中国现当代文学名词解释
1当代文学：指1949年新中国成立以来至今尚在延续的半个多世纪的文学，属于我国的断代文学史之一。中国当代文学既是中国古代文学和现代文学的发展延续，同时，它又是一个只有起点而没有终点的开放性的体系，是一个在新的时代条件下不断变革发展的全新的文学历程。
2十七年的文学：（1949-1966）实用主义和狂热政治激情的结合，英雄主义情绪高度发扬，二元对立的思维模式的普遍存在，以及民族主义热情占支配的情绪。
3文革“十年”文学：（1966-1976）：万马齐喑，百花凋零。沦为政治斗争工具的主流文学；传递弥足珍贵文学声音的非主流文学（地下文学）。
4新时期文学：（1976- ）
1976年10月粉碎四人帮。1977年8月十一大宣布“文革”以粉碎四人帮结束，并把文革之后的中国社会主义革命和建设成为“新时期”。文学界虽将文革之后的文学成为“新时期文学”。事实上，直到1978年5月1日《实践是检验真理的唯一标准》发表，才是新时期的真正到来。当代文学中最富有探索性的阶段。“五四”文学精神回归。文学充满了生机勃勃的创新精神，但文学的浮躁也不可忽视。
5复调：巴赫金在分析陀思妥耶夫斯基的小说时，提出“复调小说”的理论。他认为，陀氏创作的是一种“多声部性”的小说，是“有着众多的各自独立而不融合的声音和意识，由具有充分价值的不同声音组成的真正的复调”。“恰恰是在不同声音、不同意识相互交往的联接点上，思想才得以产生并开始生活”，所以“思想就其本质上来讲是对话的”。
6显性文学：即公开发表，进入了“印刷传媒”，处在流通地位，可以“正当”地、“合法”地拥有读者的作品。
7潜在写作：潜在写作：指17年和文革期间，许多被剥夺了正常写作权利的作家们的创作，包括他们当时不能发表的作品和本无发表预期的日记、书信等。如丰子恺的《缘缘堂续笔》，食指的诗，沈从文的家书等。“潜在写作”的相对概念是公开发表的文学作品，两者一起构成了时代文学的整体。
8反讽：是个中外现代小说中常见的—种叙述方式和美学效果。反讽简单讲就是说反话或反语，目的是造成幽默、讽刺或嘲弄效果。
9元小说：小说家在小说中提示和交代他是怎样在叙事、怎样在虚构，这被称为叙事的自我指涉，有自指性。在此，作者强制将读者带离想象，强制读者意识到叙事的虚构性和想像性。许多现代小说中都有这种叙事的自我指涉，或者也被称为元叙述，如博尔赫斯、卡尔维诺等人的小说。大量存在这种自我指涉的小说，理论家们就称它为元小说，或超小说、自反式小说等等
五六十年代
1第一次文代会： 1949年7月2日至19日，在北京召开了中华全国文学艺术第一次代表大会，出席代表824人，开幕式上，毛泽东、周恩来、朱德等先后讲话；最后，大会通过了《宣言》，确定了文艺为人民服务并首先是为工农兵服务的总方向，成立了中华全国文学艺术界联合会，选举郭沫若为主席，茅盾、周扬为副主席，会后又成立了全国文联下属的各个协会；这个大会揭开了中国文学艺术发展史新的一页，是中国当代文学的伟大开端。
2、百花文学： 1956年和1957年上半年，文学思想和创作出现了一些重要的变革。这在当时的“社会主义阵营”中，是带有普遍性的现象。在中国，毛泽东在1956年5月提出的“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的口号，给潜在于各个领域的强大的变革要求以推动和支持。
3、纪要：1966年2月，江青得到林彪的支持，并以林彪的名义在上海召开了“部队文艺工作座谈会”。会后形成了由江青、张春桥、陈伯达定稿，并由毛泽东审阅修改的《林彪同志委托江青同志召开的部队文艺工作座谈会纪要》。《纪要》共分十条内容，包括文艺黑线专政论、破除对中外古典文学的迷信、文艺上反对外国修正主义并点名批判了一批文艺作品。纪要以中央文件的形式下发全党，给以后的文艺界造成极大的祸害。1979年5月，中共中央批转中国人民解放军总政治部《关于建议撤销1966年2月部队文艺工作
座谈会纪要的请示》，同意撤销《纪要》。
4、非主流文学：指的是50-70年代，那些偏离或悖逆主流文学规范的主张和创作。（1）它是相对于不同阶段的那些被接纳、被肯定、被推崇的主张和创作而言，是个历史的感念。（2）非主流文学在一个高度一体化的文学语境里，处于受压制的地位。（3）非主流的异质文学的出现，在本时期呈现为阶段性的状况。如1956-1957年，1961-1962 或文革后期等。
5隐失诗人：在十七年，由于各种各样的原因（主要是政治原因）造成了一大批诗人/诗派停止创作，离开了诗坛。这些诗人/诗派被称为隐失的诗人/诗派。包括七月诗派、右派诗人、九叶诗人等。
八十年代
1方法年：1985年和1986，被人们习惯称之为“方法年”、“观念年”。在这一段时间，流行于当代西方的各种批评方法（形式主义批评、结构主义、现象学、接受美学、原型批评等）大规模介绍过来，并被批评家运用到批评实践中。
2新写实主义小说：新写实主义小说是批评家对某种创作倾向的概括。1989年《钟山》杂志主动倡导并提出这个名称，其卷首语中概括为“特别注重现实生活原生形态的还原，真诚直面现实，直面人生。”这一思潮较为公认的代表作家有：刘震云、方方、池莉、苏童、叶兆言、王安忆、刘恒等。作品：刘恒《伏羲伏羲》《狗日的粮食》；方方《风景》；池莉《烦恼人生》；刘震云《一地鸡毛》等。这些作品的共同特征是：主要描写下层人的生存状态和精神状态；拒绝传统现实主义典型化的手法，采取拉拉杂杂叙家常的手法；取消情节与情节之间的因果关系，造成无常化的生活流；采取零度叙事，叙事人以平淡冷漠的口吻讲述而不介入故事。
3、先锋小说（实验小说）：产生于20世纪80年代中期，以马原、莫言、残雪、格非、孙甘露、余华等为代表，在叙事革命、语言试验和生存状态三个层面同时进行大胆的创新和激进的试验。所谓先锋精神，就是以前卫的姿态探索存在的可能性以及与之相关的艺术的可能性，它以不避极端的态度对文学的共名状态形成强烈的冲击。先锋文学从某种程度上是对启蒙与人性的怀疑，打破了传统的文学规范，使得极端个人化的写作成为可能，对以后的文学创作影响较大。王蒙的《夜的眼》是先锋文学的发韧之作，刘索拉的《你别无选择》、张贤亮的《临街的窗》、莫言的《透明的红萝卜》、马原《冈底斯的诱惑》《虚构》《拉萨河的女人》；余华《十八岁出门远行》《四月三日事件》《现实一种》；残雪《山上的小屋》；格非《迷舟》等
4、伤痕文学：文革后，以刘心武的《班主任》和卢新华的《伤痕》为代表的一批旨在批判、揭露“文革”以及极左路线的罪恶性，揭示文革给人们带来巨大身心创伤的作品被称为伤痕文学。这些作品的共同主题体现在对文革的批判及揭露文革给人们造成的精神戕害，在艺术上都采用了能明确剖析社会问题的现实主义手法。如《神圣的使命》（王亚平）、《我该怎么办》（陈国凯）、《大墙下的红玉兰》（从维熙）、《天云山传奇》（鲁彦周）、《许茂和他的女儿们》（周克芹）、《血色黄昏》（老鬼）等。
5、反思文学：1979年的《人民文学》第二期刊登了茹志鹃的短篇小说《剪辑错了的故事》。以这篇小说的出现为标志。通过艺术概括，深刻地揭示出极左思潮和现代迷信给党和人民造成的巨大损失和严重后果，从不同方面总结了党的优良传统受到破坏的历史教训，启示人们思考产生历史悲剧的社会原因，以防悲剧重演的这类文学作品称为反思文学。伤痕文学是反思文学的源头，反思文学是伤痕文学的深入。如《内奸》（方之）、《李顺大造屋》（高晓声）、《剪辑错了的故事》（茹志鹃）、《布礼》（王蒙）、《人到中年》（谌容）、《芙蓉镇》（古华）等。
6、寻根小说（寻根文学）：以现代意识观照现实与历史，反思传统文化，重铸民族灵魂，探寻中国文化重建的可能性；作品题材和文化反思对象呈现鲜明的地域特点，在表现手段上既有中国传统文学的手法，又运用现代派的象征、暗示抽象等手法，丰富和加深作品的文化意蕴。代表作家有韩少功的《爸爸爸》、贾平凹的《商州初录》、阿城的《棋王》，、王安忆《小鲍庄》、李杭育《最后一个渔佬儿》、张承志《北方的河》
《黑骏马》等。
7 知青文学：80年代，“知青文学”是用来描述一种文学现象的概念，一般这一概念所指的范畴并不清晰，但总的来符合两个条件：作者是“文革”中上山下乡的知识青年；作品内容主要是关于知青在文革中的遭遇，也包括知青在后来的生活道路和思想感情。知青文学一般专指叙事体裁的创作，因而“知青文学”也常常成为“知青小说”。北岛、舒婷、芒克等创作的不是知青文学。知青作家主要有：孔捷生、郑义、叶辛、张承志、梁晓声、张抗抗、史铁生、张炜等。知青文学有明显的自叙传色彩。作品中常有较多的惶惑，与产生于寻求中的不安和焦虑。代表作品：张承志《北方的河》《黑骏马》；张抗抗《隐形伴侣》《北极光》；史铁生《我的遥远的清平湾》；梁晓声《这是一片神奇的土地》；路遥《平凡的世界》等等。
8．女性文学：女性文学研究本是一种西方的文学批评观念，它产生于80年代末的欧美。以美国的格蕾?格林和英国的科拉?卡普兰为代表的一批学者，企图“改写所有由男性文化体系衍生出来的种种规范、典律”，“揭开久经压抑、掩藏的躯体、无意识以及文化、语言中的深层欲望”；其分析方法则“结合了语言学结构主义理论、马克斯主义、心理分析和解构论”。我国的女性文学始于上世纪80年代，指的是关注女性生存状态与主体思想的文学作品，其作者不一定是女性。女性主义文学源于英美，带有女权主义色彩，代表人物如波夫瓦以女性关心话题为主题、面向女性读者的文学。
9、80年代报告文学的特征：①走向开放，是80年代文学的总体特征。②创作视角发生变化。作家不仅从文学、新闻的视角去反映生活，而且也从哲学、社会学、文化学等角度去观照对象。
③写作的群体性。代表作品：《恶魔导演的战争》（刘亚洲）、《挑战与机会》（陈祖芬）、《世界大串连》（胡平）、《国殇》（霍达）等。
10、“朦胧诗”——20世纪70年代末80年代初，文坛上涌动着一股崭新的诗潮，因章明发表《令人气闷的“朦胧”》一文而得名。其成员包括北岛、顾城、舒婷、杨炼、江河、芒克、多多、梁小斌等。他们从自我心灵出发，以象征、隐喻、通感等现代诗歌的艺术技巧创作了一批具有新的美学特点的诗歌。如北岛的《回答》顾城的《一代人》等。
11．九叶诗人：“九叶诗派”是40年代，由穆旦、唐祈、唐湜、陈敬容、郑敏、袁可嘉、辛迪、杜运燮、杭约赫等所构成的诗派。它在80年代“文学化石”的发掘运动中重新被发现，并因1981年出版《九叶集》获得了“九叶派”这一名称。九叶派的主要创作阵地是《诗创造》和《中国新诗》。他们强调反映现实与挖掘内心的统一，诗作视野开阔，具有强烈的时代感、历史感和现实精神。他们努力探索“现实主义”与中国现实的结合，为新诗发展做出了贡献。
12．七月派：在抗战时期和解放战争时期国统区重要的现实主义诗歌流派。七月派曾受艾青影响，以理论家兼诗人胡风为中心，胡风主编的《七月》及以后的《希望》《诗垦地》《泥土》等杂志为基本阵地。代表诗人有：阿垅、鲁藜、曾卓、绿原、牛汉等，也应包括艾青、田间及胡风。1981年出版了由绿原、牛汉选编的《白色花》。七月派强调诗歌中主观与客观的统一，主张正视现实，发扬主观战斗精神去能动地影响、改造现实，在艺术上打出了反对客观主义的旗帜。七月派多写自由诗，其中又以政治抒情诗为主。胡风的《为祖国而歌》、牛汉的《鄂尔多斯草原》、鲁藜的《泥土》等是七月派的代表作。
13 白洋淀诗群：1969年以后，一批北京的中学生先后到河北安县境内的白洋淀地区插队，形成了白洋淀诗派，主要诗人有：芒克、根子、多多等。有芒克《天只》《十月的献诗》根子《白洋淀》等等。他们的诗作现实了对于现实社会秩序，对暴力的批判，生命中迷惑、孤独和痛苦的体验。摆脱了主流意识形态话语的束缚，而回到自己的内心世界，更多的带有现代主义色彩。
14、“新生代”诗歌：又叫“第三代诗”“后朦胧诗”“后新诗潮”“后崛起”“当代试验诗”等。诗人多出生于60年代，创作于80年代。他们拒绝精英化、理想化、意识形态化的倾向，而提倡平民化、世俗化、个人化；拒绝“朦胧诗”的意象、象征、隐喻等表现手法，提倡口语化，诗中充满了了反讽，调侃黑色幽默。1986年“中国诗坛1986，现代诗群体大展”可视为“新生代”诗人在全国的集体登台亮相。
15、“新生代”诗人：80年代中期，由于社会生活的变化，诗歌创作的题材也发生了新的转移，加上“朦胧诗”的讨论和新潮诗歌长时间地吸引了人们的注意，一些“归来”诗人的创作渐趋沉寂。与此同时，推动新潮诗歌的一批青年诗人的后期创作，也更加热衷于艺术实验，迷恋抽象观念，因而也愈来愈远离现实
生活和读者的感性经验。加上其中的一些骨干力量先后脱离国内诗坛，或转向其他体裁的文学写作，“朦胧诗”的创作和讨论的浪潮也开始消歇。在这期间，从新潮诗歌内部孕育生成的一股新的更年轻的创作力量，开始登上诗坛。他们被称之为“新生代”诗人。
16归来(复出)诗人的概念：指在文革前因种种原因离开诗坛、又在新时期重返诗坛的一部分诗人。名得之于艾青诗集《归来的歌》他们主要包括三类人：一类是被错误打成“右派”的诗人，一类是“七月派”诗人，一类是“九叶诗人”。他们复出后的创作有一些共同的特征，如体现“归来”主题、理性思辩色彩较强等。
九十年代
1．改革小说：改革小说把目光投入到现实生活领域，在伤痕和反思过后呼唤改革。蒋子龙在这方面尤为突出，连续发表了《乔厂长上任记》《开拓者》《赤橙黄绿青蓝紫》，另外李国文《花园街五号》；张贤亮《龙种》；张洁《沉重的翅膀》；贾平凹《浮躁》手术与改革小说之列。
2、女性主义小说：指80年代中期以后出现的我国女性作家描写女性独特的社会、情感经历、带有鲜明女性性别特征的小说。对女性的自我认同与男权话语的抗拒是其中心价值取向。代表作家有林白、陈染等。3河北“三驾马车”：谈歌、何申、关仁山，三驾马车”对90年代文学的贡献：对浓郁的时代感和强烈的生活气息的敏锐捕捉与成功表现。塑造了一系列具有当下感和典型性的人物形象。代表作品：《大厂》（谈歌）、《大雪无乡》（关仁山）、《信访办主任》（何申）
4、“新状态”：“新状态”的重要特征是“告别”，“它写的是90年代中国社会经济和文化变迁所导致的人的生存和情感的当下状态”。代表作品有刘心武的《风过耳》、王蒙的《恋爱的季节》等。
美国文学名词解释
1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
美国文学史复习提纲 名词解释
I. Explain the following literary terms(名词解释). 1. Romanticism The most profound and comprehensive idea of romanticism is the vision of a greater personal freedom for the individual. Appeals to imagination; Stress on emotion rather than reason; optimism, gen iality. Subjectivity: in form and meaning. 2 American transcendentalism American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains. 3 Realism: ―nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.‖ the Civil war a. verisimilitude of details derived from observation b. representative in plot, setting and character c. an objective rather than an idealized view of human experience or（American Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.） 4. Modernism like modernism in general is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. The general term covers many political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century with its core period between World War I and World War II and continuing into the 21st century. 5、American Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the Protestant Church. The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them. They were a group of serious, religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles. As the word itself hints, Puritans wanted to purity their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace form God. As a culture heritage, Puritanism did have a profound influence on the early American mind. American Puritanism also had a enduring influence on American literature. 6、Transcendentalism: In New England, an intellectual movement known as transcendentalism developed as an American version of Romanticism. The movement began among an influential set of authors based in Concord, Massachusetts and was led by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Like Romanticism, transcendentalism rejected both 18th century rationalism and established religion, which for the transcendentalists meant the Puritan tradition in particular. The transcendentalists celebrated the power of the human imagination to commune with the universe and transcend the limitations of the material world. They found their chief source of inspiration in nature. Emerson’s essay Nature was the major document of the transcendental school and stated the ideas that were to remain central to it. 7、Free verse: free verse is the rhymed or unrhymed poetry composed without attention to conventio nal rules of meter. Free verse was first written and labeled by a group of French poets of the late 19th century. Their purpose was to deliver poetry from the restrictions of formal metrical patterns and to recreate the free rhythms of natural speech. Walt Whitman was the precursor who wrote lines of varying length and cadence, usually not rhymed. The emotional content or meaning of the work was expressed through its rhythm. Free verse has been characteristic of the work of many modern American poets, including Ezra Pound and Carl Sandburg. 8、Naturalism: A more deliberate kind of realism in novels, stories and plays, usually involving a view of human beings as passive victims of natural forces and social environment. Naturalism was a new and harsher realism. It
国际经济学名词解释
国际经济学复习 相对价格：商品之间价格关系的动态反映，专指两种或多种商品之间由供给与需求作用所形成的价格比例关系。在国际贸易中所交换的商品价格之间的比例关系。它体现交换双方的贸易利益。 比较优势：所谓比较优势是指一国在绝对优势基础上的相对较大的优势，在绝对劣势基础上的相对较少的劣势。比较优势主张以各国生产成本或相对差异为基础进行专业化分工，并通过国家贸易获得利益的一种国际贸易理论。比较优势实际上取决于劳动生产率的相对水平。一国在劳动生产率相对较高的部门或产品上具有比较优势。 边际替代率：在保持同等效用水平的条件下，消费者增加一单位某种商品的消费可以代替的另一种商品的消费量。它是无差异曲线的斜率。通常，由于生产过程中投入的生产要素是不完全替代的，随着一种生产要素数量的增加，该要素对另外一种要素的边际替代率是递减的。 边际技术替代率：在维持产量水平不变的条件下，增加一单位某种生产要素投入量时所减少的另一种要素的投入量，在只有两种要素劳动L和资本K 的情况下，边际技术替代率MRTS可以记做：MRTSLK=-△K/△L 机会成本：机会成本是指在一国资源达到充分利用时，要增加某一产品的生产，必须放弃另一种产品生产的数量。 边际成本：每一单位新增生产的产品（或者购买的产品）带来到总成本的增量。 规模经济：由于生产专业化水平的提高等原因，使企业的单位成本下降，从而形成企业的长期平均成本随着产量的增加而递减的经济。 倾销：在不同国家市场间进行的一种价格歧视行为。它是指出口商以低于本国国内价格或成本的价格向国外销售商品的行为。构成依据：1进口国生产同类型产品的企业是否受到低价进口品的冲击，以致其市场份额明显减少。2进口国生产同类型产品的企业的利润水平是否明显降低。3在低价进口品的冲击下，进口国的同类产业是否难以建立起来。持续性/掠夺性 最佳关税：使本国福利达到最大的关税水平。确定条件：进口国由征收关税所引起的额外损失（边际损失）与额外收益（边际收益）相等。 幼稚产业:某种由于技术经验不足、劳动生产率低下、产品成本高于世界市场价格，因而无法与国外产业竞争，但在关税、补贴等保护措施下继续生产一段时间，经过一段时间的生产能够在自由贸易条件下获利，达到其他国家水平而自立，形成比较优势并良性发展的产业。某一产业处于发展初期，基础和竞争力薄弱但经过适度保护能够发展成为具有潜在比较优势的新兴产业。 贸易创造:国际贸易理论与实践中指两个或两个以上国家间结成关税同盟后，因取消关税降低了贸易商品的价格，使产品从成本较高的国内生产转向成本较低的贸易对象国生产，本国从贸易对象国进口。由于国际经济一体化组织成员国之间相互取消了关税和与关税具有同等效力的其他措施，造成了他们相互之间贸易规模的扩大和福利水平的提高。贸易转移:两个或两个以上国家间的关税同盟建立后，成员国的部分进口商品将从低成本供应国(非成员国)转向高成本供应国(成员国)。对进口国是福利损失。 国际收支：在一定时期内（通常为一年）一国居民与世界其他国家居民之间的全部经济交易的系统记录。主要目的：使政府当局了解本国（地区）的对外经济交往状况，从而为制定相应的经济管理政策提供信息和依据。 马歇尔-勒纳条件：表明如果一国处于贸易逆差中，即Vx
美国文学名词解释
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.
美国文学简史名词解释定义
American Puritanism: Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England in the late sixteenth century. Under siege from church and crown, it sent an offshoot in the third and forth decades of the seventeenth century to the northern English colonies in the New World--- a migration that laid the foundation for the religious, intellectual, and social order of New England, Puritanism, however,was not only a historically specific phenomenon coincident with the founding of New England; it was also a way of being in the world---a style of response to lived experience---that has reverberated through American life ever since. Doctrinally, Puritans adhered to the Five Points of Calvinism as codified at the Synod of Dort in 1619:(1) unconditional election ( the idea that God had decreed who was damned and who was saved from before the beginning of the world); (2) limited atonement ( the idea that Christ died for the elect only); (3) total depravity (humanity's utter corruption since the Fall); (4) irresistible grace (regeneration as entirely a work of God, which cannot be resisted and to which the sinner contributes nothing); and (5) the perseverance of the saints (the elect, despite their backsliding and faintness of heart , cannot fall away from grace). American Dream: The American Dream is the faith held by many in the United States of America that through hard work, courage, and determination one can achieve a better life for oneself, usually through financial prosperity. These were values held by many early European settlers, and have been passed on to subsequent generations. Nowadays the American Dream has led to an emphasis on material wealth as a measure of success and\ or happiness. Gothic tradition: Gothic novel or Gothic romance is a story of terror and suspense, usually set in a gloomy old castle or monastery. In an extended sense, many novels that do not have a medievalized setting, but which share a comparably sinister, grotesque, or chaustrophobic atmosphere have been classed as Gothic. It contributed to the new emotional climate of Romanticism. Historical novel: a novel in which the action takes place during a specific historical period well before the time of writing ( often one or two generations before, sometimes several centuries), and in which some attempt is made to depict accurately the customs and mentality of the period. The central character---real or imagined---is usually subject to divided loyalties within a larger historic conflict of which readers know the outcome. The pioneers of this genre were Walter Scott and James Fenimore Cooper American Romanticism:Romanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. The romantic period in American literature stretched from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil
国际经济学之名词解释
国际经济学之名词解释 Chapter 3 1.Absolute advantage（绝对优势）:A country has an absolute advantage in a production of a good if it has a lower unit labor requirement(aLW 单位产品劳动投入) than the foreign country in this good. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1215446530.html,parative Advantage（相对优势）: A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other goods is lower in that country than it is in other countries. 3.Opportunity Cost（机会成本）：The opportunity cost of roses in terms of computers is the number of computers that could be produced with the same resources as a given number of roses. 4.The unit labor requirement： the number of hours of labor required to produce one unit of output, such as aLW (wine) and aLC (cheese) 5.Production Possibilities frontier（生产可能性边界）： The production possibility frontier (PPF) of an economy shows the maximum amount of a good (say wine) that can be produced for any given amount of another (say cheese). Chapter 4 1.Abundant factor: the resource of which a country has a relatively large supply(labor in home,land in foreign) 2.Biased expansion of production possibilities: when the production possibility frontier shifts out much more in one direction than in the other. 3.Equalization of factor prices: when Home and Foreign trade, the relatives prices of goods converge. This convergence, in turn, causes convergence of the relative prices of land and labor. 4.Heckscher-Ohlin theory: It shows that comparative advantage is influenced by Relative factor abundance (refers to countries) and Relative factor intensity (refers to goods)It is also referred to as the factor-proportions theory. 5.Scarce factor: in that country, and the resource of which it has a relatively small supply( land in Home, labor in foreign)