钠与盐酸反应: Na2CO3 + 2HCl ===== 2NaCl + H2O + CO2↑ 4、木炭还原氧化铜: 2CuO + C 高温 2Cu + CO2↑ 5、铁片与硫酸铜溶液反应: Fe + CuSO4 ===== FeSO4 + Cu 6、氯化钙与碳酸钠溶液反应：CaCl2 + Na2CO3 ===== CaCO3↓+ 2NaCl 7、钠在空气中燃烧：2Na + O2 Na2O2 钠与氧气反应：4Na + O2 ==== 2Na2O 8、过氧化钠与水反应：2Na2O2 + 2H2O ==== 4NaOH + O2↑ 9、过氧化钠与二氧化碳反应：2Na2O2 + 2CO2 ==== 2Na2CO3 + O2 10、钠与水反应：2Na + 2H2O ==== 2NaOH + H2↑ 11、铁与水蒸气反应：3Fe + 4H2O(g) ==== Fe3O4 + 4H2↑ 12、铝与氢氧化钠溶液反应：2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O ==== 2NaAlO2 + 3H2↑ 13、氧化钙与水反应：CaO + H2O ==== Ca(OH)2 14、氧化铁与盐酸反应：Fe2O3 + 6HCl ===== 2FeCl3 + 3H2O 15、氧化铝与盐酸反应：Al2O3 + 6HCl ===== 2AlCl3 + 3H2O 16、氧化铝与氢氧化钠溶液反应：Al2O3 + 2NaOH ===== 2NaAlO2 + H2O

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“美丽中国”在我心中 党的十八大报告明确指出，“必须把生态文明建设放在突出位置，融入经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设各方面和全过程，努力建设美丽中国，实现中华民族永续发展。”中国特色社会主义事业的总体布局，由“四位一体”拓展到“五位一体”，这是进一步贯彻落实科学发展观的新部署，也是经济社会发展到一定阶段的必然选择。 建设美丽中国，描绘了社会主义生态文明新时代的美好蓝图，是“五位一体”的完美呈现。“美丽中国”不仅仅是环境美，我们既要“金山、银山、幸福山”，又要“山美、水美、人更美”。 山清水秀，但贫穷落后不是美丽中国；强大富裕，但环境污染同样不是美丽中国。“美丽中国”，美在自然，美在生活，美在文化，更美在人文！ “美丽中国”美在自然 当前，资源约束趋紧、环境污染严重、生态系统退化，是我们国家在发展过程中不得不面对的严峻形势。以牺牲环境为代价获得的发展并不能称之为发展。人类的生存发展离不开美丽的自然环境。尊重自然、顺应自然、保护自然，天地人和谐相处。“美丽中国”应首重自然之美。 “美丽中国”美在生活 山清水秀但贫穷落后，不是我们追求的美丽中国。繁荣、富强的生活，平等、自由的生活，幸福、安康的生活，是中国人追

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