Academic Phrasebank Personal
The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It makes explicit the more common phraseological ‘nuts and bolts’ of academic writing.
Academic Phrasebank
A compendium of commonly used phrasal elements in academic English in PDF format
2014b edition
Personal Copy
Dr John Morley
PDF Download version ?2014 The University of Manchester
Preface
The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide the phraseological ‘nuts and bolts’ of academic writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation. Other phrases are listed under the more general communicative functions of academic writing.
The resource was designed primarily for academic and scientific writers who are non-native speakers of English. However, native speaker writers may still find much of the material helpful. In fact, recent data suggests that the majority of users are native speakers of English.
The phrases, and the headings under which they are listed, can be used simply to assist you in thinking about the content and organisation of your own writing, or the phrases can be incorporated into your writing where this is appropriate. In most cases, a certain amount of creativity and adaptation will be necessary when a phrase is used.
The Academic Phrasebank is not discipline specific. Nevertheless, it should be particularly useful for writers who need to report their empirical studies. The phrases are content neutral and generic in nature; in using them, therefore, you are not stealing other people's ideas and this does not constitute plagiarism.
In the current PDF version, additional material, which is not phraseological, has been incorporated. These additional sections should be helpful to you as a writer.
Contents
Introduction: About Academic Phrasebank 4 - 5
Major Sections
Introducing work 7 – 12 Referring to literature 13 - 18 Describing methods 19 - 22 Reporting results 23 - 26 Discussing findings 27 - 30 Writing conclusions 31 - 34 General Functions
Being critical 36 - 38 Being cautious 39 - 41 Classifying and listing 42 - 43 Compare and contrast 44 - 45 Defining terms 46 - 47 Describing trends 48 Describing quantities 49 Explaining causality 50 - 51 Giving examples as support 52 - 53 Signalling transition 54 - 55 Writing about the past 56 - 57 Notes on Academic Writing
Academic style 59 - 61 Commonly confused words 62 - 63 British and US spelling 64 Punctuation 65 Using articles 66 - 67 Sentence structure 68 - 69 Paragraph structure 70 Helpful tips for writers 71 - 72
About Academic Phrasebank
Theoretical Influences
The Academic Phrasebank largely draws on an approach to analysing academic texts originally pioneered by John Swales in the 1980s. Utilising a genre analysis approach to identify rhetorical patterns in the introductions to research articles, Swales defined a ‘move’ as a section of text that serves a specific communicative function (Swales, 1981,1990). This unit of rhetorical analysis is used as one of the main organising sub-categories of the Academic Phrasebank. Swales not only identified commonly-used moves in article introductions, but he was interested in showing the kind of language which was used to achieve the communicative purpose of each move. Much of this language was phraseological in nature.
The resource also draws upon psycholinguistic insights into how language is learnt and produced. It is now accepted that much of the language we use is phraseological in nature; that it is acquired, stored and retrieved as pre-formulated constructions (Bolinger, 1976; Pawley and Syder, 1983). These insights began to be supported empirically as computer technology permitted the identification of recurrent phraseological patterns in very large corpora of spoken and written English using specialised software (e.g. Sinclair, 1991). Phrasebank recognises that there is an important phraseological dimension to academic language and attempts to make examples of this explicit.
Sources of the phrases
The vast majority of phrases in this resource have been taken from authentic academic sources. The original corpus from which the phrases were ‘harvested’ consisted of 100 postgraduate dissertations completed at the University of Manchester. However, phrases from academic articles drawn from a broad spectrum of disciples have also been, and continue to be, incorporated. In most cases, the phrases have been simplified and where necessary they have been ‘sifted’ from their particularised academic content. Where content words have been included for exemplificatory purposes, these are substitutions of the original words. In selecting a phrase for inclusion into the Academic Phrasebank, the following questions are asked:
?does it serve a useful communicative purpose in academic text?
?does it contain collocational and/or formulaic elements?
?are the content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) generic in nature?
?does the combination ‘sound natural' to a native speaker or writer of English?
When is it acceptable to reuse phrases in academic writing?
In a recent study (Davis and Morley, 2013), 45 academics from two British universities were surveyed to determine whether reusing phrases was a legitimate activity for academic writers, and if so, what kind of phrases could be reused. From the survey and later from in-depth interviews, the following characteristics for acceptability emerged. A reused phrase:
?should not have a unique or original construction;
?should not express a clear point of view of another writer;
?depending on the phrase, may be up to nine words in length; beyond this 'acceptability' declines;
?may contain up to four generic content words (nouns, verbs or adjectives which are not bound to a specific disciplinary domain).
Some of the entries in the Academic Phrasebank, contain specific content words which have been included for illustrative purposes. These words should be substituted when the phrases are used. In the phrases below, for example, the content words in bold should be substituted: ?X is a major public health problem, and the cause of .....
?X is the leading cause of death in western-industrialised countries.
The many thousands of disciplinary-specific phrases which can be found in academic communication comprise a separate category of phrases. These tend to be shorter than the generic phrases listed in Academic Phrasebank, and typically consist of noun phrases or combinations of these. Acceptability for reusing these is determined by the extent to which they are used and understood by members of a particular academic community.
Further work
Development of the website content is ongoing. In addition, research is currently being carried out on the ways in which experienced and less-experienced writers make use of the Academic Phrasebank. Another project is seeking to find out more about ways in which teachers of English for academic purposes make use of this resource.
References
?Bolinger, D. (1976) ‘Meaning and memory’. Forum Linguisticum, 1, pp. 1–14.
?Davis, M. and Morley, J. (2013) 'Use your own words: Exploring the boundaries of plagiarism'.
In EAP within the higher education garden: Cross-pollination between disciplines,
departments and research, John Wrigglesworth (Ed.). Proceedings of the BALEAP Conference, Portsmouth 2011. Reading: Garnet Education.
?Hopkins, A. & Dudley-Evans, A. (1988). ‘A genre-based investigations of the discussions sections in articles and dissertation’. English for Specific Purposes, 7(2), 113-122.
?Pawley, A. and Syder, F.H. (1983). ‘Two puzzles for linguistic theory: nativelike selection and nativelike fluency’. In: Richards, J.C. and Schmidt, R.W. (Eds.), Language and Communication, pp. 191-226. Longman: New York.
?Sinclair, J. (1991) Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
?Swales, J. (1981). Aspects of article introductions (Aston ESP Research Report No. 1).
Birmingham: Language Studies Unit: University of Aston.
?Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Major sections
Writing Introductions
There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or short paper. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:
?establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic
?indicate an issue, problem, or controversy in the field of study
?define the topic or key terms
?state of the purpose of the essay/writing
?provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing
Introductions to research articles and dissertations tend to be relatively short but quite complex. Some of the more common moves include:
?establishing the context, background and/or importance of the topic
?giving a brief synopsis of the relevant literature
?indicating a problem, controversy or a knowledge gap in the field of study
?establishing the desirability of the research
?listing the research questions or hypotheses
?providing a synopsis of the research method(s)
?explaining the significance or value of the study
?defining certain key terms
?providing an overview of the dissertation or report structure
?explaining reasons for the writer's personal interest in the topic
Examples of phrases which are commonly employed to realise these functions are listed below. Note that there may be a certain amount of overlap between some of the categories under which the phrases are listed.
Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society
X is a fundamental property of ….
X is fast becoming a key instrument in ….
X is a common disorder characterised by ….
X plays an important role in the maintenance of ….
Xs are the most potent anti-inflammatory agents known.
X is a major public health problem, and the main cause of ….
Xs are one of the most rapidly declining groups of insects in ....
In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ….
X is the leading cause of death in western-industrialised countries.
Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and ….
X is increasingly recognised as a serious, worldwide public health concern.
X is an important component in the climate system, and plays a key role in Y.
In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in …. Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline
A key aspect of X is ….
X is a classic problem in ….
A primary concern of X is ….
X is at the heart of our understanding of ….
X is an increasingly important area in applied linguistics.
Investigating X is a continuing concern within ….
Central to the entire discipline of X is the concept of ….
X and Y have been an object of research since the 1960s
X is a major area of interest within the field of ….
The issue of X has received considerable critical attention.
X has been studied by many researchers using ….
One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is … Establishing the importance of the topic (time frame given)
One of the most important events of the 1970s was ….
Traditionally, Xs have subscribed to the belief that ….
Recent developments in X have heightened the need for ….
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ….
Recent trends in X have led to a proliferation of studies that ....
Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ….
Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ….
The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ….
The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of ….
Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in ….
X proved an important literary genre in the early Y community.
The changes experienced by Xs over the past decade remain unprecedented.
Xs are one of the most widely used groups of Y and have been extensively used for …. Synopsis of literature
Previous studies have reported ….
Recent evidence suggests that ….
Several attempts have been made to ….
Studies of X show the importance of ….
A number of researchers have reported ….
Recently investigators have examined the effects of X on Y.
Factors found to be influencing X have been explored in several studies.
In the past two decades a number of researchers have sought to determine ….
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies …. Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1988) showed that ….
The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with ….
There have been a number of longitudinal studies involving X that have reported ….
Xs were reported in the first models of Y (e.g., Smith, 1977; Smith and Patel, 1977). What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how …. Smith (1984: 217) shows how, in the past, research into X was mainly concerned with …. Highlighting a problem
However, a major problem with this kind of application is ….
Lack of X has existed as a health problem for many years.
However, these rapid changes are having a serious effect on ….
Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks:
However, research has consistently shown that these students lack ….
There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ….
Despite its long clinical success, X has a number of problems in use.
Questions have been raised about the safety of prolonged use of ….
Along with this growth in X, however, there is increasing concern over ….
Highlighting a controversy in the field of study
To date there has been little agreement on what ….
One major issue in early X research concerned ….
The issue has grown in importance in light of recent ….
One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ….
Questions have been raised about the safety of prolonged use of ….
Debate continues about the best strategies for the management of ….
In many Xs, a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ….
This concept has recently been challenged by X studies demonstrating ….
The debate about X has gained fresh prominence with many arguing that ….
More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about ….
One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is ….
One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years concerns ….
The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century.
The causes of X have been the subject of intense debate within the scientific community. The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of ….
In the literature on X, the relative importance of Y has been subject to considerable debate. Highlighting inadequacies of previous studies
Researchers have not treated X in much detail.
Previous studies of X have not dealt with ….
Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether ….
Most studies in the field of X have only focused on ….
Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about …. Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they ….
The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y.
Research on the subject has been mostly restricted to limited comparisons of ….
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y.
However, few writers have been able to draw on any systematic research into …. However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature ….
However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if …. Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which ….
X’s analysis does not take account of …. nor does she examine ….
Highlighting a knowledge gap in the field of study
What is not yet clear is the impact of X on ….
No previous study has investigated X .
There has been little quantitative analysis of ….
The neurobiological basis of this X is poorly understood.
Until recently, there has been no reliable evidence that ….
In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ….
Little is known about X and it is not clear what factors ….
This indicates a need to understand the various perceptions of X that exist among ….
So far this method has only been applied to ….
So far, however, there has been little discussion about ….
However, far too little attention has been paid to ….
However, the evidence for this relationship is inconclusive ….
However, much uncertainty still exists about the relation between ….
However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in …. In contrast, very little is known about X in non-mammalian vertebrates and in ….
Although While Whilst some research has
been carried out on X,
no single study exists which ….
no studies have been found which ….
no controlled studies have been reported.
only two studies have attempted to investigate ….
the mechanism by which …. has not been established.
there have been few empirical investigations into …..
there is very little scientific understanding of ….
Apart from Smith (2014), there is a general lack of research in ….
Despite this, very few studies have investigated the impact of X on ….
Several studies have produced estimates of X (Smith, 2002; Jones, 2003), but there is still insufficient data for ….
Indicating the focus, aim, argument of a short paper
This paper contests the claim that ….
This paper will review the research conducted on ….
This paper will focus on/examine/give an account of ….
This paper seeks to remedy these problems by analysing the literature of ….
This paper examines the significance of X in the rise of ….
This essay critically examines/discusses/traces ….
This account seeks to ….
In this paper I argue that ….
In the pages that follow, it will be argued that ….
This paper attempts to show that ….
In this essay, I attempt to defend the view that ….
The central thesis of this paper is that ….
The aim of the paper is to provide a conceptual theoretical framework based on….
The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into the ….
Stating the purpose of research
The major objective of this study was to investigate …..
The aim of this study was to clarify several aspects of ….
The aim of this study is to investigate the differences between X and Y.
The aim of this research project has therefore been to try and establish what ….
The main aim of this investigation is to assess the doses and risks associated with ….
The aim of this study is to shine new light on these debates through an examination of ….
The objectives of this research are to determine whether ….
The main purpose of this study is to develop an understanding of ….
This paper investigates the usefulness of ….
This thesis intends to determine the extent to which …. and whether ….
This thesis will examine the way in which the ….
This research examines the emerging role of X in the context of ….
This case study seeks to examine the changing nature of ….
This dissertation seeks to explain the development of ….
This dissertation aims to unravel some of the mysteries surrounding ….
This study systematically reviews the data for…., aiming to provide ….
Part of the aim of this project is to develop software that is compatible with ….
There are two primary aims of this study: 1. To investigate …. 2. To ascertain …. Drawing upon two stands of research into X, this study attempts to ….
One purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which these factors were ….
This study seeks to obtain data which will help to address these research gaps.
This study therefore set out to assess the effect of X …., and the effect of …. Research questions or hypotheses
The central question in this dissertation asks how ….
This research seeks to address the following questions:
In particular, this dissertation will examine six main research questions:
The hypothesis that will be tested is that ….
The key research question of this study was whether or not ….
This study aimed to address the following research questions:
Another question is whether ….
Synopsis of the research design, method, source(s) of data
Five works will be examined, all of which ….
Data for this study were collected using ….
This dissertation follows a case-study design, with in-depth analysis of ….
This study was exploratory and interpretative in nature.
The approach to empirical research adopted for this study was one of ….
The methodological approach taken in this study is a mixed methodology based on …. By employing qualitative modes of enquiry, I attempt to illuminate the ….
This work takes the form of a case-study of the ….
Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this investigation.
A combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches was used in the data analysis. Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide ….
A holistic approach is utilised, integrating X, Y and Z material to establish ….
The research data in this thesis is drawn from four main sources: ….
The study was conducted in the form of a survey, with data being gathered via …. Indicating significance
This project provided an important opportunity to advance the understanding of ….. This study provides an exciting opportunity to advance our knowledge of ….
This is the first study to undertake a longitudinal analysis of ….
The findings should make an important contribution to the field of …..
Therefore, this study makes a major contribution to research on X by demonstrating …. The study offers some important insights into ….
This study aims to contribute to this growing area of research by exploring ….
There are several important areas where this study makes an original contribution to …. Indicating limitations
The thesis does not engage with ….
Due to practical constraints, this paper cannot provide a comprehensive review of ….
It is beyond the scope of this study to examine the ….
The reader should bear in mind that the study is based on ….
Another potential problem is that the scope of my thesis may be too broad.
A full discussion of X lies beyond the scope of this study.
Giving reasons for personal Interest*
My main reason for choosing this topic is personal interest.
I became interested in Xs after reading ….
This project was conceived during my time working for X. As a medical advisor, I witnessed …
I have worked closely with X for many years and ….
It is my experience of working with X that has driven this research.
* sometimes found in the humanities, and the applied human sciences
Outlining the structure
The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c).
This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ….
The essay has been organised in the following way.
This paper reviews the evidence for ….
This paper begins by …. It will then go on to ….
The first section of this paper will examine ….
This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X.
My thesis is composed of four themed chapters.
The overall structure of the study takes the form of six chapters, including this introductory chapter. Chapter Two begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research, and looks at how …. The third chapter is concerned with the methodology used for this study.
The fourth section presents the findings of the research, focusing on the three key themes that …. Chapter 6 analyses the results of interviews and focus group discussions undertaken during ….
The remaining part of the paper proceeds as follows: ….
The final chapter draws upon the entire thesis, tying up the various theoretical and empirical strands in order to ….
…. and includes a discussion of the implication of the findings to future research into this area. Finally, the conclusion gives a brief summary and critique of the findings .
Finally, areas for further research are identified.
Explaining Keywords (refer to Defining Terms)
Throughout this paper, the term X will refer to ….
Throughout this dissertation, the term X will be used to refer to ….
In this article, the acronym/abbreviation XYZ will be used.
According to Smith (2002), X can be defined as follows: “….”
The term X is a relatively new name for …., commonly referred to as ….
While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ….
Referring to Literature
One of the distinguishing features of academic writing is that it is informed by what is already known, what work has been done before, and/or what ideas and models have already been developed. Thus, academic writers frequently make reference to external sources. In some cases, where the individual author is important, the author’s name will be the main subject of the sentence; in other cases, the source may only be mentioned in brackets ( …. ) or via a number notation system (e.g. footnotes and endnotes). The ‘author as subject’ style is less common in the empirical disciplines (sciences) and more commonly used in the humanities. The verbs and verb phrases typically used for referring to sources are listed below. Note that different referencing systems are used in different disciplines. In the examples given here, the Harvard in-text referencing system has been used.
The literature review: it is the purpose of the literature review section of a paper or dissertation to show the reader, in a systematic way, what is already known about the research topic as a whole, and to outline the key ideas and theories that help us to understand this. As well as being systematic, the review should be evaluative and critical of the studies or ideas which are relevant to the current work (refer to Being Critical). For example, you may think a particular study did not investigate some important aspect of the area you are researching, that the authors failed to notice a weakness in their methods, or that their conclusion is not well-supported.
A note on verb tenses: For general reference to the literature, the present perfect tense (have/has + verb + ed) tends to be used. For reference to specific studies carried out in the past, the simple past tense is most commonly used. This is always the case where a specific date or time in the past forms a part of the sentence. When referring to the words or ideas of writers, the present tense is often used if the ideas are still relevant, even if the author is no longer alive. The examples given below reflect these general patterns.
General descriptions of the relevant literature
A large and growing body of literature has investigated ….
More recent attention has focused on the provision of ….
Much of the current literature on X pays particular attention to ….
Over the past decade most research in X has emphasized the use of ….
There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of ….
In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on ….
The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
During the past 30 years, much more information has become available on ….
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies ….
The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with ….
What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how ….
General reference to previous research or scholarship: normally more than one author Traditionally, it has been argued that …. (Smith, 1982; O’Brien, 1984).
Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1988) have shown that ….
Many historians have argued that …. (e.g. Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994).
There is a consensus among social scientists that ….(e.g. Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; ….
Recent evidence suggests that …. (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001)
Recently, in vitro studies have shown that X can …. (Patel et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1998).
Several studies investigating X have been carried out on ….
Several attempts have been made to …. (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; ….).
Several studies thus far have linked X with Y (Smith, 2002; Jones 2004; ….).
Several studies have revealed that it is not just X that acts on ….. (Smith, 1996; Jones ….
Several biographies of Brown have been published. Smith (2013) presents …..
The geology of X has been addressed in several small-scale investigations and ….
Data from several sources have identified the increased X and Y associated with obesity. Previous studies have reported …. (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1992).
Previous research has indicated that various X indicators have a positive impact on ….
Previous research findings into X have been inconsistent and contradictory (Smith, 1996; ….) Numerous studies have attempted to explain …. (for example, Smith , 1996; Kelly, 1998; ….)
A number of authors have reported analyses of trends in X that demonstrated ….
A number of studies have found that …. (Smith , 2003; Jones, 2004).
A number of studies have examined X (e.g. Smith, 2003; Jones, 2005), but to date none has ….
Xs have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many species (1).
X has also been shown to reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of Y in murine-induced arthritis. Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between ….
At least 152 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between…..
Other studies have considered the relationship ….
The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987, ….
The causes of X have been widely investigated (Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994). Factors thought to be influencing X have been explored in several studies.
It has been suggested that levels of X are independent of the size of the Y (Smith et al., 1995).
It has conclusively been shown that X and Y increase Z (Smith et al., 1999; Jones, 2001 ….).
It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to …. (Smith, 1998; ….). Reference to current state of knowledge
There is an unambiguous relationship between X and Y (Rao, 1998).
X is one of the most intense reactions following CHD (Lane, 2003).
X has been found to oppose the anti-inflammatory actions of Y on Z (Alourfi, 2004).
A relationship exists between an individual’s working memory and their ability to …. (Jones, 2002). GM varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM varieties (Smith, 1998; Jones, 1999). Reference to single investigations in the past: researcher(s) as sentence subject
Smith (1999) found that as levels of literacy and education of the population rise …. showed that reducing X to 190o C decreased …. (see Figure 2) . demonstrated that when the maximum temperature is exceeded ….
Jones et al. (2001) investigated the differential impact of formal and non-formal education on …. analysed the data from 72 countries and concluded that ….
reviewed the literature from the period and found little evidence for this …..
interviewed 250 undergraduate students using semi-structured ….
studied the effects of X on unprotected nerve cells.
performed a similar series of experiments in the 1960s to show that ….
carried out a number of investigations into the ….
conducted a series of trials in which he mixed X with different quantities of ….
measured both components of the ….
labelled these subsets as ….
examined the flow of international students ….
identified parents of disabled children as ….
used a survey to assess the various ….
Wang et al. (2004) have recently developed a methodology for the selective introduction of …. Reference to single investigations or publications in the past: time frame prominent
In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described ….
In 1990, Patel et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to ….
Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of X which ….
In the 1950s, Gunnar Myrdal pointed to some of the ways in which …. (Myrdal, 1957)
In 1981, Smith and co-workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to ….
In 1990, Al-Masry et al. reported a new and convenient synthetic procedure to obtain ….
In 1984, Jones et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as ….
Reference to single investigations in the past: investigation prominent
Preliminary work on X was undertaken by Abdul Karim (1992).
The first systematic study of X was reported by Patel et al. in 1986.
The study of the structural behaviour of X was first carried out by Rao et al. (1986)…..
Analysis of the genes involved in X was first carried out by Smith et al (1983).
One study by Smith (2014) examined the trend in ….
A recent study by Smith and Jones (2012) involved ….
A longitudinal study of X by Smith (2012) reports that ….
A small scale study by Smith (2012) reaches different conclusions, finding no increase in ….
Smith’s cross-country analysis (2012) showed that ….
Smith’s comparative study (2012) found that ….
Detailed examination of X by Smith and Patel (1961) showed that ….
Brown’s (1992) model of X assumes three main ….
In an analysis of X, Smith et al. (2012) found ….
In an investigation into X, Smith et al. (2012) found ….
In another major study, Zhao (1974) found that just over half of the ….
In a study which set out to determine X, Smith (2012) found that ….
In a randomised controlled study of X, Smith (2012) reported that ….
In a large longitudinal study, Smith et al. (2012) investigated the incidence of X in Y.
In one well-known recent experiment, limits on X were found to be ….. (Al-Masry, 2013) Reference to single investigations in the past: research topic as main focus
To determine the effects of X, Zhao et al (2005) compared ….
X was originally isolated from Y in a soil sample from …. (Wang et al., 1952).
The electronic spectroscopy of X was first studied by Smith and Jones1 in 1970
X formed the central focus of a study by Smith (2002) in which the author found ….
X was first demonstrated experimentally by Pavlov (Smith, 2002). In his seminal study ….
The acid-catalyzed condensation reaction between X and Y was first reported by Smith in 1872
To better understand the mechanisms of X and its effects, Al-Masry (2013) analysed the ….
The way in which the X gene is regulated was studied extensively by Ho and colleagues (Ho et al. 1995 and 1998).
Reference to what other writers do in their text: author as subject
Smith (2013) identifies X, Y, and Z as the major causes of ….
Perez (2013) draws on an extensive range of sources to assess ….
Toh (2013) mentions the special situation of Singapore as an example of ….
Al-Masry (2013) uses examples of these various techniques as evidence that ….
Smith (2013) questions whether mainstream schools are the best environment for ….
Jones (2013) draws our attention to distinctive categories of X often observed in ….
Brown (2013) considers whether countries work well on cross-border issues such as ….
Smith (2013) discusses the challenges and strategies for facilitating and promoting ….
Jones (2013) provides in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle showing its relevance to ….
Rao (2013) lists three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are: …. Smith (2013) traces the development of Japanese history and philosophy during the 19th century. Smith (2013) defines evidence based medicine as the conscious, explicit and judicious use of ….. Rao (2013) highlights the need to break the link between economic growth and transport growth ….. By drawing on the concept of X, Smith has been able to show that ….
Drawing on an extensive range of sources, the authors set out the different ways in which ….
In Chapter 2, Smith provides us with a number of important ….
In the subsequent chapter, Smith examines the extent to which ….
Some analysts (e.g. Carnoy, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between ….
Other authors (see Harbison, 2003; Kaplan, 2004) question the usefulness of such an approach.
In her major study,
In her seminal article,
In her classic critique of ….,
In her case study of …,
In her review of ….,
In her analysis of ….,
In her introduction to ….,’
Smith (2012) identifies five characteristics of ….
Reference to another writer’s ideas or position (author as subject)
According to Smith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore ….
As noted by Smith (2003) X is far more cost effective, and therefore ….
Smith (2013) points out
argues
maintains
claims
concludes
suggests
that
preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore
better adapted to the developing world.
Smith (2013) argues for an explanatory theory for each type of irrational belief.
offers
proposes
suggests
Synthesising sources
Similarly, Nicoladis (2006) found that X ….
In the same vein, Smith (1994) in his book XYZ notes ….
This view is supported by Jones (2000) who writes that ….
Smith argues that her data support O’Brien’s (1988) view that ….
Al-Masry’s (1986) work on X is complemented by Smith’s (2009) study of ….
Almost every paper that has been written on X includes a section relating to ….
Unlike Smith, Jones (2013) argues that ….
In contrast to Smith, Jones (2013) argues that ….
A broader perspective has been adopted by Smith (213) who argues that …. Conversely, Wang (2010) reported no significant difference in mortality between X and Y.
Smith argues that ….
Al-Masry (2003) sees X as …. Similarly, Jones (2013) asserts that …. Likewise, Wang (2012) holds the view that ….
Some writers (e.g. Smith, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between ….
Some authors have mainly been interested in questions concerning X and Y (Smith, 2001; Jones ….)
Much of the available literature on X deals with the question of …. Others (see Jones, 2003; Brown, 2004) question the usefulness of ….
Others have highlighted the relevance of ….
But Smith (2008) is much more concerned with ….
Zhao (2002) notes that …. Smith (2013) found that X accounted for 30% of Y. However, Jennings’ (2010) study of Y found no …. Other researchers, however, who have looked at X, have found …. Jones (2010), for example, ….
Smith (2010) presents an X account, While Smith (2008) focusses on X, whilst Jones (2011) ….
Jones (2009) is more concerned with ….
Some ways of introducing quotations
Commenting on X, Smith (2003) argues: ‘…. ….’
As Smith argues: ‘In the past, the purpose of education was to ….’ (Smith , 2000:150).
As Carnoy (2004: 215) states: ‘there are many good reasons to be sceptical’.
In the final part of the Theses, Marx writes: ‘Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point ….’
Sachs concludes: ‘The idea of development stands today like a ruin in the intellectual landscape…’ (Sachs, 1992a: 156).
As Smith reminds us: ‘…. …. …. …. …. ‘
observes: ‘…. …. …. …. …. ‘
notes: ‘…. …. …. …. …. ‘
points out: ‘…. …. …. …. …. ‘
argues: ‘…. …. …. …. …. ‘
(Smith 2003: 23).
Summarising the review or parts of the review
Together, these studies outline that ….
Overall, these studies highlight the need for ….
Collectively, these studies outline a critical role for…
The evidence presented in this section suggests that ….
The studies presented thus far provide evidence that ….
Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that …. Together these studies provide important insights into the ….
In view of all that has been mentioned so far, one may suppose that ….
Describing Methods
In the Methods section of a dissertation or research article, writers give an account of how they carried out their research. The Methods section should be clear and detailed enough for another experienced person to repeat the research and reproduce the results. Where the methods chosen are new, unfamiliar or perhaps even controversial, or where the intended audience is from many disciplines, the Methods section will tend to be much more extensive. Typical stretches of text found in this section of a research article or dissertation along with examples of the kind of language used for these are listed below. Note that for most of the functional categories in this section, the verbs are written in the simple past tense.
Describing previously used methods
To date various methods have been developed and introduced to measure X:
In most recent studies, X has been measured in four different ways.
Traditionally, X has been assessed by measuring….
Different authors have measured X in a variety of ways.
Previous studies have based their criteria for selection on ….
The use of qualitative case studies is a well-established approach in ….
This test is widely available, and has been used in many investigational studies.
Case studies have been long established in X to present detailed analysis of ….
Recently, simpler and more rapid tests of X have been developed.
Radiographic techniques are the main non-invasive method used to determine ….
A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and drawbacks.
Data were gathered from multiple sources at various time points during ….
Giving reasons why a particular method was adopted or rejected
A case study approach was used to allow a ….
Qualitative methods offer an effective way of ….
A quantitative approach was employed since ….
The design of the questionnaires was based on ….
The X method is one of the more practical ways of ….
The semi-structured approach was chosen because ….
The X approach has a number of attractive features: ….
The second advantage of using the multivariate method is ….
For this study, the X was used to explore the subsurface ….
Smith et al. (1994) identify several advantages of the case study, ….
It was decided that the best method to adopt for this investigation was to ….
The study uses qualitative analysis in order to gain insights into ….
It was considered that quantitative measures would usefully supplement and extend the ….
Many of the distributions were not normal so non-parametric signed rank tests were run.
One advantage of the X analysis is that it avoids the problem of ….
The sensitivity of the X technique has been demonstrated in a report by Smith et al (2011). However, there are certain drawbacks associated with the use of ….
The main disadvantage of the experimental method is that ….
A major problem with the experimental method is that ….
There are certain problems with the use of focus groups. One of these is that there is less …. Indicating a specific method
X was prepared according to the procedure used by Patel et al. (1957).
The synthesis of X was done according to the procedure of Smith (1973).
X was synthesised using the same method that was detailed for Y, using ….