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Chapter 2 Literature of American Romanticism

A Brief Introduction

The American Romantic period is considered one of the most important periods, the first literary Renaissance, in the history of American literature. It stretches from the end of the eighteenth century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It started with the publication of Washington Irving's The Sketch Book and ended with Whitman's Leaves of Grass.

American romantic literature is best explained by referring to certain stirring events of American national history. Historically, it was the time of western expansion. The western boundary had reached to the Pacific by 1860; the number of states had increased from the original thirteen at the time of independence to twenty-one by the middle of the 19th century; its total population increased from four million people in 1790 to thirty million in 1860. Economically, the whole nation was experiencing an industrial transformation, which affected American people's lives. The growth of industrialization helped restructure economic life. The sudden influx of immigration gave a big push to the booming industry. Politically, democracy and political equality became the ideals of new nation, and the two-party system came into being. Literarily and culturally, the new nation needed to express its own experiences: their early Puritan settlements, their confrontations with the Indians, their frontiersmen's life, and the wild west. Besides, the ever-increasing numbers of newspapers, magazines, journals and books reviews provided a great market. All these produced a strong sense of optimism for American romanticism.

This surging romanticism also had support abroad. In Europe, the Romantic Movement which had flourished earlier in the century both in England and Europe added incentive to the growth of Romanticists in America. The American writers who traveled to Europe and kept in touch with European Romanticism were greatly influenced. Washington Irving was the most important. The greatest benefit for Irving during his travels in Europe was his contact with Sir Walter Scott, one of the most important British writers of his period. Scott introduced Irving to the Tales of German Romances, upon which Irving wrote some of his best-known short stories. In addition, Scott's border tales and Waverley romances inspired such Americans as James Fenimore Cooper. The Gothic tradition and the cult of solitude and gloom came through interest in the works of writers like Mr. Radcliffe, E. T. A. Hoffman, James Thomson and the “graveyard” poets. Robert Burns and Byron both inspired and spurred the American imagination for lyrics and passion and despair. The impact of Wordsworth and Coleridge's Lyrical Ballads added, to some extent, to the nation's singing strength.

American Romanticism was modeled on English and European works but exhibited from the very outset distinct features of its own. For instance, the American national experience of “pioneering” into the west proved to be a rich fount of material for American write rs to draw upon. Then, there is American Puritanism as a cultural heritage to consider. American moral values were essentially Puritan, and its influence over American Romanticism was conspicuously noticeable. American romantic authors tended more to moralize than their English and European brothers, and many American romantic writers intended to edify more than they entertained. Another thing merits attention with American Romanticism--the “newness” of America as a nation. The ideals of individualism and political equality, and the dream that America was to be a new Garden of Eden for man were distinctly American.

As a result of the immerse influence of European Romanticism and the American writers' efforts in popularizing it, American Romanticism grew rapidly, bringing into American literature a swelling tide of newness, freedom, and individuality. Basically, Romanticism is often described as “emotion rather than reason, the heart opposed to the head,” as “imagination contrasted with reason and the sense of fact,” and as “a sense of mystery of the universe and the perception of its beauty.” They most highly value is originality and emotional sincerity.

American Romanticism can be divided into two periods. The first period or the early National Period stretches from 1800 to 1830. During this period some American writers began to attract notice abroad. Although English literature was still influential, and was admired and followed, American writers began to use their own scene, their own culture, and their own history as the material in their writings. In this period, the important writers were Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper and William Cullen Bryant, who are seen as a trio, the first truly successful American writers. Irving's Sketch Book (1819-1820) is the first work by American writer to win financial success on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

The second period stretches from 1830 to 1865, which has been called by some scholars the “American Renaissance”. Ralph Waldo Emerson's The American Scholar(1837) proved to be a declaration of American literature, in which he announced that: “Our day of dependence, our long apprenticeship to the learning of other lands, draws a close.” And he told his countrymen that: “We will walk on our own feet; we will work with our own hands; we will speak our own minds” Writers in this period can be divided into three groups: Transcendentalists, “brooding” Romantics and the Brahmins (literally, a member of the very highest caste of Hindu society). Although all of them share the general Romantic ideas, they each have their own special emphasis. Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were the spokesmen of transcendentalism. Edgar Allen Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville are called “broodings” or dissenters. T hey were filled with a deep awareness of the human capacity for evil. They stressed the presence of evil in the universe and rejected the philosophy of transcendentalism. Henry Wordsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell are the three Brahmins, the members of the genteel school. They were, to some degree, New England aristocrats, socially important men for whom literature was an accomplishment as well as a vocation. It should be pointed out that John Whittier and Emily Dickinson fall outside the classification.

With Ralph Waldo Emerson's Nature published in 1836, Romanticism came to its climax, Transcendentalism, or New England Transcendentalism.

The actual term was coined by opponents of the movement, but accepted by its members, one of whom was Ralph Waldo Emerson, who published Transcendentalism in 1841. The group also included social reformers. Some of the famous members include Bronson, Alcott, Thoreau and Hawthorne.

Transcendentalism was a movement among young intellectuals in Boston in the 1830's. They formed themselves into an informal club: the Transcendentalist Club. They edited a journal—The Dial, to voice their opinions. Transcendentalism was, in essence, romantic idealism on Puritan thoughts. It was a system of thought that originated from three sources. First, it is from William Ellery Channing's Unitarianism. Channing (1780 - 1842) represented a thoughtful revolt against orthodox Puritanism. Unitarianism believed God was one being, and gave each congregation free control of its own affairs and its own independent authority. It laid the foundation for the central doctrines of transcendentalism. Secondly, the idealistic philosophers' influence from England,

France and Germany, such as Wordsworth Longfellow, Coleridge, Carlyle Kant, Hegel, Schelling, Goethe, Richter, and Herder, exerted enormous impact on American transcendentalists. Thirdly, the ancients: the Greek philosophers, especially Plato, the Neoplatonists, the Christian mystics from the Middle Ages to Swedenborg, the Hindu wisdom of the age-old V edas, and Chinese classics. As a result, New England Transcendentalism blended native American tradition with foreign influence.

Basically religious, transcendentalism emphasized the importance of the individual conscience, and the value of intuition in matters of moral guidance and inspiration.

James Russell Lowell (1819-1891)

James Russell Lowell was an American Romantic poet, critic, editor, and diplomat. He is associated with the Fireside Poets, a group of New England writers who were among the first American poets who rivaled the popularity of British poets. These poets usually used conventional forms and meters in their poetry, making them suitable for families entertaining at their fireside. Lowell graduated from Harvard College in 1838, despite his reputation as a troublemaker, and went on to earn a law degree from Harvard Law School. He published his first collection of poetry in 1841 and married Maria White in 1844. He and his wife had several children, though only one survived past childhood. The couple soon became involved in the movement to abolish slavery, with Lowell using poetry to express his anti-slavery views and taking a job in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania as the editor of an abolitionist newspaper. After moving back to Cambridge, Lowell was one of the founders of a journal called The Pioneer, which lasted only three issues. He gained notoriety in 1848 with the publication of A Fable for Critics, a book-length poem satirizing contemporary critics and poets. The same year, he published The Biglow Papers, which increased his fame. He would publish several other poetry collections and essay collections throughout his literary career.

Maria White died in 1853, and Lowell accepted a professorship of languages at Harvard in 1854. He traveled to Europe before officially assuming his role in 1856; he continued to teach there for twenty years. He married his second wife, Frances Dunlap, shortly thereafter in 1857. That year Lowell also became editor of The Atlantic Monthly. It was not until 20 years later that Lowell received his first political appointment: the ambassadorship to Spain and, later, to England. He spent his last years in Cambridge, in the same estate where he was born, where he also died in 1891.

Lowell believed that the poet played an important role as a prophet and critic of society. He used poetry for reform, particularly in abolitionism. However, Lowell's commitment to the anti-slavery cause wavered over the years, as did his opinion on African-Americans. Lowell attempted to emulate the true Yankee accent in the dialogue of his characters, particularly in The Biglow Papers. This depiction of the dialect, as well as Lowell's many satires, were an inspiration to writers like Mark Twain and H. L. Mencken.

Henry W adswoth Longfellow (1807-1882)

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an American poet and educator whose works include Paul Revere's Ride, The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy and was one of the five Fireside Poets.

Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, then part of Massachusetts, and studied at Bowdoin College. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later, at Harvard

College. His first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night (1839) and Ballads and Other Poems (1841). Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854 to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in a former headquarters of George Washington. His first wife, Mary Potter, died in 1835 after a miscarriage. His second wife, Frances Appleton, died in 1861 after sustaining burns from her dress catching fire. After her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on his translation. He died in 1882.

Longfellow predominantly wrote lyric poems which are known for their musicality and which often presented stories of mythology and legend. He became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas. He has been criticized, however, for imitating European styles and writing specifically for the masses.

A Psalm of Life

Tell me not in mournful numbers,

Life is but an empty dream!

For the soul is dead that slumbers,

And things are not what they seem.

Life is real! Life is earnest!

And the grave is not its goal;

Dust thou are, to dust thou returnest,

Was not spoken of the soul.

Not enjoyment, and not sorrow,

Is our destined end or way;

But to act, that each tomorrow

Find us farther than today.

Art is long, and Time is fleeting,

And our hearts, though stout and brave,

Still, like muffled drums, are beating

Funeral marches to the grave.

In the world's broad field of battle,

In the bivouac of Life,

Be not like dumb, driven cattle!

Be a hero in the strife!

Trust no Future, howe'er pleasant!

Let the dead Past bury its dead!

Act, - act in the living Present!

Heart within, and God o'erhead!

Lives of great men all remind us

We can make our lives sublime,

And, departing, leave behind us

Footprints on the sand of time;

Footprints, that perhaps another,

Sailing o'er life's solemn main,

A forlorn and shipwrecked brother,

Seeing, shall take heart again.

Let us then be up and doing,

With a heart for any fate;

Still achieving, still pursuing,

Learn to labor and to wait.

Notes:

1.This poem was published in “V oices of the Night”. In nine quartrains of alternately rimed

trochaic tetrameters, this popular didactic piece stresses the importance of a full and sincere acitivity in making the most of life?s brief span, rather than succumbing to moods of vain regret or dejection. The poem established the familiar Longfellow?s pattern of clear, felicitous expression of common ideas, melodioally encouraging memorization.

2.numbers: meters, rhythms

3.For the soul/ not what they seem: the temporary body of human being dies, but the soul

nenver dies. When wer a re doning things of no miportance, we say the soul slumbers. “The soul is dead…” the poet means that when we are hopeless.

4.Dust thou art, to dust returnest: see Holy Bible, The Old Testament, Genesis, chap.2 sec. 7.

“And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostril the breath of life; and man became a living soul”.

5.Art is lo ng, and time is fleeting: Chaucer?s “ The Parliament of Fowls”, line 1. “ the life so

short, the craft so long to learn.”

6.funeral marches: some pieces of music played in a funeral service.

7.sands of time: moments in time (as measured by sand in an hour-glass).

8.main: the sea (poetic diction).

9.take heart: to gain courage.

W alt Whitman (1819-1892)

Born on May 31, 1819, Walt Whitman was the second son of Walter Whitman, a housebuilder, and Louisa V an V elsor. The family, which consisted of nine children, lived in Brooklyn and Long Island in the 1820s and 1830s.

At the age of twelve, Whitman began to learn the printer's trade, and fell in love with the written word. Largely self-taught, he read voraciously, becoming acquainted with the works of Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and the Bible.

Whitman worked as a printer in New Y ork City until a devastating fire in the printing district demolished the industry. In 1836, at the age of 17, he began his career as teacher in the one-room school houses of Long Island. He continued to teach until 1841, when he turned to journalism as a full-time career.

He founded a weekly newspaper, Long-Islander, and later edited a number of Brooklyn and New Y ork papers. In 1848, Whitman left the Brooklyn Daily Eagle to become editor of the New Orleans Crescent. It was in New Orleans that he experienced at first hand the viciousness of slavery in the slave markets of that city. On his return to Brooklyn in the fall of 1848, he founded a “free soil” newspaper, the Brooklyn Freeman, and continued to develop the unique style of poetry that later so astonished Ralph Waldo Emerson.

In 1855, Whitman took out a copyright on the first edition of Leaves of Grass, which consisted of twelve untitled poems and a preface. He published the volume himself, and sent a copy to Emerson in July of 1855. Whitman released a second edition of the book in 1856, containing thirty-three poems, a letter from Emerson praising the first edition, and a long open letter by Whitman in response. During his subsequent career, Whitman continued to refine the volume, publishing several more editions of the book.

At the outbreak of the Civil War, Whitman vowed to live a “purged” and “cleansed” life. He wrote freelance journalism and visited the wounded at New Y ork-area hospitals. He then traveled to Washington, D.C. in December 1862 to care for his brother who had been wounded in the war. Overcome by the suffering of the many wounded in Washington, Whitman decided to stay and work in the hospitals and stayed in the city for eleven years. He took a job as a clerk for the Department of the Interior, which ended when the Secretary of the Interior, James Harlan, discovered that Whitman was the author of Leaves of Grass, which Harlan found offensive. Harlan fired the poet.

Whitman struggled to support himself through most of his life. In Washington, he lived on a clerk's salary and modest royalties, and spent any excess money, including gifts from friends, to buy supplies for the patients he nursed. He had also been sending money to his widowed mother and an invalid brother. From time to time writers both in the states and in England sent him “purses” of money so that he could get by.

In the early 1870s, Whitman settled in Camden, NJ, where he had come to visit his dying mother at his brother's house. However, after suffering a stroke, Whitman found it impossible to return to Washington. He stayed with his brother until the 1882 publication of Leaves of Grass gave Whitman enough money to buy a home in Camden.

In the simple two-story clapboard house, Whitman spent his declining years working on additions and revisions to a new edition of the book and preparing his final volume of poems and prose, Good-Bye, My Fancy (1891). After his death on March 26, 1892, Whitman was buried in a tomb he designed and had built on a lot in Harleigh Cemetery.

Whitman?s poetry is democ ratic in both its subject matter and its language. As the great lists that make up a large part of Whitman?s poetry show, anything—and anyone—is fair game for a poem. Whitman is concerned with cataloguing the new America he sees growing around him. Just as America is far different politically and practically from its European counterparts, so too must American poetry distinguish itself from previous models. Thus we see Whitman breaking new ground in both subject matter and diction.

In a way, though, Whitman is not so unique. His preference for the quotidian links him with both Dante, who was the first to write poetry in a vernacular language, and with Wordsworth, who famously stated that poetry should aim to speak in the “language of ordinary men.” Unlike Wordsworth, however, Whitman does not romanticize the proletariat or the peasant. Instead he takes as his model himself. The stated mission of his poetry was, in his words, to make “an

attempt to put a Person, a human being (myself, in the latter half of the 19th century, in America) freely, fully, and truly on record.” A truly democratic poetry, for Whitman, is one that, using a common language, is able to cross the gap between the self and another individual, to effect a sympathetic exchange of experiences.

This leads to a distinct blurring of the boundaries between the self and the world and between public and private. Whitman prefers spaces and situations—like journeys, the out-of-doors, cities—t hat allow for ambiguity in these respects. Thus we see poems like “Song of the Open Road“ and “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry,” where the poet claims to be able to enter into the heads of others. Exploration becomes not just a trope but a mode of existence.

For Whitman, spiritual communion depends on physical contact, or at least proximity. The body is the vessel that enables the soul to experience the world. Therefore the body is something to be worshipped and given a certain primacy. Eroticism, particularly homoeroticism, figures significantly in Whitman?s poetry. This is something that g ot him in no small amount of trouble during his lifetime. The erotic interchange of his poetry, though, is meant to symbolize the intense but always incomplete connection between individuals. Having sex is the closest two people can come to being one merged individual, but the boundaries of the body always prevent a complete union. The affection Whitman shows for the bodies of others, both men and women, comes out of his appreciation for the linkage between the body and the soul and the communion that can c ome through physical contact. He also has great respect for the reproductive and generative powers of the body, which mirror the intellect?s generation of poetry.

The Civil War dimini shed Whitman?s faith in democratic sympathy. While the cause of the war nominally furthered brotherhood and equality, the war itself was a quagmire of killing. Reconstruction, which began to fail almost immediately after it was begun, further disappointed Whitman. His later poetry, which displays a marked insecurity about the place of poetry and the place of emotion in general (see in particular “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom?d“), is darker and more isolated.

Whitman?s style remains consistent throughout, however. The poetic structures he employs are unconventional but reflect his democratic ideals. Lists are a way for him to bring together a wide variety of items without imposing a hierarchy on them. Perception, rather than analysis, is the basis for this kind of poetry, which uses few metaphors or other kinds of symbolic language. Anecdotes are another favored device. By transmitting a story, often one he has gotten from another individual, Whitman hopes to give his readers a sympathetic experience, which will allow them to incorporate the anecdote into their own history. The kind of language Whitman uses sometimes supports and sometimes seems to contradict his philosophy. He often uses obscure, foreign, or invented words. This, however, is not meant to be intellectually elitist but is instead meant to signify Whitman?s status as a unique individual. Democracy does not necessarily mean sameness. The difficulty of some of his language also mirrors the necessary imperfection of connections between individuals: no matter how hard we try, we can never completely understand each other. Whitman largely avoids rhyme schemes and other traditional poetic devices. He does, however, use meter in masterful and innovative ways, often to mimic natural speech. In these ways, he is able to demonstrate that he has mastered traditional poetry but is no longer subservient to it, just as democracy has ended the subservience of the individual.

Whitman?s po etry reflects the vitality and growth of the early United States. During the nineteenth century, America expanded at a tremendous rate, and its growth and potential seemed

limitless. But sectionalism and the violence of the Civil War threatened to break apart and destroy the boundless possibilities of the United States. As a way of dealing with both the population growth and the massive deaths during the Civil War, Whitman focused on the life cycles of individuals: people are born, they age and reproduce, and they die. Such poems as “When Lilacs Last in the Doory ard Bloom?d” imagine death as an integral part of life. The speaker of “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom?d” realizes that flowers die in the winter, but they rebloom in the springtime, and he vows to mourn his fallen friends every year just as new buds are appearing. Describing the life cycle of nature helped Whitman contextualize the severe injuries and trauma he witnessed during the Civil War—linking death to life helped give the deaths of so many soldiers meaning.

Throughout his poetry, Whitman praised the individual. He imagined a democratic nation as a unified whole composed of unique but equal individuals. “Song of Myself” opens in a triumphant paean to the individual: “I celebrate myself, and sing myself” (1). Elsewhere the speaker of that exuberant poem identifies himself as Walt Whitman and claims that, through him, the voices of many will speak. In this way, many individuals make up the individual democracy, a single entity composed of myriad parts. Every voice and every part will carry the same weight within the single democracy—and thus every voice and every individual is equally beautiful. Despite this pluralist view, Whitman still singled out specific individuals for praise in his poetry, particularly Abraham Lincoln. In 1865, Lincoln was assassinated, and Whitman began composing several elegies, including “O Captain! My Captain!” Although all individuals were beautiful and worthy of praise, some individuals merited their own poems because of their contributions to society and democracy.

Whi tman?s poetry revels in its depictions of the human body and the body?s capacity for physical contact. The speaker of “Song of Myself” claims that “copulation is no more rank to me than death is” (521) to demonstrate the naturalness of taking pleasure in t he body?s physical possibilities. With physical contact comes spiritual communion: two touching bodies form one individual unit of togetherness. Several poems praise the bodies of both women and men, describing them at work, at play, and interacting. The s peaker of “I Sing the Body Electric” (1855) boldly praises the perfection of the human form and worships the body because the body houses the soul. This free expression of sexuality horrified some of Whitman?s early readers, and Whitman was fired from his job at the Indian Bureau in 1865 because the secretary of the interior found Leaves of Grass offensive. Whitman?s unabashed praise of the male form has led many critics to argue that he was homosexual or bisexual, but the repressive culture of the nineteenth century prevented him from truly expressing those feelings in his work.

Many of Whitman?s poems rely on rhythm and repetition to create a captivating, spellbinding quality of incantation. Often, Whitman begins several lines in a row with the same word or phrase, a literary device called anaphora. For example, the first four lines of “When I Heard the Learn?d Astronomer” (1865) each begin with the word when. The long lines of such poems as “Song of Myself” and “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom?d” fo rce readers to inhale several bits of text without pausing for breath, and this breathlessness contributes to the incantatory quality of the poems. Generally, the anaphora and the rhythm transform the poems into celebratory chants, and the joyous form and structure reflect the joyousness of the poetic content. Elsewhere, however, the repetition and rhythm contribute to an elegiac tone, as in “O Captain! My Captain!” This poem uses short lines and words, such as heart and father,to mournfully incant an

elegy for the assassinated Abraham Lincoln.

Throughout Whitman?s poetry, plant life symbolizes both growth and multiplicity. Rapid, regular plant growth also stands in for the rapid, regular expansion of the population of the United States. In “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom?d,” Whitman uses flowers, bushes, wheat, trees, and other plant life to signify the possibilities of regeneration and re-growth after death. As the speaker mourns the loss of Lincoln, he drops a lilac spray onto the coffin; the act of laying a flower on the coffin not only honors the person who has died but lends death a measure of dignity and respect. The title Leaves of Grass highlights another of Whitman?s themes: the beauty of the individual. Each leaf or blade of grass possesses its own distinct beauty, and together the blades form a beautiful unified whole, an idea Whitman explores in the sixth section of “Song of Myself.” Multiple leaves of grass thus symbolize democracy, another instance of a beautiful whole composed of individual parts. In 1860, Whitman published an edition of Leaves of Grass that included a number of poems celebrating love between men. He titled this section “The Calamus Poems,” after the phallic calamus plant.

Whitman?s interest in the self ties into his praise of the individual. Whitman links the self to the conception of poetry throughout his work, envisioning the self as the birthplace of poetry. Most of his poems are spoken from the first person, using the pronoun I. The speaker of Whitman?s most famous poem, “Song of Myself,” even assumes the name Walt Whitman, but nevertheless the speaker remains a fictional creation employed by the poet Whitman. Although Whitman borrows from his own autobiography for some of the speaker?s experiences, he also borrows many experiences from popular works of art, music, and literature. Repeatedly the speaker of this poem exclaims that he contains everything and everyone, which is a way for Whitman to reimagine the boundary between the self and the world. By imaging a person capable of carrying the entire world within him, Whitman can create an elaborate analogy about the ideal democracy, which would, like the self, be capable of containing the whole world.

Song of Myself

(Excerpt)

1

I celebrate myself, and sing myself,

And what I assume you shall assume,

For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.

I loafe and invite my soul,

I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.

My tongue, every atom of my blood, form'd from this soil, this air,

Born here of parents born here from parents and their parents the same,

I, now thirty-seven years old in perfect health begin,

Hoping to cease not till death.

Creeds and schools in abeyance,

Retiring back a while sufficed at what they are, but never forgotten,

I harbor for good or bad, I permit to speak at every hazard,

Nature without check with original energy.

2

Houses and rooms are full of perfumes, the shelves are crowded with perfumes,

I breathe the fragrance myself and know it and like it,

The distillation would intoxicate me also, but I shall not let it.

The atmosphere is not a perfume, it has no taste of the distillation, it is odorless,

It is for my mouth forever, I am in love with it,

I will go to the bank by the wood and become undisguised and naked,

I am mad for it to be in contact with me.

The smoke of my own breath,

Echoes, ripples, buzz'd whispers, love-root, silk-thread, crotch and vine,

My respiration and inspiration, the beating of my heart, the passing of blood and air through my lungs,

The sniff of green leaves and dry leaves, and of the shore and dark-color'd sea- rocks, and of hay in the barn,

The sound of the belch'd words of my voice loos'd to the eddies of the wind,

A few light kisses, a few embraces, a reaching around of arms,

The play of shine and shade on the trees as the supple boughs wag,

The delight alone or in the rush of the streets, or along the fields and hill- sides,

The feeling of health, the full-noon trill, the song of me rising from bed and meeting the sun. Have you reckon?d a thousand acres much? Have you reckon?d the earath much?

Have you practis?d so long to learn to read?

Have you felt so proud to get at the meeting of poems?

Stop this day and night with me and you shall possess the origin of all poems,

Y ou shall possess the good of the earth and sun, (there are millions of suns left,

Y ou shall no longer take things at second or third hand, nor look through the eyes of the dead, nor feed on the spectres in books,

Y ou shall not look through my eyes either, nor take things from me,

Y ou shall listen to all sides and filter them from your self.

Notes:

1.Strictly speaking, in “Song of Myself”, Whitman is not writing about himself. Many of the

experiences recorded in the poem are purely imaginary. His aim is to embrace the whole human experience by means of imaginative sympathy, which Whitman possessed to an extraordinary degree, and enables him to identify himself with all sorts and conditins of men.

He fraternies with all; their interests are his. All men and women, moreover, are potentially equal in the sight of Whitman. “Song of Myself” is perhaps the most thoroughly democratic poem in American literature. His style is simple and natural, without such ornaentiatin as conventioanl rime or meter, hence it must have an organic growth like a perfect animal or tree, in which each part is propotional and harmonious with the whole.

2.celebrate: to praise and honor

3.assume: to take as true

4.loafe: to spend time in idleness

5.invite my soul: (elliptical) invite my soul to loaf with me

6.creeds and schools: sets of fundmental religious beliefs and teachings of a great teacher

followed by a group of scholars

7.in abeyance: being suspended

8.retiring back a while: to withdraw a while

9.sufficed: satisfied

10.harbor: to hold in mind

11.at every hazard: regardless of whatever the danger may be

12.without check: without restraint

13.distillation: distilate, the product from distillation

14.love-root, silk-thread: names of plants

15.belch?d words: suddenly issued words

16.loos?d: to free from trstrain

17.a reaching round of arms: arms touching when embrace

18.in the rush of: streets where thronging people move quickly

19.full-noon trill: the music in the middle of the day

20.recken: to regard

21.stop: to remain

22.take things at second or third hand: to take things indirectly from others

Emily Dickinson (1830-1886)

Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was an American poet. Born in Amherst, Massachusetts, to a successful family with strong community ties, she lived a mostly introverted and reclusive life. After she studied at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth, she spent a short time at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before returning to her family's house in Amherst. Thought of as an eccentric by the locals, she became known for her penchant for white clothing and her reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, even leave her room. Most of her friendships were therefore carried out by correspondence.

Although Dickinson was a prolific private poet, fewer than a dozen of her nearly eighteen hundred poems were published during her lifetime. The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time. Dickinson's poems are unique for the era in which she wrote; they contain short lines, typically lack titles, and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and punctuation. Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends.

Although most of her acquaintances were probably aware of Dickinson's writing, it was not until after her death in 1886—when Lavinia, Emily's younger sister, discovered her cache of poems—that the breadth of Dickinson's work became apparent. Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, both of whom heavily edited the content. A complete and mostly unaltered collection of her poetry became available for the first time in 1955 when The Poems of Emily Dickinson was published by scholar Thomas H. Johnson. Despite unfavorable reviews and skepticism of her literary prowess during the late 19th and early 20th century, critics now consider Dickinson to be a major American poet.

Emily Dickinson is now considered a powerful and persistent figure in American culture. Although much of the early reception concentrated on Dickinson's eccentric and secluded nature, she has become widely acknowledged as an innovative, pre-modernist poet. As early as 1891, William Dean Howells wrote that “If nothing else had come out of our life but this strange poetry,

we should feel that in the work of Emily Dickinson, America, or New England rather, had made a distinctive addition to the literature of the world, and could not be left out of any record of it.” Twentieth-century critic Harold Bloom has placed her alongside Walt Whitman, Wallace Stevens, Robert Frost, T. S. Eliot, and Hart Crane as a major American poet.

There's a certain slant of light

There's a certain slant of light,

On winter afternoons,

That oppresses, like the weight

Of cathedral tunes.

Heavenly hurt it gives us;

We can find no scar,

But internal difference

Where the meanings are.

None may teach it anything,

'Tis the seal, despair,-

An imperial affliction

Sent us of the air.

When it comes, the landscape listens,

Shadows hold their breath;

When it goes, 't is like the distance

On the look of death.

Notes:

1.Emily Dickinson is preoccupled with death, as the gateway to the next existence. Death was

taken as a special glory that had something in common with the paradise offered in the hymn and sermons of her day. Death means leisure, grandeur, recognition.

2.Heft: weight, powerful mighty.

3.cathedral tunes: chuch hymns.

4.seal Despair: an official mark and an official sign of confirmation of despair.

5.imperial affliction: imperial pertaining to emperor, meaning the greatness of suffering.

6.sent us of the Air: Air here means heaven. The imperial affliction is sent to us by heavenly

kingdom.

Success

Success is counted sweetest

By those who ne'er succeed.

To comprehend a nectar

Requires sorest need.

Not one of all the purple host

Who took the flag to-day

Can tell the definition,

So clear, of victory!

As he, defeated, dying,

On whose forbidden ear

The distant strains of triumph

Burst agonized and clear!

Notes:

The speaker says that “those who ne?er succeed” place the highest value on success. (They “count” it “sweetest”.) To understand the value of a nectar, the speaker says, one must feel “sorest need.” She says that the members of the victorious army (“the purple Host / Who took the flag today”) are not able to define victory as well as the defeated, dying man who hears from a distance the music of the victors. The three stanzas of this poem take the form of iambic trimeter—with the exception of the first two lines of the second stanza, which add a fourth stress at the end of the line. (Virtually all of Dickinson?s poems are written in an iambic meter that fluctuates fluidly between three and four stresses.) As in most of Dickinson?s poems, the stanzas here rhyme according to an ABCB scheme, so that the second and fourth lines in each stanza constitute the stanza?s o nly rhyme.

Hope

Hope is the thing with feathers

That perches in the soul,

And sings the tune--without the words,

And never stops at all,

And sweetest in the gale is heard;

And sore must be the storm

That could abash the little bird

That kept so many warm.

I've heard it in the chillest land,

And on the strangest sea;

Yet, never, in extremity,

It asked a crumb of me.

Notes:

The speaker describes hope as a bird that perches in the soul. There, it sings wordlessly and without pause. The song of hope s ounds sweetest “in the Gale,” and it would require a terrifying storm to ever “abash the little Bird / That kept so many warm.” The speaker says that she has heard the bird of hope but never, no matter how extreme the conditions, did it ever ask for a single crumb from her. Like almost all of Dickinson?s poems, …Hope? takes the form of an iambic trimeter that often expands to include a fourth stress at the end of the line. Like almost all of her poems, it modifies and breaks up the rhythmic flow with long dashes indicating breaks and pauses. The stanzas, as in most of Dickinson?s lyrics, rhyme loosely in an ABCB scheme, though in this

poem there are some incidental carryover rhymes: “words” in line three of the first stanza rhymes with “heard” and “Bird” in the second; “Extremity” rhymes with “Sea” and “Me” in the third stanza, thus, technically conforming to an ABBB rhyme scheme.

I'm nobody! Who are you?

I'm nobody! Who are you?

Are you nobody, too?

Then there's a pair of us — don't tell!

They'd banish us, you know.

How dreary to be somebody!

How public, like a frog

To tell your name the livelong day

To an admiring bog!

Notes:

The speaker exclaims that she is “Nobody,” and asks, “Who are you? / Are you— Nobody—too?” If so, she says, then they are a pair of nobodies, and she admonishes her addressee not to tell, for “they?d banish us—you know!” She says that it would be “dreary” to be “Somebody”—it would be “public” and require that, “like a Frog,” one tell one?s name “the livelong June—/ To an admiring Bog!” The two stanzas of “I?m Nobody!” are highly typical for Dickinson, constituted of loose iambic trimeter occasionally including a fourth stress. They follow an ABCB rhyme scheme (though in the first stanza, “you” and “too” rhyme, and “know” is only a half-rhyme, so the scheme could appear to be AABC), and she frequently uses rhythmic dashes to interrupt the flow.

外国文学史之浪漫主义文学概述

外国文学史之浪漫主义文学概述 一、浪漫主义思潮的产生： 1.浪漫主义思潮是法国大革命和欧洲民主、民族解放运动高涨时期的产物，浪漫主义的主导特征是表现自我、抒发主观情感。 2.浪漫主义与当时欧洲一些国家的政治时局有着一定关系。19世纪前30年，法国政治领域出现了资产阶级自由主义思潮，贡斯当和斯达尔夫人是其中的代表人物。自由主义思潮中强调的个人独立、极端自由成为19世纪浪漫主义文学的核心。 3.德国古典哲学为浪漫主义文学奠定了哲学基础。 4.浪漫主义：浪漫主义作为文学创作的方法和艺术风格，从艺术产生之日起就已存在，早在古希腊时期的《荷马史诗》中就开始运用。至于中世纪的骑士传奇则与浪漫主义有直接渊源。近代的浪漫主义概念源于中世纪的“罗曼司”，指中世纪的骑士生活、骑士与贵妇的爱情故事和风流韵事等。文艺复兴时期，塔索、斯宾塞的叙事诗继承了罗曼司的不少特点。到18世纪下半叶，浪漫主义一词开始在英德法流行开来，在文学传统上浪漫主义与18世纪启蒙文学，特别是伤感主义文学有紧密联系。德国的“狂飙突进”运动被认为是浪漫主义的前奏，而英国兴起的伤感主义则被称为前浪漫主义。 二、浪漫主义文学基本特征： 作为一个具有共同社会历史背景和哲学理论基础的文艺流派，欧洲浪漫主义文学具有以下一些共同特征： 1、首先，强调主观感情，注重抒发自我。这是浪漫主义文学最突出、最本质的特征。浪漫主义作家都认为古典主义所宣扬的理性对文艺创作是一种束缚，于是强调创作自由，把情感和想象提到首要的地位，华兹华斯在《抒情歌谣集·序》中声称“诗歌是强烈情感的自然流露”。因此，浪漫主义文学的主要成就是诗歌。 2、其次，推崇想象力。浪漫主义作家在创作中抒发自我情感时，其笔下大胆的想象也着实令人折服。比如雪莱在致友人葛德文的信中对自己的才能评价道：“我一向认为我自己的才能就是在于这一点：在于同情心，在于跟感情和深思相互联系的那种想象力。”所以在浪漫主义文学中，作家可以在作品中驰骋想象、尽情发挥，天上人间无所不写。 3、再次，热爱大自然、赞美大自然。由于资本主义物质文明和城市工业化的丑恶，浪漫主义作家响应卢梭“回到自然”和18世纪伤感主义文学“返回自然”的口号，着力描写自然景物，描绘山岭、湖泊、海洋和森林，抒发作家对大自然的感受。在他们笔下，充满了对城市文明的诅咒，往往同城市生活的丑恶、庸俗卑下只是为了衬托大自然的美和崇高，借以寄托对自由的理想。例如湖畔派的诗歌、普希金的《茨冈》、《致大海》等。现在，浪漫主义作家创作的歌颂、赞美大自然的作品已成为生态批评笔下的热门话题。 4、第四，重视中世纪的民间文学，提出“回到中世纪”的口号。“浪漫主义”一词本来就是由中世纪的浪漫传奇演变来的，浪漫主义文学也是从搜集中世纪民间文学开始的。由于中世纪民间文学不受古典主义的清规戒律的束缚，想象丰富、情感真挚、表达方式自由、语言通俗，这些特点正符合浪漫主义的理想追求。此外，中世纪民间文学充分体现了各国民族文化传统，为广大群众所喜闻乐见，有助于唤起民族的觉醒。因此，由于浪漫派作家的倡导，民间文学对革新当时文学内容和形式都起了重大作用。 5、第五，夸张的手法、强烈地对比、离奇的情节。这是浪漫主义文学在艺术形式和表现手法上最鲜明的特点。雨果就是对比艺术的倡导者和大师，他在《克伦威尔序言》中提出了著名的美丑对照原则：“丑就在美的旁边，畸形靠近着优美，崇高的背后藏着粗俗，善与恶并存，黑暗与光明相共。”这样，强烈地对比，离奇的情节，鲜明夸张的人物形象，神话色彩以及奇特的异域情调和平凡的日常景象的交织、对照，就构成了浪漫主义文学艺术上的鲜明特征。

浪漫主义时期音乐特点

西方音乐史论文 一个充满神奇音乐的时代浪漫主义时期音乐特点

目录 浪漫主义时期音乐特点简述 (2) 浪漫主义与古典主义音乐的不同 (2) 浪漫主义时期的主要代表人物 (3) 浪漫主义音乐特点总结 (3)

浪漫主义时期音乐特点 关于音乐，人们一直都在探讨它的奥秘和美妙，当第一次听到《小夜曲》，便被其中的婉转、悠扬与空灵所吸引，它源于西方浪漫主义时期——一个充满神奇音乐的时代。浪漫主义乐派是继维也纳古典乐派后出现的一个新的流派，浪漫主义产生于法国大革命以后的社会的和政治的动乱之中，它支配着十九世纪的艺术。这个时期艺术家的创作上则表现为对主观感情的崇尚，对自然的热爱和对未来的幻想。艺术表现形式也较以前有了新的变化，出现了浪漫主义思潮与风格的形成与发展。 浪漫主义时期音乐特点简述 浪漫主义音乐善于表现个人的感情和幻想，尤其强调个人主义的体验。他们热衷于反映内心最强烈情感的爱情主题；倾心于带自传性的，不满现状的忧郁，孤独者的精神。在描绘自然景色及现实形象时，也更强调主观色彩的印记。作曲家不同程度地倾心于标题音乐，其构思常常以文学、诗歌、戏剧、绘画、特性舞蹈等其他姊妹艺术的内容为基础，甚至为强调表现意图而加添明确的标题。所采用的形式载体也为了与标题性内容相符而突破传统的模式，创造出许多综合性或形式灵活的体裁。 同时，浪漫主义音乐有着对本民族历史文化及民间音乐的强烈兴趣。这反映了19 世纪欧洲民族意识的觉醒。表现在一些长期倍受欺凌的国家和民族（如波兰、捷克、匈牙利）等国家的“民族乐派”先后成立。和这些国家的民族解放运动紧密呼应。在音乐创作的题材方面，盛行采用民间歌谣及民间故事为主题。在追求更加个性化、情感化表现技巧的过程中，诸多民族民间音乐的色彩影响到旋律特征、调式和声与节奏节拍的独特处理。 浪漫主义与古典主义音乐的不同 浪漫主义音乐与古典主义音乐所不同的是，它承袭古典乐派作曲家的传统，在此基础上也有了新的探索。如强调音乐要与诗歌、戏剧、绘画等音乐以外的其他艺术相结合，提倡一种综合艺术；提倡标题音乐；强调个人主观感觉的表现，作品常常带有自传的色彩；作品富于幻想性，描写大自然的作品很多，因为大自然很平静，没有矛盾，是理想的境界；重视戏剧，研究民族、民间的音乐文学，从中吸取营养，作品具有民族特色。 在艺术形式和表现手法上，是继承古典乐派，但内容上却有很大的差异，夸张的手法也使用的特别多。在音乐形式上，它突破了古典音乐均衡完整的形式结构的限制，有更大的自由性。单乐章题材的器乐曲繁多，主要是器乐小品，如即兴曲、夜曲、练习曲、叙事曲、幻想曲、前奏曲、无词曲以及各种舞曲——玛祖卡、圆舞曲、波尔卡等。在众多的器乐小品中，钢琴小品居多。声乐的作品中出现了大量的艺术歌曲，并将诸多的声乐小品串联起来形成套曲，如舒伯特《美丽的磨坊女》、《冬之旅》等，就是浪漫主义音乐派创新的艺术题材。和声是表现浪漫主义色彩的重要工具，不谐和音的扩大和自由使用，7和弦和9和弦以及半音法和转调在乐曲里的经常出现，扩大了和声范围及表现功，增强了和声的色彩。作曲家创立了

美国浪漫主义时期诗歌

Chapter 2 Literature of American Romanticism A Brief Introduction The American Romantic period is considered one of the most important periods, the first literary Renaissance, in the history of American literature. It stretches from the end of the eighteenth century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It started with the publication of Washington Irving's The Sketch Book and ended with Whitman's Leaves of Grass. American romantic literature is best explained by referring to certain stirring events of American national history. Historically, it was the time of western expansion. The western boundary had reached to the Pacific by 1860; the number of states had increased from the original thirteen at the time of independence to twenty-one by the middle of the 19th century; its total population increased from four million people in 1790 to thirty million in 1860. Economically, the whole nation was experiencing an industrial transformation, which affected American people's lives. The growth of industrialization helped restructure economic life. The sudden influx of immigration gave a big push to the booming industry. Politically, democracy and political equality became the ideals of new nation, and the two-party system came into being. Literarily and culturally, the new nation needed to express its own experiences: their early Puritan settlements, their confrontations with the Indians, their frontiersmen's life, and the wild west. Besides, the ever-increasing numbers of newspapers, magazines, journals and books reviews provided a great market. All these produced a strong sense of optimism for American romanticism. This surging romanticism also had support abroad. In Europe, the Romantic Movement which had flourished earlier in the century both in England and Europe added incentive to the growth of Romanticists in America. The American writers who traveled to Europe and kept in touch with European Romanticism were greatly influenced. Washington Irving was the most important. The greatest benefit for Irving during his travels in Europe was his contact with Sir Walter Scott, one of the most important British writers of his period. Scott introduced Irving to the Tales of German Romances, upon which Irving wrote some of his best-known short stories. In addition, Scott's border tales and Waverley romances inspired such Americans as James Fenimore Cooper. The Gothic tradition and the cult of solitude and gloom came through interest in the works of writers like Mr. Radcliffe, E. T. A. Hoffman, James Thomson and the “graveyard” poets. Robert Burns and Byron both inspired and spurred the American imagination for lyrics and passion and despair. The impact of Wordsworth and Coleridge's Lyrical Ballads added, to some extent, to the nation's singing strength. American Romanticism was modeled on English and European works but exhibited from the very outset distinct features of its own. For instance, the American national experience of “pioneering” into the west proved to be a rich fount of material for American write rs to draw upon. Then, there is American Puritanism as a cultural heritage to consider. American moral values were essentially Puritan, and its influence over American Romanticism was conspicuously noticeable. American romantic authors tended more to moralize than their English and European brothers, and many American romantic writers intended to edify more than they entertained. Another thing merits attention with American Romanticism--the “newness” of America as a nation. The ideals of individualism and political equality, and the dream that America was to be a new Garden of Eden for man were distinctly American.

十九世纪浪漫主义文学

第六章十九世纪浪漫主义文学 一、单项选择题 1．德国最早的一个浪漫主义文学流派是（）。 A．海德堡浪漫派 B．耶拿派 C．湖畔派 D．“自然派” 2．1805年左右，德国一批作家在海德堡创办了《隐士板》形成的文学流派是（）。 A．耶拿派 B．湖畔派 C．海德堡浪漫派 D．“自然派” 3．德国第一次提出浪漫主义名称，并且系统阐述了期浪漫主义文学主张的作家是（）。 A．格林兄弟 B．施莱格尔兄弟 C．诺瓦利斯 D．蒂克 4．海涅结束了浪漫主义在德国文学的统治地位的论著是（）。 A．《<克伦威尔>序言》 B．《论浪漫派》 C．《拉辛和莎士比亚》 D．《拉奥孔》5．拉涅的早期代表作是（）。 A．《德国——一个冬天的神话》 B．《西里西亚的纺织工人》 C．《论浪漫派》 D．《罗曼采罗》 6．英国“湖畔派”中成就最高的诗人是（） A．华兹华斯 B．柯勒律治 C．骚塞 D．司各特 7．被恩格斯称为“天才的预言家”的英国浪漫主义诗人市（）。 A．拜伦 B．雪莱 C．济慈 D．华兹华斯 8．首先体现雪来“预言”的长诗是（）。 A．《麦布女王》 B．《伊斯兰起义》 C．《解放了的蒲罗米修斯》 D．《西风颂》9．名句“冬天来了，春天还会远吗？”出自《西风颂》，这首诗的作者是（）。 A．拜伦 B．雪莱 C．济慈 D．华兹华斯 10．司各特是19世纪前30年英国最主要的作家之一。1833年司各特的去世标志着（）。 A．英国浪漫主义的开始 B．英国浪漫主义的结束 C．英国现实主义的开始 D．英国现实主义的结束 11．《傲慢与偏见》的作家是（）。 A．司各特 B．济慈 C．哈代 D．奥斯丁 12．标志浪漫主义对古典主义的最后胜利的是剧作《欧那尼》的演出，这部剧作的作者是（）。 A．拜伦 B．雪莱 C．雨果 D．席勒 13．《阿达拉》和《勒内》两部中篇小说的作者是（）。 A．拉马丁 B．维尼 C．夏多布里昂 D．大仲马 14．法国文学中第一个“世纪病”的形象是（）。 A．欧那尼 B．勒内 C．夏克塔斯 D．黛尔菲娜 15．两部有自传性的小说《黛尔菲娜》和《柯丽娜》的作者是（）。 A．夏多布里昂 B．乔治·桑 B．史达尔夫人 D．小仲马 16．《论文学》和《论德国》这两部重要的理论著作的作者( )。 A．海涅 B．史达尔夫人 C．诺瓦利斯 D．蒂克 17．法国19世纪前期写有《意弗教国王》的具有民主主义倾向的诗人是（）。 A．拉马丁 B．维尼 C．缪塞 D．贝朗瑞 18．被成为法国的“莎士比亚”，写有自传体小说《世纪儿的忏悔》作家是（）。 A．乔治·桑 B．拉马丁 C．缪塞 D．雨果 19．法国浪漫派的领袖是（）。

英国浪漫主义诗人

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11 浪漫主义时期音乐特点11

目录 浪漫主义时期音乐特点简述 (2) 浪漫主义与古典主义音乐的不同 (2) 浪漫主义时期的主要代表人物 (3) 浪漫主义音乐特点总结 (3)

浪漫主义时期音乐特点 关于音乐，人们一直都在探讨它的奥秘和美妙，当第一次听到《小夜曲》，便被其中的婉转、悠扬与空灵所吸引，它源于西方浪漫主义时期——一个充满神奇音乐的时代。浪漫主义乐派是继维也纳古典乐派后出现的一个新的流派，浪漫主义产生于法国大革命以后的社会的和政治的动乱之中，它支配着十九世纪的艺术。这个时期艺术家的创作上则表现为对主观感情的崇尚，对自然的热爱和对未来的幻想。艺术表现形式也较以前有了新的变化，出现了浪漫主义思潮与风格的形成与发展。 浪漫主义时期音乐特点简述 浪漫主义音乐善于表现个人的感情和幻想，尤其强调个人主义的体验。他们热衷于反映内心最强烈情感的爱情主题；倾心于带自传性的，不满现状的忧郁，孤独者的精神。在描绘自然景色及现实形象时，也更强调主观色彩的印记。作曲家不同程度地倾心于标题音乐，其构思常常以文学、诗歌、戏剧、绘画、特性舞蹈等其他姊妹艺术的内容为基础，甚至为强调表现意图而加添明确的标题。所采用的形式载体也为了与标题性内容相符而突破传统的模式，创造出许多综合性或形式灵活的体裁。 同时，浪漫主义音乐有着对本民族历史文化及民间音乐的强烈兴趣。这反映了 19 世纪欧洲民族意识的觉醒。表现在一些长期倍受欺凌的国家和民族（如波兰、捷克、匈牙利）等国家的“民族乐派”先后成立。和这些国家的民族解放运动紧密呼应。在音乐创作的题材方面，盛行采用民间歌谣及民间故事为主题。在追求更加个性化、情感化表现技巧的过程中，诸多民族民间音乐的色彩影响到旋律特征、调式和声与节奏节拍的独特处理。 浪漫主义与古典主义音乐的不同 浪漫主义音乐与古典主义音乐所不同的是，它承袭古典乐派作曲家的传统，在此基础上也有了新的探索。如强调音乐要与诗歌、戏剧、绘画等音乐以外的其他艺术相结合，提倡一种综合艺术；提倡标题音乐；强调个人主观感觉的表现，作品常常带有自传的色彩；作品富于幻想性，描写大自然的作品很多，因为大自然很平静，没有矛盾，是理想的境界；重视戏剧，研究民族、民间的音乐文学，从中吸取营养，作品具有民族特色。 在艺术形式和表现手法上，是继承古典乐派，但内容上却有很大的差异，夸张的手法也使用的特别多。在音乐形式上，它突破了古典音乐均衡完整的形式结构的限制，有更大的自由性。单乐章题材的器乐曲繁多，主要是器乐小品，如即兴曲、夜曲、练习曲、叙事曲、幻想曲、前奏曲、无词曲以及各种舞曲——玛祖卡、圆舞曲、波尔卡等。在众多的器乐小品中，钢琴小品居多。声乐的作品中出现了大量的艺术歌曲，并将诸多的声乐小品串联起来形成套曲，如舒伯特《美丽的磨坊女》、《冬之旅》等，就是浪漫主义音乐派创新的艺术题材。和声是表现浪漫主义色彩的重要工具，不谐和音的扩大和自由使用，7和弦和9和弦以及半音法和转调在乐曲里的经常出现，扩大了和声范围及表现功，增强了和声的色彩。作曲家创立了多乐章的标题交想曲和单乐章的标题交响诗，这是浪漫主义音乐的重要的形式。 古典主义和浪漫主义交替出现，甚至在开始就同时并存，是因为它们符合了人的自然本性的两种基本动力：一方面，人需要节制，要求那种经过净化和受控制的感情；另一方面，人又要求无拘束地表现感情，渴求未知的和不可得的事物。十九世纪的音乐是和梦想与激情、生与死的深刻思想、人类的命运、神与大自然、对自己祖国的骄傲、对自由的期望、当时的政治斗争以及善对恶的最后胜利联系在一起的。由浪漫主义运动引起的这些理智上和感情上

浅谈中西方浪漫主义文学中的理想问题(一)

浅谈中西方浪漫主义文学中的理想问题(一) 〔论文关键词〕浪漫主义社会理想生活理想人物理想 〔论文摘要〕浪漫主义文学在世界文学史上一直占据着很重要的地位，各国人们在表达心中对于未来美好理想的作品中都充满了浓郁的浪漫主义色彩。但在大方面相似的同时，他们又各具时代特色和国域特色。本文试从比较中西方浪漫主义文学中的理想问题入手，分别从社会理想，生活理想，人物理想三个方面阐述了中西方浪漫主义的不同以及其原因。 西方浪漫主义文学浪潮主要是产生于十九世纪二、三十年代，是十九世纪一个重要的文学流派，其源头可以追述到古希腊时期。中国的浪漫主义文学要比西方早几百年，有很多理论体系并不完善，但其对整个中国文学史的影响是不可磨灭的。浪漫主义文学最主要的特征是抒发个人主观情感、展望未来美好理想。中西方浪漫主义作家，都在不同程度上展现了他们心 中对于未来的美好理想，但在大方面相似的同时，他们又各具时代特色和国域特色。 一、社会理想——脱离人间的桃花源与现实世界的乌托邦 中国关于社会理想的描述，从先秦时期开始就已存在。屈原在《离骚》中，展现了其对于美好世界的向往；陶渊明在《桃花源记》中则是为人们塑造了一种与世隔绝的桃源仙境，在这里生活的人们，自耕自食，不问政事，“黄发垂髫，并怡然自乐”；作为中国浪漫主义文学的杰出代表的唐代诗人李白，更是在《梦留天姥吟留别》里，借梦境表达出自己所向往的仙人之境，一个相敬相爱，雍雍穆穆的极乐世界。 西方文艺复兴时期，法国作家拉伯雷在其小说《巨人传》里，向人们展现了一个美好的乌托邦蓝图——特莱美修道院，反映了当时在文艺复兴时期，新兴的资产阶级对于美好、和平、幸福生活的向往；在德国作家歌德的《浮士德》里，浮士德用生命建造的海滨乐园则是当时的启蒙思想家所梦想的理性王国的蓝图。 可以说，中国作家笔下的理想社会是一种脱离人间的桃花源，并没有具体展现；而西方作家笔下的理想社会，是建立在现实基础上的乌托邦，虽然是描绘的未来世界，但是却是描绘具体，蓝图清晰。这是由于当时时代所造成的。中国当时正处于封建社会统治时期，社会长期停滞，缺乏先进思想指导，因此古典浪漫主义作家很难具体描绘未来乌托邦社会，只能采用托古改制、游历仙境等间接方式展现他们心目中的理想社会。西方由于有很多先进的社会思想作指导，因此他们有可能具体展现乌托邦的理想社会，使读者读后能受到莫大的鼓舞。 二、生活理想——超自然的曲折幻想和坦率自信的直接追求 西方作家所描述的生活理想多是关于个人主体的幸福。文艺复兴时期，他们多是追求个性解放、爱情自由、婚姻幸福。在莎士比亚的早期作品中，就有大量是以歌颂生活、爱情为主题的。到了十九世纪，这种追求个人爱情幸福的生活理想逐渐升华成一种反封建、争取自由的事业理想。雪莱的长诗《伊斯兰的起义》塑造的革命夫妻莱昂和茜丝娜就是这一形象的典型代表。 中国作家对于生活理想的描述，更多的不是爱情，而是将笔触放到了追求功名利禄、叙述人伦上。这并不是说中国文人的生活理想中没有爱情，《牡丹亭》和《孔雀东南飞》中那种令人刻骨铭心的爱情故事在中国文学作品中也有很多，但在这些爱情故事当中也会掺杂一些对功名利禄的追求。像《西厢记》中，莺莺的母亲不同意女儿和张生在一起，直到张生考取了 状元才默许这段婚事。 因此对于生活理想中的爱情，中国不如西方影响深远。这是因为在中国漫长的封建社会里，爱情婚姻历来是由父母、媒人包办，青年男女受到封建制度和思想的压制，几乎没有自由恋 爱的权利。所以在中国古代文学当中歌颂自由爱情的作品较少。 除了生活理想的内容、题材不同之外，中西方作家对于这种理想的表达方式也大相径庭。 中国古代作品表现生活理想时多是曲折含蓄，往往采用一些超自然的方式，富有浪漫主义色