环境工程专业英语翻译(1)[1]

Unit 4 Environment Analysis

环境分析

Environmental analysis involves the performance of chemical, physical, and biological measurements in an environmental system.在一个环境系统里，环境分析包括化学、物理以及生物测量的性能。This system may involve either the natural or the polluted environment, although the term “environmental analysis” is increasingly used to refer only to situations in which measurements are made of pollutants.这一系统不仅包含自然环境还包括污染环境，但是环境分析这个术语正在越来越多地用于污染物的测量.

Normally, four types of measurements are made: qualitative analysis to identify the species; quantitative analysis to determine how much of the species is present; speciation or characterization to establish details of chemical form and the manner in which the pollutant is actually present (such as being adsorbed onto the surface of a particle): and impact analysis in which measurements are made for the specific purpose of determining the extent to which an environmental impact is produced by the pollutants in question.通常，测量有四种形式：定性分析，以确定目前的物种；定量分析，以确定有多少物种存在；形态或性质，确定目前污染物的详细的化学组分和方法（如被吸附到表面的粒子）；和影响分析中测量的具体目的是确定在何种程度的环境影响所产生的污染物问题。

The overall objective of environmental analysis is to obtain information about both natural and pollutant species present in the environment so as to make a realistic assessment of their probable behavior.环境分析的目的是为了制

造一个可行的现实的评估，去获得目前在环境中自然和污染物的种类的相关信息，以便根据它们大致上的生活习惯做出切实的评估.In the case of pollutants, this involves assessment of their actual or potential environmental impact, which may be manifest in several ways.有可能以多种方式显示出的污染物方面涉及到那些实际货物的评估或者潜在的环境影响。Thus, a pollutant species may present a toxicological hazard to plants or animals.因此，一个被污染的物种可能对植物或者动物造成危害。It may also cause contamination of resources (such as air, water, and soil) so that they cannot be utilized for other purposes.它可能也会引起资源上的污染（比如大气、水和土壤）以致他们没法利用于其他目的。The effects of pollutants on materials, especially building materials, may be another area of concern and one which is often very visible and displeasing (for example, the defacing of ancient statues by sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere).污染物对于原料的影响，特别是建筑材料，在某一区域是显然可见的，让人不愉快。（比如，大气中二氧化硫对古建筑的损害）A further area of environmental impact involves esthetic depreciation such as reduces visibility, dirty skies, and unpleasant odors.未来环境影响分析的领域将降低，比如能见度的下降、天空的污染和难闻的气味。Finally, it is important to recognize that an environmental impact may not always be discernible by normal human perception so that detection may require sophisticated chemical or physical analysis.最后，重要的是认识到以人类正常的知觉可能难以辨别出环境之间的冲突，以致发现需要高精度的化学或者物理分析。

In order to provide a meaningful description of the general field of environmental analysis, this field may be considered from three point pf view: the basic concepts underlying the reasons for and choice of the analysis which are normally performed; the available techniques and methodology commonly used; and the current status of capabilities in environmental analysis.为了提供环境分析的一般领域的一个意味深长的描述,这个领域也许从三个观点考虑：

强调分析的选择的原因为选择执行通常的基本概念; 常用的有价值的技术和方法; 和在当前状态下的环境分

析能力。

Some of the philosophical concepts which form the bases for environmental analyses are as follow.一些来自环境分析基础的哲学概念如下：

Purpose目的

Collection and analysis of an environmental sample may be undertaken for the purpose of research or monitoring, or as a spot check. 为了研究或监测，一个环境样品的收集和分析可能被快速进行。A spot check analysis is used to obtain rapid information about the approximate extent or nature of an environmental problem.快速监测分析常被用于获得一个环境问题的大概范围和性质的信息。

Authenticity真实性

Whatever the information being sought, it is vitally important to obtain an authentic sample which represents the particular system being investigated.无论什么被寻找的信息，得到代表被调查的特殊系统的一个可靠样品是极为重要。In fact, the ability to obtain an authentic sample is probably one of the most difficult aspects of any environmental analysis due to the considerable complexity and heterogeneity of most environmental systems.实际上，由于多数环境系统可观的复杂和非均匀性，获得一个可靠样品大概是所有环境分析最困难的方面之一。Detection limits察觉限制

A statement of the detection limits which can be attained by the analytical method being employed must always be included in providing the results of any environmental analysis. This is because considerable confusion exists about the meaning of a “zero” level of concentration. In fact, it is probably never possible to state that none of the atoms or molecules of the species in question are present so that no true zero exists.察觉限制的一种陈述是被使用的分析方式所尝试，必须总是被包含在提供所有环境分析结果里面。这是因为关于“0”浓度的含义存在相当大的混乱。事实上，这也许是不可能实现的：物种里面没有原子或分子，所以没有真正的“0”浓度存在。

Precision and accuracy精确性与准确性

In reporting an environmental analysis it is also necessary to specify the precision and accuracy associated with the measurements.在报道一个环境分析也需要确切的指明等测量相关的精确性和准确性。Thus, many environmental measurements involve comparison of results obtained in different systems or under different conditions (of temperature, time, pollutant concentration, and so on) in the same system so that it is necessary to establish whether two numbers which are different are in fact indicative of different conditions.这样，许多环境测量，包含获得不同系统或同一系统不同条件结果的比较，以至于，有必要找出两个不同类型数字在事实上是否不是不同条件的指示。

State of matter物质状态

In making an environmental analysis it is necessary to designate the physical form of the species being analyzed.

在决策环境分析，标明所分析物种的物理构成是有必要的。Most simply, this involves the actual state of matter in which the species exists (whether it is solid, liquid, or gas) since many species (both inorganic and organic) may exist concurrently in different states.最简单的，由于许多物种（包括无机和有机）可能存在同时存在不同的形式，这涉及到存在的物种（无论是固体，液体或气体）的实际存在形态的问题。For example, certain organic gases can exist either as gases or adsorbed onto the surface of solid particles, and the analytical procedures employed for determination of each form are quite different.例如，某些有机气体可作为气体或吸附表面的固体颗粒存在，而确定各种形式采用的分析程序是完全不同。

Element/compound distinction元素、化合物的区别

One of the most strongly emphasized aspects of environmental analysis involves the distinction between a chemical element and the chemical compound in which that element exists.环境分析中强调的一个重要方面涉及到化学元素和有元素存在化学物的区别。It is appropriate to establish the chemical form in which a given element exists in an environmental sample rather than simply to specify the fact that the element is present at a given concentration.它明

确地给出化学物在存在环境中的元素构成而不是简单给出元素现在的浓度。While such a concept is philosophically acceptable, analytical methodology has not reached the stage where specification of inorganic compounds preset at trace level can readily be achieved.当这样的概念在科学上被接受，分析方法还未达到很容易地精确测出无机化合物痕量存在的水平。

Particle surfaces颗粒表面

Where pollutant species are present in or associated with a condensed phase, it is sometimes necessary to establish whether the pollutant is part of the bulk system or present on its surface.污染物存在或联系凝结的状态,有时需要去确定污染物是否在体积内或存在它表面.Such a consideration is particularly meaningful since material present on the surface of an airborne particle, for example, comes into immediate contact with the external environment, whereas that which is distributed uniformly throughout the particle is effectively present at a much lower concentration and can exert a much lower chemical intensity at the particle surface.尤其意味深长的是因为物质存在与空中颗粒表面,例

如直接与外部环境接触,然而在颗粒表面分布均匀在整个颗粒是有效地呈现在更低浓度和可以发挥更低的化学活性.Since airborne particles can be inhaled, surface predominance can result in high localized concentrations of chemical species at the points of particle deposition in the lung.由于可以吸入空中的颗粒,表面控制可以导致肺部

颗粒沉积点化学物质局部浓度升高.

Availability有效性

While not one of the analyses normally performed by analytical chemists, determination of the availability of a chemical species is often necessary.虽然有效性分析通常不是由分析化学家进行的,但是确定化学物质的有效性是有必要的.To exert a meaningful environmental effect, a pollutant species must almost always enter solution.为了更好发挥环境效果,一个污染物必须总是进入溶液.For instance, toxic compounds associated with airborne particles must be dissolved by lung fluids before either a local or systemic effect can be produced.例如,有毒混合物和空中颗粒必须在产生局部或系统效果之前被肺液溶解.Thus, laboratory-scale simulation of the availability characteristics of a chemical species can provide a necessary link between its presence and its eventual impact.因此,实验室范围的化学物种有效性特征的模拟可以提供一个关于它的存在与最终影响之间的联系.

Environmental effect环境影响

The final link in the analytical/environmental effects chain involves determination of the actual environment effect produced.在分析环境影响的链子中,最后一个连接包含了实际产生环境影响的鉴定. In most cases, this involves some form of biological measurement or bioassay which determines the toxicological effect upon a biological organism.在大部分事件中,这包含了一些生物测定的形式或生物鉴定,以确定一个有机生物的毒性影响.Due to the expense, complexity, and time-consuming nature of bioassays, it is usual to substitute a chemical analysis for purposes of monitoring toxicological effects, and in setting standards for compliance.由于生物鉴定的花费,复杂性和耗时性，所以经常用化学分析代替监控毒理学的作用目的,同时要设定遵守的标准.In doing so, however, it is necessary to establish a so-called dose-response relationship between the level of one or more pollutant species and the degree of toxic impact.然而,这样做的同时,是有必要建立一个关于一个或多个污染物的级别与毒性影响等级之间的作用--反应关系,

Unit 5 Type and Sources of Air Pollutants

空气污染物的类型和来源

What is air pollution?Air pollution is normally defined as air that contains one or more chemicals in high enough concentration to harm humans, other animals, vegetation or materials.什么是空气污染？空气污染通常是指那种包含一种或多种化学物质富集到高浓度并足以伤害人类、其他动物、植物或材料的空气。There are two major types of air pollution.主要有两种类型的空气污染。A primary air pollution is a chemical added directly to the air that occurs in a harmful concentration.初级空气污染是指有害的浓度直接进入到空气中的化学物质。It can be a natural air component, such as carbon dioxide, that rise above its normal concentration, or something not usually found in the air, such as a lead compound emitted by cars burning leaded gasoline.这种化学物质可以是一个自然的空气成分，如超过了正常浓度的二氧化碳，，或通常不会在空气中发现的，如汽车燃烧含铅汽油所排放出来的主要尾气。A secondary air pollution is a harmful chemical formed in the atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air components.次生空气污染是指在大气中由气体成分之间发生化学反应的有害化学物质。Serious air pollution usually results over a city or other area that is emitting high levels of pollutants during a period of air stagnation.严重的空气污染通常是因为一个城市或其他地区在空气流动停滞期间排放了高浓度污染物。The geographic location of some heavily populated cities, such as Los Angeles and Mexico City, makes them particularly susceptible to frequent air stagnation and pollution buildup.一些人口稠密的城市的地理位置，例如洛杉矶和墨西哥城，使他们特别容易受到频繁的空气停滞和空气污染累积的影响。

We must be careful about depending solely on concentration values in determining the severity air pollutants.在仅从浓

度来决定严重空气污染物方面，我们必须十分小心。By themselves , measured concentrations tell us nothing about the danger caused by pollutants , because threshold levels , synergy, and biological magnification are also determining factors.通过测出的浓度自身并不能告知我们有关污染物所带来的危险的信息，因为临界浓度、协同作用还有生物放大效应都是决定因素。In addition, we run into the issue of conflicting views of what constitutes harm. 除此之外，我们碰到关于什么才构成危害的问题的争论。

Major air pollutants following are the 11major types of air pollutants.

以下11个主要类型的空气污染物是主要空气污染物：

1 .Carbon oxides: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide.

1. 碳氧化物：一氧化碳，二氧化碳。

2. Sulfur oxides: sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide.

2.硫氧化物：二氧化硫，三氧化硫。

3. Nitrogen oxides: nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide.

3.氮氧化物：一氧化二氮，一氧化氮，二氧化氮.

4. Hydrocarbons (organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen): methane, butane, benzene.

4.碳氢化合物（有机含有碳氢化合物）：甲烷丁烷苯。

5. Photochemical oxidants: ozone, PAN, and various aldehydes.

5.光化学氧化剂：臭氧，一组过氧酰基硝酸酯和各种醛。

6. Particulates (solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in air): smoke, dust, soot, asbestos, metallic particles (such as lead, beryllium cadmium), oil, salt spray, sulfate salts.

6.颗粒（在空气中的固体颗粒或液滴悬浮）：烟雾，尘埃，烟尘，石棉，金属粒子（例如铅，镉铍），石

油，盐雾，盐硫酸。

7. Other inorganic compounds: asbestos, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, sulfur acid, nitric acid.

7.其他无机化合物：石棉，氟化氢，硫化氢，氨气，硫酸，硝酸。

8. Other organic compounds: pesticides, herbicides, various alcohols, acids, and other chemicals.

8.其他有机化合物：杀虫剂，除草剂，各种醇，酸和其他化学品。

9. Radioactive substances: tritium, radon, emissions from fossil fuel and nuclear power plants.

9.放射性物质：氚，氡，矿物燃料排放物和核能发电厂。

10. Heat. 10. 热。11. Noise. 11. 噪声。

The following table summarizes the major sources of these pollutants.

Carbon oxides Carbon Monoxide (CO) :

Forest fires and decaying organic matter; incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (about two-thirds of total emissions) and other organic matter in cars and furnaces; cigarette smoke森林火灾和腐烂的有机物质;不完全燃烧矿物燃料（约占三分之二的总量）和其他来自汽车和炉的有机质;香烟烟雾

Carbon dioxide(CO2) : Natural aerobic respiration of living organisms; burning of fossil fuels

自然有氧呼吸的生物体; 燃烧化石燃料

Sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3) ：Combustion of sulfur-containing coal and oil in homes, industries and Power plants;

smelting of sulfur-containing ores; volcanic eruptions家庭、工厂和发电厂燃烧含硫的煤和石油；冶炼含硫矿石；火山爆发

Particulates dust soot and oil :煤烟粉尘颗粒物和石油

forests fires , wind erosion, and volcanic eruptions; coal burning; farming, mining construction, road building ,and other land-clearing activities; chemical reactions in the atmosphere; dust stirred up by automobiles; automobile exhaust; coal-burning electric power and industrial plants 森林火灾，风蚀，和火山爆发; 燃煤; 农业，采矿工程，道路建设，以及其他土地清理活动; 大气中的化学反应；汽车引发的粉尘；汽车尾气；燃煤电力厂房和工业厂房Nitrogen oxides(NO and NO2):

High-temperature fuel combustion in motor vehicles and industrial and fossil fuel power plants; lighting 高温燃料燃烧机动车辆，工业和矿物燃料发电厂;照明

Photochemical oxidants光化学氧化剂

Sunlight acting on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides

碳氢化合物和氮氧化物在阳光下反应

Hydrocarbons 碳氢化合物

Incomplete combustion fossil fuels in automobiles and furnaces; evaporation of industrial solvents and oil spills; tobacco smoke; forest fires; plant decay (about 85 percent of emissions ) 不完全燃烧化石燃料的汽车和火炉；蒸发的工业溶剂和石油泄漏；烟草烟雾；森林火灾；植物的腐烂（大约百分之85的排放）

Pesticides and herbicides :

Agriculture; forestry; mosquito control农业;林业;蚊虫控制

Asbestos:石棉Asbestos mining; spraying of fireproofing insulation in buildings; deterioration of brake linings石棉开采;防火隔热建筑的喷漆;制动片的变质

Metals and Metal Compounds: 金属和金属化合物

Mining；industrial processes; coal burning; automobile exhaust挖掘；工业生产过程;燃煤;汽车尾气

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S): Chemical industry; petroleum refining化学工业;石油炼制

Ammonia (NH3) : Chemical industry; petroleum refining化学工业;石油炼制

Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) :

Reaction of sulfur trioxide and water vapor in atmosphere; Chemical industry三氧化硫和水汽在大气中反应; 化学工业

Nitric Acid (HNO3) :

Reaction of sulfur trioxide and water vapor in atmosphere;

Chemical industry三氧化硫和水汽在大气中反应; 化学工业

Noise : Automobiles, airplanes, and trains; industry; construction

汽车，飞机，列车;产业建设

Other Inorganic Hydrogen Fluoride (HF) :

Petroleum refining; glass etching; aluminum and fertilizer production

石油炼制;玻璃刻蚀;铝和化肥生产

Exercises

4 .To eacape the smog you might go home, close the doors and windows, and breathe in clean air. But a number of scientists have found that the air inside homes and offices is often more polluted and dangerous than outdoor air on a smoggy day. The indoor pollutants include: (1) nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide from gas and wood-burning stoves（炉）without adequate（适当的）ventilation（通风）; (2) carbon monoxide, soot（煤烟）,and cancer-causing benzopyrene（苯并芘）(from cigarette smoke); (3) various（各种）organic compounds（化合物）from aerosol （气溶胶、气雾剂、烟雾剂）spray（喷射）cans and cleaning products; (4) formaldehyde（甲醛）(which causes cancer in rats) from urea－formaldehyde（尿素甲醛）foam（泡沫材料）insulation（绝缘材料）,plywood（夹板）,carpet （地毯）adhesives（黏合剂）,and particle（微粒）board; (5)radioactive（放射性的）radon and some of its decay （衰退）products from stone, soil, cement（水泥）,and bricks（砖）;and (6) ozone（臭氧）from the use of electrostatic air cleaners. 为了逃避烟雾，你需要回到家中，关闭门窗，并且在干净的空气中呼吸。但一些科学家发现，在烟雾弥漫的日子，家中以及办公室中的空气经常比室外的空气含有更多的污染物和危险物。室内污染物包括：（1）来源于煤气以及在没有适当的通风下火炉中木的燃烧所产生的二氧化氮和一氧化碳；（2）一氧化碳，煤烟，致癌物质苯并芘（来源于香烟）；（3）从气雾剂喷射罐和清洁用品挥发的各种有机物化合物；（4）从尿素甲醛泡沫绝缘材料、夹板、地毯黏合剂和微粒木板中散发出的甲醛（可以在老鼠身上致癌）；（5）放射性射线和其几种从石头、沙、水泥、砖中放射出的衰退物；（６）使用电空气清新器所产生的臭氧。

Unit 6：Effects on Climate and Ecological Environment

对气候和生态环境的影响

The role of carbon dioxide in the global heat balance is well recognized.二氧化碳在全球热量平衡的作用是公认的。Because CO2 can absorb thermal energy, it decreases the atmosphere’s emissivity, that is, its ability to radiate long-wave infrared and transparency to visible light is characterized as the “greenhouse effect”. 因为二氧化碳能够吸收热能，减少大气发射率，也就是说，它能够辐射红外长波和可见光，这种能力通常被称为“温室效应”。This “greenhouse effect” is due primarily to water vapor ad carbon dioxide, which have strong infrared absorption bands. “温室效应”主要是由水汽和二氧化碳引起的，它们有着强烈的红外线吸收带。Changes in atmospheric levels of either or both of these gases would ,of course ,affect the amount of heat or long-wave infrared trapped within the greenhouse and thus determine global climate .当然，大气层中一种或几种这些气体的变化会影响被截留在温室内的热量和红外长波，从而决定了全球的气候。Since 1890 atmospheric CO2 levels have increased from about 290 to 322 ppm. 直到1890年为止，大气层的二氧化碳水平由百万分之290增加到百万分之322.Of this increase 25% has occurred in the past decade . 其中有25%是最近十年增加的。Since 1958 the average annual increase has been approximately 0.7 ppm/yr .从1958年起，平均每年的增长量接近百万分之0.7。If this trend continues ,atmospheric CO2 levels are expected to double by the year 2035AD.如果这个趋势继续下去的话，公元2035年，大气层中的二氧化碳水平将可能翻倍。Based on some widely accepted climatic models ，this doubling could result in the warming of surface temperatures in the mid-latitudes on the order of 2.4 degree, with greater potential warming in the polar regions.根据一些被广泛接受的气候模型，这种结果可能导致中纬度表面温度大约上升2.4度，同时伴随着极地地区巨大的潜在升温。

The augmentation of the atmosphere’s greenhouse effect from anthropogenically derived CO2 has the potential for significantly warming global climate .人类活动排放的二氧化碳使大气层的温室效应增加，在相当大程度上影响着全球气候变暖。By increasing the length of the growing season, the consequences of this warming may in the short term be beneficial. 通过延长农作物的生长季节，短期变暖也许是有利的。In the long term ,however , continued global warming may have deleterious effects on global agriculture.然而，从长远来看，持续的全球性变暖会对全球农业造成有害的影响。According to a National Research Council report, climatic warming associated with increased atmospheric CO2 levels could be expected to cause significant changes in agricultural zones。根据国家研究理事会的报告，气候变暖和大气层二氧化碳水平的增加可能会对农业地区带来巨大的变化。These changes could include: (1) an expansion of arid and semiarid regions; (2) poleward advance of arid and arable zones; and (3) summer temperatures too high for full productivity of important middle latitude crops such as corn and soybeans .这些变化包括：（1）干旱和半干旱地区扩大；（2）干旱和耕作地区将向极地发展；（3）夏天温度太高对中纬度重要的高生产率作物来说不适宜，例如玉米和大豆。The net effect of these changes would be to reduce areas suitable for agriculture and disrupt existing agricultural patterns in many regions in the northern hemisphere.在北半球很多地区，这些变化的净效应将会减少适合耕作的地区，破坏现有的农业模式。This could ,of course, result in severe economic disruption and untold misery for billions of people.当然，这也可能导致严重的经济破坏和亿万人不可言说的苦难。

The most sever consequence of CO2 induced global warming would be melting of the polar ice caps and the subsequent rise of ocean levels and inundation of coastal plains. 二氧化碳引起全球变暖最严重的后果是，极地冰川融化、海平面上升，沿海平原将被淹没。Such a scenario would have disastrous consequences for many of the largest population centers on the planet. 这种情况将会对地球上面大量人口集中地区产生灾难性的后果。Based on current and projected CO2 additions to the atmosphere ，such extreme consequences would not ,however ,be expected for at least several centuries .然而，根据目前和预测大气中增加的二氧化碳量，这种极端的后果预计在未来几百

年内不会出现。Within the next fifty years, changes in agricultural zones are more likely.而在接下来的50年里，农业地区的变化是极有可能的。

Although global warming from the already elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 has been predicted by most climatic models, such a warming has not been empirically observed.虽然很多气候模型预言了大气中二氧化碳水平的升高会引起全球变暖，但是这种变暖并没有实际观察到。Indeed , since the early 1940s global temperatures have actually declined .Initially this observation led some climatologists to discount the effect of fossil fuel CO2 on global climate .事实上，早在20世纪40年代初全球气温实际上是在下降。起初这一现象让一些气象学家排除矿物燃料产生的二氧化碳对全球气候变化的影响。However, expanded understanding of the nature of climatic changed suggests that over the next half century increases in atmospheric CO2 may in fact result in global warming.然而，扩大对气候变化的了解表明，在未来的半个世纪增加大气中二氧化碳的含量实际上可能导致全球变暖。

Confirmation of the effect of CO2 on climate has been confounded by the natural fluctuations in climate and average global surface temperatures.自然气候和全球平均地表温度的波动一直干扰着二氧化碳对气候影响的证实。Meteorological records are only adequate for the past century or less. 气象记录仅仅足够用于过去的一个世纪或更少的时间。Although they indicate trends in average surface temperatures and climate, they unfortunately coincide with increased industrialization and pollution.虽然这些记录表明了平均表面温度和气候的发展趋势，遗憾的是，这些记录又碰巧与工业化的增加和污染重合了。Consequently, they cannot adequately indicate the nature of natural climatic fluctuations.因此，这些记录不能充分表明自然气候波动的特性。A more useful record of climatic fluctuations for the past millenium has been established from studies of oxygen isotope ratios in Greenland ice cores。在过去的一千年气候波动更有效的记录来自格陵兰冰层氧同位素的研究。These oxygen isotope studies have indicated cyclic variations in global surface temperatures.这些氧的同位素的研究表明全球表面温度的周期性变化。Cycles of 80 and 180 years are apparent。周期为80和180年是显而易见的.The amplitude of the first half cycle from 1900 to 1940 is similar to that observed in meteorological records.1900到1940年前半周期振幅和气象数据相似。Based on observations of climatic changes as recorded in oxygen isotope ratios in Greenland ice the present cooling trend is expected to bottom out in the next decade or so and will be followed by a global warming trend.根据在格陵兰冰岛观测气候变化中所记录的氧同位素数据所显示的气候变化的观察，目前的冷却趋势在未来十年或之后结束，接下来全球气候转向变暖的趋势。It is during this natural warming period that CO2 induced warming is expected to have a significant effect on global climate.正是在这个自然气候变暖时期，二氧化碳引起的气候变暖对全球气候产生重大影响。During the early 21st century the earth may experience surface temperatures warmer than any time in the past 100 years.在21世纪初，地球可能会遇到表面的温度比过去100年的任何时候都温暖的情况。

Although CO2 is expected to cause climate warming，uncertainties remain about the world carbon budget，the fate of anthropogenic CO2，and the relative importance of various sinks and sources.尽管二氧化碳会引起温室效应，全世界的碳含量的预算、人类产生的二氧化碳，二氧化碳的处理方法仍然不确定，相对来说，各种各样水和资源更重要。Many students of the problems contend that all of the observed increase in atmospheric CO2 is due to fossil fuel composition.许多关于这个问题的研究都认为所有观察到大气中增加的二氧化碳都是由于化石燃料的消耗而引起的。Of the CO2 release in this way only about 50% remains in the atmosphere，with the excess believed to be removed by the oceans and terrestrial biota.以这种方式释放的二氧化碳只有约50%留在大气中，其余剩下的认为是被海洋和陆地生物所消耗。The calculation of some scientists suggest that the oceans are the principal CO2 sinks，with land biota storing anywhere from 5% to 20% of fossil fuel CO2.一些科学家的计算认为相对于陆地生物储存从化石燃料产生的5%-20%CO2，海洋是主要的二氧化碳汇聚处.

Other scientists，however，suggest that the land biota is in fact a major source of CO2.然而，还有一些科学家，认为事实上陆地生物是主要的CO2来源。They contend that the widespread deforestation of tropical forests in this century，and subsequent land conversion to agricultural production，has resulted in a decrease of CO2storage in terrestrial biota.他们认为，本世纪热带森林被广泛地砍伐，随后又将土地转化为农业耕地，导致了减少在陆地生

物中储存CO2的量降低。In addition deforestation speeds the decay of soil humus，releasing CO2 into the atmosphere.此外，森林的砍伐加快了土壤腐殖质的衰败，并将CO2释放到大气中。Consequently，the terrestrial biota may in fact be a net source of CO2 rather than a major sink as suggested，then all of the excess CO2 must be taken up by the oceans.因此，陆地生物群可能实际上是一个CO2的净排放源，而不是（一些科学家）所认为的主要吸收地，然后所有的多余的CO2必须由海洋吸收。This conclusion has been disputed by many oceanographers，who believe that over the short term the oceans are too sluggish to exchange CO2 fast enough to remove the excess CO2.这一结论已经引起了许多海洋学家的争议，谁能够相信，在短期内，海洋（交换二氧化碳的速度）过于缓慢，而不能转化多余的CO2。The uncertainties associated with sink me chanisms considerable complicate the problem of determining the world carbon budget and prediction of future atmosphere CO2 levels.吸收机制的不确定性相当大程度地使世界碳量平衡和预计未来大气CO2水平问题复杂化。

Several climate models predict that a doubling of atmospheric CO2 will result in a 2.4℃ rise in surface temperature in the middle latitudes.一些气候模型预测，大气中CO2增加了一倍将导致中纬度地区的表面温度上升2.4 ℃。These models are still relatively primitive，as they do not take into account a variety of possible feedback mechanisms.这些模型还是比较原始的，因为它们没有把各种可能的反馈机制纳入到考虑之中。For example，global warming may result in increased cloudiness，which would reduce incoming radiation and counteract warming.例如，全球变暖可能导致云量增加，这将减轻传入的辐射以及反作用于气候的变暖。On the other hand，increased sea surface temperatures would result in decreased CO2 absorption and retention.另一方面，海洋表面温度的升高将会导致降低二氧化碳的吸收和保持。As a consequence，even greater warming might occur.因此，甚至更大的气候变暖（的情况）都可能会发生。

In addition to these feedback mechanisms, most climatic models do not take into account the potential augmentation of the greenhouse effect by other absorption bands and therefore have the potential to signiflicantly contribute to global warming。除了这些反馈机制，大多数气候模型没有考虑到由其他吸收带引起的温室效应潜在机理，而这些潜在机理将会对全球变暖产生重大影响。The contribution of chlorofluorocarbons may be half that of CO2。氯氟烃对全球变暖的贡献可能是二氧化碳的一半。Trace gases such as N2O,CH4 and NH3 also have infared absorption bands and may also contribute to the earth's greenhouse effect。痕量气体如氧化亚氮，甲烷和氨也有红外线吸收波段，也可能导致地球温室效应。Atmospheric concentrations of these gases may increase as a result of human activities。人类活动可能导致大气中这些气体的浓度的增加。For example, the use of agricultural fertilizer may result in significant quantities of N2O and NH3 are released from applied fertilizers。例如，使用农业肥料可能会引起大量的一氧化二氮和NH3的释放。Methane is released from fossil fuel combustion。甲烷是矿物燃料燃烧时产生的。

At the present time the worldwide annual emission rate of fossil carbon is about 4.3%。目前，全世界每年二氧化碳的排放率约为4.3 ％。Based on these emissions, atmospheric levels of CO2 world be expected to double by the year 2035。基于这样的排放速度，大气中二氧化碳的含量预计到2035年会增加一倍。The potential perturbation of world climate by the release of fossil fuel CO2 and other anthropogenically derived gases poses a real dilemma for world governments as energy requirements continue to increase and the options to reduce CO2 emissions are very limited。化石燃料释放的二氧化碳和其他人为产生的二氧化碳导致世界气候的潜在变化，而这些变化使得全球政治在面对能力需求的增长和限制二氧化碳的排放的问题中陷入两难的境地。The continued augmentation of CO2 in the atmosphere may cause significant climatic changes that may have adverse consequences for the human species。大气中的二氧化碳继续增加可能会导致重大的气候变化，那会给人类带来不利的后果。Many climatologists and other scientists believe that the threat is real。许多气象学家和一些科学家认为，这种威胁是存在的。However, as is the case for potential of the ozone layer ,climatic changes resulting from increased atmospheric CO2 levels are theoretical。然而，就像臭氧层的潜力，大气层二氧化碳水平的增加引起的气候变化是理论上的。They are based on predictions from climatic models which many agree are still rather primitive。许多人同意气候模型作出的预测还是相当原始的。

Unit 7 Conventional Technology of Air Pollution Control

大气污染控制的常规技术

The principal means for control of particulate emissions from industrial sources are cyclones，electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and scrubbers. 控制工业来源的颗粒物的排放的主要方法是利用旋风分离器、静电除尘器、布袋过滤器和洗涤器。In addition to these conventional devices, granular bed and panel bed filters have been applied to a limited extent and research is being conducted on devices or combinations of conventional devices, such as charged drop let scrubbers.除了以上的常规设备以外，颗粒层过滤器和平板过滤器在一定程度上得到应用，并且正在开展对设备或组合常规设备的研究，例如荷电液滴洗涤器。

Cyclones

旋风分离器

Cyclonic collectors are round conically shaped vessels in which the gas stream enters tangentially and follows a spiral path to the outlet. 旋风分离吸收器是圆锥形的容器，气体流切向进入并且顺着螺旋状的管道到出口。The spiral motion produces the centrifugal forces that cause the particulate matter to move toward the periphery of the vessel and collect pm the walls and fall to the bottom of the vessel.这种螺旋运动产生离心力，使颗粒物沿着容器的外围移动被聚集在壁面然后掉落在容器底部。The centrifugal force is the major force causing separation of the particulate in a cyclone separator.离心力是引起颗粒物在旋风分离器里分离主要作用力。

The cyclonic collectors are generally of two types: the large diameter, lower efficiency cyclones, and the small diameter, lower efficiency cyclones, and the small diameter, multitube high-efficiency units.旋风分离除尘器大致分为两种：大径低效分离器和小径多管高效分离器。The larger cyclones have lower efficiencies especially on particles less than 50 um. 大直径的旋风分离除尘器的效率会比较低特别是对直径小于50微米的颗粒。However, they have low initial cost and usually operate at pressure drips of 1 to 3 inches of water. 但是，它们的运行成本较低，一般在1到3英寸水柱的压力降下运行。The multitube cyclones are capable of efficiencies exceeding 90% but the cost is higher and their pressure drop is usually 3 to 5 inches of water. 多管式的旋风分离除尘器效率通常能够达到90%以上，不过它的运行成本就比较高，一般在3到5英寸水柱的水压降下运行。They are also more susceptible to plugging and erosion.它们经常被堵塞和更加容易受到腐蚀。The large cyclones are often used as a part of the process when the gas stream is heavily laden with part of the product such as in coal dryers, alfalfa dehydrators and milling operations. 大直径的旋风分离除尘器经常用作于当气流里充满产物的一部分时的过程，比如煤干燥器、紫苜宿脱水器、碾磨的运转。They are widely used in grain elevators, sawmills, asphalt plants and detergent manufacture. 它们被广泛运用于谷物运输、锯木、沥青制造装置和清洁剂的生产中。

Fabric Filters

布袋过滤器

Fabric filter systems, i.e., baghouses, usually consist of tubular bags made of woven synthetic fabric or fiberglass, in which the dirty gases pass through the fabric while the particles are collected on the upstream side by the filtering action of the fabric.布袋过滤器系统，例如，布袋除尘器，通常由合成纤维或玻璃纤维制成的管状布袋组成，含尘气体通过布袋时颗粒物在纤维的过滤作用下累计在布袋上游。The dust retained on the bags is periodically shaken off and falls into a collecting hopper for removal.定期将留在布袋里的尘土敲下并让它掉入收集漏斗以便清除。

Fabric filters usually provide very high collection efficiencies, exceeding 99.5%, at pressure drops usually ranging from 4 to 6 inches of water. 布袋过滤器通常有较高的除尘效率，超过99.5%，压力降一般在4~6英寸水柱之间。The amount of filter area required is often based on an air-to-cloth ratio of 11.5 to 3.0 cfm of gas/ft2 of cloth.必需的过滤面积经常基于11.5~3.0cfm/ft2 布的气布比。The maximum operating temperature for a baghouse is 550°F using fiberglass bags.利用玻璃纤维制成布袋除尘器最高的运行温度是550°F。However , there may also be a minimum temperature limitation so as to maintain the g as temperature 50°F to 75°F to above the dew point.然而，

也存在最低的温度限制使得气体温度维持在高于露点温度50°F到75°F之间。Inlet dust loadings range from 0.1 to 10.0 grains/ft3 of gas. 进口粉尘浓度在0.1~10.0grains/ft3 气体之间。Higher concentrations in some industries are removed by a precleaning device, such as a low efficiency cyclone. 在某些工厂里高浓度的含尘气体要先用预洗涤装置分离，比如低效旋风分离器。

The baghouse has found wide application in many industries, including mining operations, food processing, grain elevators, soap and detergents, plastics manufacture and numerous other. 布袋分离器已经在很多工业领域中得到广泛的应用，包括采矿业，食品加工，谷物提升，肥皂和清洁剂，塑料制造以及众多其他工业。Some of the industries that employ large baghouse operations are carbon black, cement, electric arc furnaces, foundry cupolas and nonferrous smelting operations.一些工业生产使用大型布袋除尘器运作，例如碳黑，水泥，电弧炉，炼铁炉和有色技术冶炼作业。

Gas cleaning by fabric filtration is suited for applications where dry particulates are handled or where water in the process gases is in the vapor stage. 布袋过滤净化气体适用于干燥颗粒物少的情况或者水在工业废气中是蒸汽状态的情况。The basic filter collector or baghouse is capable of operating in excess of 99% efficiency, although satisfactory operation of the system is contingent upon the characteristics of the gas stream and the particulate matter being removed. 尽管系统是否良好地运转视气流的特性和颗粒物的分离量而定，但标准过滤器或者布袋除尘器能运行达到99%的效率。Basically, the unit consists of compartments containing rows of filter bags or tubes. 运作单元主要由包含一排排的过滤袋或者滤管的过滤单元组成的。

Wet Scrubbers

湿式洗涤器

Wet collectors use water“sprays”to collect and remove particulate matter.湿式洗涤器利用水喷雾收集和分离颗粒物。Here are many variations of wet collectors but they may generally be classified as low of high energy scrubbers.湿式洗涤器有很多种类，但是它一般分为低能和高能洗涤器。Low energy scrubbers of 1 to 6 inches of pressure drop may consist of simple spray tower, packed tower or impingement plate tower.压降在1至6英寸的低能洗涤器可能是简单的喷雾塔，填料塔或撞击板塔组成。The water requirement may be 3 to 6 gal/1,000ft3 of gas and collection efficiencies can exceed 90 to 95%.水的要求是3至6 gal/1000ft 3的气体，收集效率可以超过90至95 ％。The lower energy scrubber finds frequent application in incinerators, fertilizer manufacturing, lime kilns. And iron foundries.低能洗涤器在焚化装置，肥料生产，石灰炉和铸铁车间得到广泛的应用.

The high energy scrubber, or Venturi, imparts high velocity to the gas stream by means of converging-diverging duct section, and contact the stream with injected water.高能洗洗涤器或者文丘里管，用收缩—扩大管截面的方法给气流提供高速，与上面注入的水流接触。The high velocities provide increased collection efficiency, up to 99.5%, but the pressure drop may range from 10 to 60 inches of water. This requires a draft fan with high power input.高速供给提高了吸收效率，高达99.5%，但是压力将会达到10~60英寸水柱，这就要求有一个高能输入的引风机。The Venturi scrubber is often used in conjunction with steel furnaces, pulp mills and foundry cupolas.文丘里洗涤器经常应用于炼钢炉、造纸厂和炼铁炉中。

The wet scrubbers can provide high collection efficiency but may involve treatment of liquid wastes with settling ponds.湿洗涤器可提供高效率，但可能涉及治疗液体废物的沉淀池。They also saturate the gas stream and produce a resultant steam plume. 他们还浸透的天然气流和由此产生蒸汽柱。T he principal mechanisms involved in wet scrubbing are：increasing the size of the particles by combination with liquid droplets thereby increasing their size so they may be collected more easily ，and \or trapping them in liquid film and washing them away.湿洗的主要原理是：越来越多的小粒子的结合成液滴从而增加其大小，以便可以更容易地收集他们，或者用液膜捕获他们和洗去他们。

Electrostatic Precipitators

静电除尘器

Gas cleaning by electrostatic precipitation is particularly suited for gas streams which can be easily ionized and

which contain either liquid or solid particulate matter.静电除尘器的气体清除尤其适合容易带电的气流和包含液体或固体的带电物质。The method of removal consists of passing the particle-laden gas through an electrostatic field produced by a high voltage electrode and grounded collection surface.去除方法为使载满微粒的气体通过一个高压电极和接地捕集板产生的静电区域。The gas is ionized by the high voltage discharge and the particulate matter is charge by the interaction of the gas ions.气体被高压电极电离，同时气体离子的相互作用使颗粒物带上电荷。The particle migrate to the collecting surface which has an opposite polarity and neutralized.接着颗粒物移动到与它相反的极性收集板上，然后中和。

The operating principle of electrostatic precipitation thus requires three basic steps :(1)electrical charging of the suspended particulate matter; (2)collection of the charged particulate matter on a grounded surface ;（3）removal of the particulate matter from the collecting surfaces by mechanical or flushing with liquids.因此静电的操作原理需要三个基本步骤：(1) 悬浮颗粒物的电能交换；(2)带电粒子物质在接地板的收集；(3)通过机械刮除或者用水冲洗收集表面的颗粒物质。

Unit 8 New Technologies of Air Pollution Control

大气污染控制的新技术

Biofiltration: An Innovative Air Pollution Control Technology for VOC Emissions.生物过滤：一种创新的大气挥发性有机物污染控制技术.

The concept of using microorganisms for the removal of environmentally undesirable compounds by biodegradation has been well established in the area of wastewater treatment for several decades.这种利用微生物的生物降解作用去除环境中非期望的化合物的观念在数十年前已经非常好地建立在废水处理方面。Not until recently, however, have biological technologies been seriously considered in the United States for the removal of pollutants from other environmental media.直到最近，生物学技术才被美国认真考虑用于去除其他环境媒介中的污染物质。Moreover, while bioremediation techniques are now being applied successfully for the treatment of soil and groundwater contaminated by synthetic organics, at present there is very little practical experience with biological systems for the control of air contaminants among environmental professionals in the U S.而且，生物除污技术在土壤和地下水得到了成功的应用，现在，在美国环保专业人员中，生物学系统在控制大气污染物方面只有很少的实践经验。In fact, few environmental professionals in this country appear to be aware that “biofiltration” i.e., the biological removal of air contaminants from off-gas streams in a solid phase reactor, is now a well established air pollution control(APC) technology in several European countries, most notably The Netherlands and Germany.实际上，这个国家几乎没有环境的专家似乎意识到在好几个欧洲国家（最显著的是荷兰和德国），“生物过滤”，即从固相反应器气流中空气污染物的生物去除法，是一种充分确立的空气污染控制技术。

In Europe, biofiltration has been used successfully to control odors, and both organic and inorganic air pollutants that are toxic to humans (air toxic, as well as volatile organic compounds (VOC) from a variety of industrial and public sector sources).在欧洲，生物过滤法已经成功地应用于控制对人类有害的气味、有机和无机的污染物{空气中的毒物，以及从各种各样工业的和公共的部门单位产生的挥发性有机物}。The development of biofiltration in West Germany, most of which took place in the late 1970s and the 1980s, was brought about by a combination of increasingly stringent regulatory requirements and financial support from federal and state governments.在西德，生物过滤法的发展，是由增加严格的管理控制要求和从联邦和州政府得到的经济支持的结合而带来的，其中大部分是在二十世纪70年代晚期和80年代进行的。The experiences in Europe have demonstrated that biofiltration has economic and other advantages over existing APC technologies, particularly if applied to off-gas streams that contain only low concentrations (typically less than 1000 ppm as methane) of air pollutants that are easily biodegraded.欧洲的经验已经证明，生物过滤较已有的空气污染技术有着经济的和其他方面的优越性，特别是用于仅含有低浓度{典型地是加完浓雾小于1000ppm}易生物降解的空气污染物的尾气。

The principal reasons why biofiltration is not presently well recognized in the U.S., and has been applied in only a few cases, appear to be a lack of regulatory programs, little governmental support for research and development, and lack of descriptions written in the English language.对于那些为什么生物过滤法如今在美国还不是很好地被认识和只应用于仅仅很少的一些情况的道理，可以认为是缺少控制的计划、来自政府对此技术研究和发展支持，更是缺少用英语写成的有关这些技术的文献。Specifically, regulatory programs in most U.S. states have not yet addressed, in a comprehensive manner, the control of air toxics, VOC and odors from smaller sources.具体来说，大部分计划在美国各州还没有用综合全面的态度去探讨来源于更小的源头的气体的毒性，挥发性有机物和臭味。Moreover, little financial support for investigating the applicability of biofiltration for these sources has been provided by government agencies.而且，没有多少经济支持用于调查生物过滤对这些源头的适用性被政府部门所提供。Finally, although several important papers on biofiltration have been published in English, most of the technical reports summarizing recent results, were published in German.最后，即使有几篇关于生物过滤的重要论文已经用英语出版，但是绝大部分总结最近结果的技术报告是在德国被出版的。

Despite these current obstacles, biofiltration is likely to find more widespread application in the U.S. in the near future.不管这些目前的障碍，在美国不久的将来，生物过滤很可能得到更普遍的应用。In addition to a few existing installations, several fullscale projects are currently in the planning stage or under construction.除了一些现有的设备，几个大规模的项目现时在计划阶段或正在建造着。For example, the first large scale system for VOC control in California, a biofilter to treat ethanol emissions from an investment foundry in Los Angeles areas is being planned with co-funding by the system, and an analysis of its performance are provided elsewhere.例如。第一个在加利福尼亚州大型的用于挥发性有机物的系统，由南岸空气质量控制区共同资助的一个用生物过滤法处理在洛杉矶附近一个铸造厂排放乙醇的系统正在计划中。在其他地方也将会提供对这个系统性能更详细的分析。

The major objective of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive review of important aspects of biofiltration in order to more widely disseminate about this innovative APC technology, and to encourage its implementation where appropriate in the U.S..现在这篇论文的主要目的是提供一个关于生物过滤的全面综述来更广泛传播这种APC新技术，并且鼓励它在美国适合的地方的实施。Many of the more complex technical and engineering issues related to the development and use of biofiltration cannot be discussed in great depth here.许多有关开发和使用生物过滤的更复杂的技术和工程问题，就不能在这里深入地讨论了。However, we identify and summarize such issues, and refer to more detailed publication.然而，我们会明确和总结这种文献，并给出更详细的文献。We also note that, in addition to biofitration, other biological APC systems are now in use in Europe for the control of organic off-gas, including “bioscrubbers” and trickling filters.我们还注意到，除了生物过滤，其他生物空气污染控制系统是目前在欧洲使用的控制有机废气系统，包括生化洗涤器和滴滤池。Various articles on these related technologies, which are not discussed here, are available in other literature.文献与这相关的技术我们没有讨论，可在其他文献找到。

Suggestions to treat odorous off-gases by biological methods can be found in literature as early as 1923 when Bach discussed the basic concept of H2S emissions from sewage treatment plants.带有臭味尾气的生物处理方法可以在文献中找到：早在1923年，巴赫论述了控制从污水处理厂排放的硫化氢的基本概念。Reports on the application of this concept of dating back to the 1950s were published in the U.S. and in West Germany.关于这种概念的报道可以追溯到20世纪50年代的美国和西德。Pomeroy received U.S. patent No. 2793096 in 1957 for a soil bed concept and describes a successful soil bed installation in California.波默罗伊在1957年因为土壤床的概念和成功的描述了在加利福尼亚州的土壤床装置而得到美国第2793096号专利。Around 1959 a soil bed was also installed at municipal sewage treatment plant in Nuremberg, West Germany for the control of odors from an incoming sewer main.1959年前后一张土壤床安装在西德纽伦堡的市政污水处理厂来控制主要从污水道传出来的臭味。

In the U.S., the first systematic research on the biofiltration of H2S was conducted by Carlson and Leiser in the early 1960s.在美国19世纪60年代早期,Carlson和Leiser主持着关于生物过滤法处理H2S的第一个系统研究。Their work included the successful installation of several soil filters at a wastewater treatment plant near Seattle and demonstrated that biodegradation rather than sorption accounted for the odor removal.他们的工作包括在西雅图附近

的废水处理工厂中成功地安装几个固体过滤器并证明了生物降解对气味吸收的作用比吸附作用更优越。

During the following two decades, several researchers in the U.S, have further studied the soil bed concept and demonstrated its usefulness in several full scale applications.在随后的二十年，美国的几个科学家一直对土壤床的概念进行着深入研究，并在几个应用软件上面演示它的有效性。Much of the knowledge about the technology is owed to Hinrich Bohn who has investigated the theory and potential applications of soil beds for more than 15 years. 很多关于这个方面的知识应该归功于Hinrich Bohn对土壤床理论以及应用软件潜力进行的15年的研究。Successful soil bed applications in the U.S. include the control of odors from rendering plants, and the destruction of propane and butane released from an aerosol can filling operation.成功的土壤床应用软件包括包括控制从炼油厂发出的臭味和从喷雾罐释放出来的丙烷和丁烷。

While soil beds have been shown to control certain types of odors and VOC efficiently and fairly low and operating cost, their use in the U.S. has been limited by the low biodegradation capacity of soils and the correspondingly large space requirements for the beds. 虽然已经证实土壤床可用想到低的投资和操作费用来控制某些类型的臭味和挥发性有机化合物，但是，土壤的低生物降解能力和相当大的占地要求限制了土壤床在美国的应用。It is estimated that the total number of biofilter and soil bed installations in the U.S. and Canada is currently less than 50 and that they are predominantly used for odor control.据估计在美国和加拿大的生物过滤器和土壤床装置的总数不会超过50台，而且大部分都是应用在臭味的控制上。

Unit 9 Effects of air pollution

空气污染的影响

Only a few examples of pollution effects can be considered in the sections to follow.关于污染影响的例子只有少部份能够被研究分析，All of the examples identify local, observable, or measurable impacts, because it is very difficult to develop direct relationships between specific pollutants and effects for exposures over the longer term or at great distances.这部分例子是局部的，可见的或可测量的。因为去研究分析那些被长期地、大面积地暴露的特殊污染物之间的关系是很困难的。A more complete decription could fill several books.如果要完整地描述这些特殊污染物的话几乎可以写满几本书。One of the most obvious local effects of particles in the atmosphere is a reduction in visibility.存在于空气中的颗粒所产生的影响是降低了能见度。Only a few decades ago, soiling by soot and smoke was clearly apparent in almost every urban center.仅在几十年前，几乎每个市中心都明显地出现了煤烟和烟雾的污染。Reduction in visibility results in a social cost due to slowdown of air traffic and the need for instrument-guided landing systems. 能见度降低导致的社会资源浪费，因为放缓的空中交通需要必要手段引导着陆系统。

In the air pollution episodes cited, the local presence of gases was objectionable because of odor, taste, or obvious corrosive or chemical effects.由空气污染事件引，使当地的气体是令人讨厌，因为受到气味，口味，或明显的腐蚀或化学的影响。Today these gross sensory insults are rarely encountered.现在，这些恶心难受的感觉很少遇到了。However, subtle health effects persist, such as eye or nose irritation or difficult breathing.不过，不易察觉的健康影响仍然存在，如眼睛或鼻子的不适，或呼吸困难。I n the extreme, health effects extend to the brain (CO) and stomach (several pollutants alone or in combination) .更严重的话，这些影响会伤害大脑（CO）和胃（若干污染物单独或联合在一起）。Damage to vegetation due to chronic exposure to atmospheric pollutants may be one of the more apparent precursor symptoms leading to identification of chronic air pollution.长期暴露于大气污染物中的植被所遭受的破坏也许是空气长期污染症状的一种较明显的前兆。

Health effects

Health effects were the dominant considerations in early air pollution episodes for obvious reasons.显然地，在早期的空气污染过程中，对健康的影响是应该优先考虑的事项。While the specific pollutant or groups of pollutants

generating the observed effects frequently could not be identified, there was sufficient information to implicate certain pollutants as significant contributors.当这种特殊的污染或多种污染物物产生的被频繁观测到的影响不能被识别出来时，就有足够的证据暗示某些污染物充当重要的源头。Early research to relate pollutant concentrations and effects was concentrated on these clearly identifiable pollutants.早期将污染物浓度和影响相联系的研究是专注于这些能清楚辨认的污染物上的。

The human respiratory system is quite efficient in filtering the larger particles out of the air we breathe.人类的呼吸系统善于将我们吸入空气中的颗粒物过滤出来。Particles smaller than about 5μm, however, can penetrate to the lungs and be deposited in the alveoli.但是，粒径小于5μm的颗粒能通过（过滤）到达肺部并沉积在肺泡中。For example, cigarette smoke particles are smaller than 1μm, and they enter and are deposited in the alveoli.例如，香烟烟雾的粒径小于1μm，它们进入肺部并沉积在肺泡里。

Some particles are particularly damaging because they adsorb gases which cause more intense irritation locally.某些颗粒的损坏尤其严重，因为它们可以吸附一些对局部开成更强烈刺激的气体。Gases also penetrate into the deepest lung pockets.

气体也会透入到最深层的肺部。Both particles and gases entering the body through the respiratory system can affect the gastrointestinal system, as was reported in the Donora incident.通过呼吸系统进入人体的颗粒物和气体都能影响肠胃系统，正像多诺拉事件中报道的一样。Some chemical, such as lead, can enter the human bloodstream either from the digestive system (ingestion) or by passing through the lung membranes (the respiratory system), and airborne tritium and a few other chemical can enter the bloodstream through the skin.一些化学物质，例如铅，可以通过消化系统（吸收）或者穿透肺膜（呼吸系统）进入人体的血液循环系统，空气中的氚（三重氢）和其它一些化学物质可以通过皮肤进入血液循环系统。

Each pollutant affects the human body differently, and records of effects have been assembled relating the intensity to the period of exposure for various pollutants.每一种污染物对人体的影响不同，影响效果的记录已经被编排起来，这种编排是与各种污染物的曝光周期相关联的。Health effects of carbon monoxide are clearly detectable at 4 percent carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) in the blood, and possibly as low as low as 2.5 percent COHb. 在4%的羧络[碳氧]血红蛋白这一测限上，一氧化碳对健康的影响可以被明显地发现出来，这一测限可以低至 2.5%羧络[碳氧]血红蛋白。

Effects on plants and animals

The detrimental impacts of air pollution are not limited to those involving human health.空气污染的有害影响的不仅限于人体健康。Plants and animals are also susceptible.植物和动物也容易受影响。For example, fluorine is emitted form aluminum, glass, phosphate, fertilizer, and some clay-baking operations in significant quantities.例如，氟是从铝，玻璃，磷酸盐，化肥，和一些粘土焙培活动中大量排放。Frequently, the plant damage is observed on the fruit or on the flowers, either of which significantly lowers the value of the crop.通常情况下，可以从植物的果实或花朵观察到损害，无论哪一种损害都使作物的价值降低。Fluorine affects plants at concentrations several orders of magnitude below that at which human health is affected.氟对人体健康影响的浓度比它对植物影响的浓度低好几个数量级。

Fluorine also has an effect at even lower concentrations when it is taken up by shrubs.即使氟的浓度很低，被灌木，树木或草吸收，随后被牛或其他牲畜进食，也会对这些动物造成影响。The animals may develop fluorosis, although the plants may not show signs of damage.这些动物可能形成氟中毒，尽管植物可能不会出现被损坏的迹象。The animals act as concentrators of the fluorine, resulting in poor animal health and associated lower animal value or survival capability.这些动物作为集中的氟，结果会导致其他动物健康的变坏，动物自身价值和生存能力的降低。Some heavy metals, such as mercury and lead, and most radionuclides also become concentrated in plants and animals, frequently in specific organs.一些重金属，如汞和铅，大多数放射性核素，也能集中在动植物体内，经常是在特定的器官。

Different plants and animals have different susceptibilities to pollutants.不同的植物和动物对污染物具有不同的敏感性。For example, sugar maple can tolerate relatively high concentrations of sulfur dioxide alone, but it is

susceptible to damage form exposure to SO2 and O3 together.例如，糖枫能够容忍相对高浓度的二氧化硫，但它接触到SO2和O3的混合气体就会很容易受到损害。White pine, on the other hand, is very sensitive to damage form either pollutant alone.白松，从另一方面说，是一种对单一污染物非常敏感很容易受到损害的植物。

Effects on materials

对材料的影响

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides react in the atmosphere to form acidic compounds which attack metal surfaces, a problem which has been particularly acute for the communications, switchgear, and computer industries.硫和氮氧化物反应，在大气中形成酸性化合物攻击金属表面，这个问题特别严重的影响通信，开关，和计算机产业。Fluorine is particularly reactive, and at high atmospheric concentrations etching of glass has been observed.氟是特别反应，并在大气中的浓度高的腐蚀玻璃已被观察到。These impacts are taken into consideration when sensitive components are designed, and the required protective measures or design modifications add to the cost of the item being produced.这些影响都被考虑到敏感元件的设计，以及所需的保护措施或设计上的修改增加的费用项目的制作中。Hydrogen sulfide in the ambient atmosphere reacts with lead oxide in white paint to form lead sulfide, so that white houses have been observed to take on a brownish tint overnight. 硫化氢的环境反应氧化铅白色油漆，形成硫化铅，因此，白色的房屋在一夜之间被观察到变成被一种褐色染发剂染色。Accelerated aging of synthetics and rubber due to exposure to atmospheric oxidants has already been noted.(Both the strength and color of the material are affected).加速老化的合成材料和橡胶是由于暴露于大气被氧化剂氧化已经被指出。（材料无论是强度和色彩都被影响）

It is extremely difficult to estimate the dollar value of accelerated deterioration of materials and aesthetic items such as buildings, statues or horticultural plantings.加速恶化的材料和审美项目的价值是极其困难估计，如建筑，雕塑或园艺种植。It is generally agreed that damage from atmospheric pollution is measured in the billions of dollars. 它被普遍认为大气污染对它们的损害有数十亿美元。

Ambient air quality standards环境空气质量标准

Experimental results and research have been prepared for many other pollutants. 实验结果和研究编写了许多其他污染物的资料。Using these data, we can establish ambient air quality standards at which pollutant effects will not be detectable.使用这些数据。我们可以建立那些未被探测到的污染物的环境空气质量标准。These data have led to the establishment of primary standards to protect health only and secondary standards to protect against effects to other systems.这些数据导致建立了初级标准以保障市民健康和二级标准以防止影响到其他系统。Standards are established for various samples averaging periods, because effects are dependent upon pollutant concentration and exposure time. 标准是建立在各种样品平均时期，因为它们的影响取决于污染物浓度和接触时间。

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(1) Reduction in visibility results in a social cost due to slowdown of air traffic and need for instrument-guided landing systems. 能见度降低导致的社会资源浪费，因为放缓的空中交通需要必要手段引导着陆系统。

（2）These impacts are taken into consideration when sensitive components are designed and the required protective measures or design modifications add to the item being produced这些影响都被考虑到敏感元件的设计，以及所需的保护措施或设计上的修改增加的费用项目的制作中。

全新版大学英语综合教程1课后翻译题答案

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