大学英语词汇学期末考试 重点复习资料整理 权威版 后附试题

2012词汇学复习资料

The development of the English Vocabulary

1.Indo-European Language Family

The Indo-European Language Family is considered as one of the most important language families. It includes most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. Those languages, which are believed to have originated from this language family and developed alone different lines, show various degrees of similarity to one another. They fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern Set东部诸语族: Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语, Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族, Armenian 亚美尼亚语族and Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语族; a Western Set: 西部诸语族Celtic凯尔特语族, Italic 意大利语族, Hellenic希腊语族, Germanic日尔曼语族. All the languages in both sets shed some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary.

Prussian普鲁士语

Lithuanian立陶宛语

Polish波兰语

Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语Czech捷克斯洛伐克语

Bulgarian保加利亚语

Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语

Russian

Albanian阿尔巴尼亚

Persian波斯语

Hindi北印度语

Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系Bengali孟加拉语

Romany，吉卜赛语

Armenian亚美尼亚语

Portuguese

Spanish

Italic意大利语族Italian

Roumanian罗马尼亚语

French

Indo-European

Language Family

Irish

Celtic凯尔特语Breton

Scottish

Norwegian挪威语

Icelandic，冰岛语

Danish丹麦语

Germanic Swedish瑞典语

日尔曼语言English

Dutch

Flemish

German

Hellenic，古希腊语- Greek

Chapter 1

A General Survey of A Word

The Definition of Word

? A word is

(1) A minimal free form of a language;

(2) a sound unity;

(3) a unity of meaning;

(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.

A word is a minimal free form that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

A word is a smallest unit of a language.

1. The development of English vocabulary

The history of English language can be divided into 3 periods:

a/ Old English period (449—1100)

The former inhabitants, the Celtic, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes Anglo-Saxon as Old English, Old English contains 50-60 thousand words, which consists of the basic word stock.

b/ Middle English period (1100-1500)

characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.The French loan words were found in law and governmental administration (judge, justice)

c/ Modern English period (1500--)

the early stage of this period ( including the years between 1500-1700), the Renaissance brought great changes to the vocabulary. borrowing from Latin, Latin were now mostly connected with science and abstract ideas. Greek borrowings were mostly literary, technical and scientific words

2.Classification of English Words According to Different Criteria

A. By Origin: native words and loan (borrowed ) words

In English language, most native words in Modern English are monosyllabic. They form the great majority of the basic word stock of English language.

The fundamental features of the basic word stock are:

1. National character;

2. Stability;

3. Word-forming ability;

4. Ability to form collocations

Since the great majority of the basic word stock are native words, they are naturally the ones used most frequently in everyday speech and writing.

B. By level of usage

1. Common words ( P11 words connected with ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life: “The repeated telephone calls only annoyed me but made my sister very angry.”)

2. Literary words (P12 words are chiefly used in writing, formal speeches, e.g. Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early.): a. Archaic words; b. Poetical words See P13

3. Colloquial words: Words used mainly in spoken English, in conversation among friends and colleagues,e.g. “John was fired for petty thieving”

4. Slang words

C. By notion: function words and content ( P 17)

function words are short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and so on, they serve grammatical meaning

Content words have lexical meaning, such as nouns, main verbs, adj and adv.e.g. The passerby was hit by the truck.

Chapter 2

Word-Structure and Word-Formation(1)

1. The definition of morpheme

1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morpheme

What are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning.

1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents of morpheme? 语素词素-形位

2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound.

Free morphemes,also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots.

Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner

2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).

Task:

(1) Read the following words and find the root in each word.

heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness,

sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly.

(2) What is your definition of root?

A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.

(3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?

2.2.1 Two types of roots

- Free root

In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith.

- Bound root

However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc.

these roots cannot be used to form new words.

2.2.2 Two types of affixes

Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.

- Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express

the following meanings:

(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes;

en in oxen.

(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.

(3) the verbal endings: for example,

a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person

singular present tense.

b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present

participle or gerund.

c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past

participle.

(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:

e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest,

hardest.

- Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes) can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.

?(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite.

As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech. task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech.

- en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich

- be- as in words like befriend, belittle

- a- as in words like asleep, aside

?(2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g.: darkness, worker.

By the addition of the suffix,

the word is usually changed from one part of

speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.

2.3 Relationship between the two classifications of morphemes

Morpheme

It is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.

a)Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words.

What is an allomorph?

An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.

语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。

● A morpheme may take various shapes or forms.

3.5 Morpheme and Word-formation

In word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.

在构词法中, 语素被分为词根、词干、词基和词缀。

Two types of affixes:

Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes屈折词缀和派生词缀

?Inflectional affixes function as grammatical markers. 表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀。

-s ,-es ,ing,-er ,or -(e)d,est

Derivational affixes or derivational morphemes

They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.

(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root.

e.g.，unjust, rewrite.

As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.

(2) Suffixes are affixes after the root

By the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.

Root, stem, base 词根、词干、词基

A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. 词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。

? A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been

removed. 词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。

? A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can

be added. It can be a root or a stem.

?词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。

?词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。

?词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。

?词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。

它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上派生词缀。但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与词干也是不同的，因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上，而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上。

Task: Analyse the word in terms of root, stem and base.

undesirable (n.): 不是词根（可再分解）；是词干（可以加屈折词缀，如名词复数-s），也是词基。

free morpheme (自由形位)

Morpheme: bound root (粘附词根)

(形位) bound morpheme（粘附形位）inflectional affix（屈折词缀）

affix prefix （前缀）

（词缀）derivational affix

（派生词缀）suffix （后缀）

1.Affixation (derivation)词缀法

Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. According to the positions that affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses; prefixation and suffixation.

Prefixation: Prefix do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes. e. g. asleep a (a- + v), encourage V (en- + n), unearth V (un- + n), de-oil V (de- + n), postwar a (post- + n), intercollege a (inter- + n) and others. These make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change the meaning of the stems.

Suffixation: Suffixes have only a small semantic role; their primary function is to change the grammatical function of stems. They mainly change the word class. Therefore, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into four groups.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/177399056.html,pounding

Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a 'lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word' (Quirk et al 1985). Silkworm蚕and hone-ybee蜜蜂are compounds; so are tear gas催泪and easy chair安乐椅.These examples show that compounds can be written solid (silkworm), hyphenated(honey-bee) and open (tear gas and easy chair) As open compounds are the same in form as free phrases, what is the dividing line between them?

2.1 Characteristics of Compounds

Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects.

1. Phonetic features In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress In cases of two stresses,

the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the second whereas the opposite is true of free phrases, e.g.

Compound Free phrase

a 'hot1house温房, 暖房,干燥室 a hot 'house

a 'black horse a black 'horse

a 'green room a green 'room

But these stress patterns of compounds are not absolute. Sometimes, the primary stress may also fall on the second element as in ash-'blonde 灰银and , bottle- 'green 深绿色的as well as in combining-form compounds, socio-lin 'guistic, psycho-a 'nalysis. Therefore, this is not always reliable.

2. Semantic features Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. For instance, a green hand is an 'inexperienced person', not a hand that is green in colour; red meat refers to 'beef' or 'lamb' rather than any meat that is red in colour; hot dog is by no means a dog that is hot, but a typical American sausage in between two pieces of bread. The meanings of such examples cannot be easily inferred from the two components of the compounds. Nevertheless, a lot of compounds are transparent, that is the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds. Consider the following random examples: disaster- related, flower pot, washing machine, dumb show哑剧, scarlet fever 猩红热and many others. But the two elements are inseparable and the change of the element would result in the loss of the original identity.

3. Grammatical features A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. Bad-mouth used as a verb can take the third person singular -s and the past tense marker -ed, e. g. 'He bad-mouthed me. 苛刻批评' (Bolinger and Sears 1981) Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional -s at the end, e.g. new-borns, three-year-olds, will-o ' -the-wisps, major generals. 少将Of course, there are exceptions such as brothers-in-law, lookers-on . In spite of this their single grammatical role is apparent.

In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes, for example: Compound Free phrase

fine art美术finer art美艺术

red tape官样文章reddest tape最红带子

hot line hotter line线路, 航线

3.Conversion

Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Look at the word round in the following sentences:

[4a] He was knocked out in the first round.

[ 4b] Round the number off to the nearest tenth.

[4c] The neighbours gathered round our barbecue.

[4d] The moon was bright and round.

[4e] People came from all the country round.

(from Lodwig & Barrett 1973)

4. Blending拼缀法

4.1 What is blending?

Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed from two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. The result of such a process is called a blend, which combines the sounds and the meaning of two others.

The majority of blends are nouns, very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. According to structure, blends fall into four major groups.

4.2 Classification of blending

Structurally, blends can be subdivided into the following five groups:

(1)The first part of the first word + the last part of the second one: head + tail

Chinglish, smog

(2)First part of the first word + first part of the second word: head + head

sci-fi, telecon

(3)Whole form of the first word + last part of the second one: word + tail

newscast, workfare

(4)First part of the first word + whole form of the second one: head + word

heliport, telediagnosis

(5) Whole form of the first word + first part of the second one: word+ head

skylab

Many blends have only a very short life and are very informal. They are particularly common in commercial and journalistic language.

5. Clipping

Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the original and using what remains instead. In modern times, people tend to be economical in writing and speech to keep up with the tempo of new life style. To save time one is likely to clip words that are frequently used. There are four common types of clipping:

(5)Front Clipping截前留后

Quake(earthquake) copter (helicopter) scope (telescope)

phone (telephone) gym (gymnastics)

(6)Back clipping截后留前

Dorm(dormitory) memo(memorandum) stereo (stereophonic)

disco(discotheque)

(7)Front and back clipping截前后留中间

Flu(influenza) fridge ()refrigerator

(8)Phrase clipping截词组

Pub (public house) zoo(zoological garden) pop(popular music) perm(permanent waves)

6. Acronymy首字母拼音法

Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Depending on the pronunciation, words formed in this way are called initialisms词首字母缩略词or acronyms首字母拼音词

1)Letters represent full words: VOA, BBC, c/o= care of 由...转交, p.c.= post card

2)Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word: TV. ID=identity card, GHQ=

General Headquarters

.Acronyms A word formed from the initial letters but pronounced as a normal word, such as radar for ra dio d etecting a nd r anging.

NATO, AIDS BASIC,TEFL

N-bomb, D-day, V-day

7. Back-formation逆构法

Words created through this way are mostly verbs. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal. What is back-formation?

Back-formation is a process of word formation by which a word is created by the deletion of the supposed affix. For instance, the verb edit was formed from editor by dropping the suffix –or. The verb aggress was formed from the noun aggression by removing the suffix –ion.

7.1 Types of back-formation

(1) Verbs backformed from nouns ending in

-er, -or, -ar:

cobbler修鞋匠--- to cobbleTo make or mend (boots or shoes).修：制造或修理（长统靴或鞋）rover- wanderer.流浪汉；漫游者--- to rove

bulldozer推土机--- to bulldozeTo clear, dig up, or move with a bulldozer.

用推土机整地：用推土机消除、削平或挖出

sculptor雕塑家--- to sculptTo shape, mold, or fashion especially with artistry or precision: 雕塑diāosù

orator演说者, 演讲者--- to orate

liar--- to lie

beggar--- to beg

(2) Verbs backformed from nouns ending

in -tion, -sion:

automation--- to automate to control or operate by automation.通过自动化控制或操作destruction--- to destruct

negation--- to negate

donation--- to donate

television--- to televise

(3) Verbs backformed from abstract nouns:

diagnosis--- to diagnose

enthusiasm--- to enthuse

(4) Verbs backformed from adjectives:

drowsy- --to drowse

gloomy--- to gloom

lazy--- to laze

(5) Verbs backformed from compound words:

baby sitter---to baby-sit

house sitter--- to house sit

(6) Nouns backformed from adjectives:

gloomy--- gloom

greedy--- greed

(7) Adjectives backformed from noun/adverb/adjective:

difficulty--- difficult

utterly--- utter

unflappable不易惊慌的；镇定的--- flappable=Easily excited or upset. 易激动或不安的

Lecture 6 Word Meaning

1. The meanings of “meaning”

(1)Reference所指

Reference is the relationship between language and the world “By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about. ”Words have meaning only when they have acquired reference. In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i.e. an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful.The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction, but with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.The word cat refers to a whole set of animal of the same species without the distinction of size, colour, region, owner and other factor.It is the extension of all cats in the universe., but it can refers to a particular cat in ‘Jean forgot to feed her cat yesterday.’ Therefore , meaning can be pinned down by the user, time, place, etc.The cat can be referred to animal, my dear, Jassay, this, she and so on.

(2)Sense语义

Sense denotes the relationship inside the language. It is an abstraction. Every word that has meaning has sense.(not every word has reference). For example,probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which

refers to anything in the word, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different in different language, one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as having the same sense: pavement in British English and sidewalk in American English have the same sense.

1．Four types of motivation

Motivation refers to the connection between word-symbol and its meaning. 语言符号,

In case of motivation, the great majority of English words are not motivated没有根据的, since they are conventional, arbitrary symbols. Nevertheless, English does have words whose meaning can be explained to a certain extent.

Motivation can arise in four major ways:

a)Onomatopoetic Motivation拟声理据

All the word based on the sounds made be birds, animals, insects and so on belong to this category. But such echoic words are largely conventional, or the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other language; baa-baa does not mean咩咩

- Primary Onomatopoeia基本理据

It means the imitation of sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an “ echo to the meaning”.

e.g. cats -- mew; miaow

dogs-- bow-wow; woof-woof

sheep-- baa-baa pigeons-- coo

cow -- moo ducks -- quark

- Secondary Onomatopoeia次要理据

It means that certain sounds and sound-sequences are associated with certain senses in an expressive relationship.

e.g. ding-dong

tick-tock

giggle-gaggle

b)Morphological Motivation形态理据

Compounds and derived words are multimorphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. So if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, namely affix or stem, one can figure out the meaning of the word.e.g. anticancer ( anti + cancer), readable ( read + able): something that can be read, toothache ( tooth + ache )

In a word, most of the compound words are morphologically motivated, some are not. e.g. egghead (书呆子）is a compound that we can not guess the meaning from the two free morphemes. It is not motivated morphologically..

c)Semantic Motivation语义理据

Semantic Motivation refers to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. 文字意义和比喻意义

A. metaphor

Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily is used of one thing, now is applied to another.

e.g. The curtain of night has fallen.

All the world is a stage.

The leg of the table is broken.

B. metonymy (借代）

Metonymy is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes (特征, as crown for king).

e.g. He succeeded to the crown.

The kettle boils. ( kettle for water)

C. synecdoche (提喻）

It means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of these.

e.g. bread for food; Beijing for China

Washington for the US

D. analogy ( 类比）

Analogy is a process whereby words are created in imitation of other words.

e.g. marathon[体]马拉松赛跑– telethon长期连续电视节目, talkathon冗长的讨论, 冗长的演说More examples are : black list– white list白名单(如守法人士, 合法机构, 可雇佣人员, 可上映的电影、节目、可照顾的企业、工会满意的机构等等的名单, 为blacklist 黑名单之对), gray list(灰名单，指非明文查禁但仍属不合法的人和物

From white-collar or blue-collar workers we have gray- collar workers (服务行业的职工).

数字类比:ther examples are: First Mother to First Family, then to First Lady;

the First world—the second world – the third world – the Fourth World;

the three P’s ( peace, petroleum, Palestine) and the three I’s ( inflation, interest rate, impeachment 弹劾) are from the three R’s（reading, writing, arithmetic算）

地点空间类比:arscape火星and moonscape are from landscape

earthrise is from sunrise

d)Etymological Motivation

The history of the word explains the meaning of the word. All the words commonized from the proper nouns can be interpreted in terms of their origins.The word Laconic meaning ‘brief’ or ‘short’ is derived from Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their ‘brevity of speech’ and for their habit of never using more words than necessary.

2．Types of meaning

Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning.

1)Grammatical meaning语法意义

Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word that indicates grammatical concept or relationships. They become important only when they are used in actual context. Grammatical meaning consists of word-class词类and inflectional paradigm(词形变换表).

a) word-class:

In the dictionary, words are often described by heir lexical meanings and also by what is traditionally known as the part of speech, which modern linguists call the word-class. e.g.: realize will be marked as a verb and realization as a noun. When we use a word, we have to consider two essential factors: its lexical meaning and its part of speech. Lexical meaning is dominant in content words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in function words. We can never use words correctly without knowing their word-classes.

b.) Inflectional paradigm:词形变换

The set of grammatical forms of a word( mainly nouns and verbs) is called inflectional paradigm paradigm.

e.g. : to work, works, worked, working; to write, wrote, written, etc. here are two sets of inflectional paradigm changes. Nouns are declined(词尾变化), verbs are conjugated(词形变化), and gradable adjectives have degrees of comparison. The lexical meaning of a word is the same throughout the paradigm; that is to say, all the word-forms of one and the same word have the same lexical meaning, yet the grammatical meaning varies from one word-form to another, e.g.: cat is grammatically singular in meaning while cats is plural; works denotes third person, singular, present tense, whereas worked denotes past tense.

2)Lexical meaning词汇意义

Grammatical meaning surfaces only in use, but lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the notion that the word conveys. lexical meaning has two components: Conceptual meaning概念意义& Associative meaning关联意义

A Conceptual meaning, is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. For exampl e,’The sun rises in the east’ The word sun here means a heavenly body which gives of light, heat, and energy.

B Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It is open-ended and indeterminate 不确定的and liable to the influence. It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc. Associative meaning comprises four types

A. Connotative meaning

Connotative meaning(内涵意义): Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind. e.g. the denotative meaning of the word mother is “ female parent”, but it generally connotes love, care, tenderness., forgiving The word January denotes “ the first month of the year”, but it connotes cold weather, a biting north wind, snow, central heating, skating or even the New Year. ‘home’ , the conceptional meaning is a dwelling place ‘ different people may make out more sense than that. It may remind them of their ‘family, friends, warmth, safety, love, convenience. These connotations are implied in the well-known saying ‘East or west, home is best.’Connotative meaning is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of individual. Suppose a child is prejudiced against, often jeered at , beaten or scolded at home, then home to him is nothing but ‘a hell’

B. Stylistic meaning

Social or stylistic meaning( 文体意义): words used in different contexts or situations according to their social or stylistic meanings. According to the social or stylistic meaning, words may be grouped into 3 levels:

formal neutral informal

e.g.: male parent father daddy

ally friend buddy

What’s the stylistic distinction in the following two sentence?

1. They chucked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.

2. After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with money. Sentence 1 could be said by two criminals, talking casually about the crime afterwards, so all the words used in italics are slangy, whereas sentence 2 might be said by the chief inspector in making his official report, and thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money)

C. Affective meaning(情感意义): meaning concerning with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer. Affective meaning of words may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative

a) appreciative

(褒义词): words are used to express the speaker’s appreciation or approval of the person or thing such as famous, determined, slender. black

b) pejorative

(贬义词): words used to show disapproval or contempt on the part of the speaker. such as notorious, pigheaded固执的, 顽固的, skinny, nigger, etc.

A B

appreciatory words derogatory words

slender skinny

statesman politician

confidence complacency

bachelor girl old maid

Note:

Affective meaning varies from individual to individual, from culture to culture, from generation to generation, from society to society.

In most Western countries, dog is associated with ‘loyalty’, ‘faithfulness’, ‘a close companion whereas to Chinese, dog at its best is useful animal, it generally generates negative association. If

a person is compared to a dog, the speaker’s attitude towards the person is no more than

‘contemptuous’

D. Collocative meaning搭配意义

it is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.

Collocative meaning overlaps with stylistic meaning and affective meaning because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations. e.g. pretty and handsome share the conceptual meaning of ‘good-looking’but are distinguished by the range of nouns they collocate with.A pretty woman stresses the attractiveness of facial features while a handsome woman may not be facially beautiful yet is attractive in other respects: a slender figure, posture, behaviour.

Lecture 7 Sense Relations and Semantic Field语义关系和语义场

1．Polysemy多义关系

Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. The bulk of English words are polysemantic; one –meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms such as hydrogen, molecule, and so on.

Two processes of development词汇发展的两种模式

Radiation辐射型：Each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning.

Take head for example:

the head of the school, six pence per head, a head of cabbage.一棵卷心菜the head of a page, to come to a head到了紧要关头; (事情)成熟; 达到顶点; 疮疖化脓, to lose one’s head被砍头, 不知所措, six head of cattle. Though these senses have little in common, they all derive from special application of the central idea of head as a part of the body.

Concatenation (连锁型): It describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.

Take board for example:

notice board, chessboard棋盘, cardboard纸板, sideboard餐具柜, on board, board and lodging提供食宿, board of directors董事会

As can be seen, there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.

Generally radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.

?Polysemy and context：Polysemy dose not create much confusion in daily use because the context generally reveals which meaning out of all its possible meanings is to be attached to the word, for example:

(1)He tipped the chessboard撞倒棋盘, dumping the men to the floor. 棋子

(2)The visitor sent his man for the luggage. 男仆

(3)Man the language lab. 给…配备人员

2．Homonymy：同形同音异义Homonyms are words which have the same phonological

or spelling form but differ in meaning.

Types of Homonymy: Perfect Homonyms homographs, homophones (which constitute the largest number and most common)

?perfect homonyms

Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning, e. g:

bark n / v To utter the harsh, abrupt sound of a dog. 树皮, 吠声

date n . a kind of fruit/ a boy or girl friend

?Homograph同形异义词words that have the same spelling but differ in origin, meaning, and sound.

Bow/bau/ n. bending the head as a greeting

Bow/bou/ n.the device used for shooting arrows

Sow/sou/ v. to scatter seeds

sow [sau]大母猪

?homophone 同音异义词：words are identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning:

Dear n. a love person

Deer n. a kind of animal

Right a. correct

Write v. put down on paper with a pen

Rite n. a ceremonial procedure

Origins of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing,

Criteria to distinguish homonyms and polysemants: the fundamental difference lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology. The second one is semantic relatedness. Meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.

3．Synonymy

Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.

synonymous patterns

1）The double scale patterns

In English, there are countless pairs of synonyms in which a native term coexists with the one borrowed from French, Latin or Greek.

2）the triple scale pattern

3）BrE. and AmE. Pattern In this pattern, the British words and American words co-exist.

In this pattern, native, French, and Latin or Greek words co-exist.

Types of Synonyms: relative ones and absolute ones

Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning. This kind of synonyms are rare and may be found in special terminology such as compounding and composition in lexicology, malnutrition and undernourishment in medicine.

Relative synonyms

Synonyms which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality are called relative synonyms.

Take change/alter/vary for example.To changea thing is to put another thing in its place; to alter a thing is to make it different from which it was before;to vary a thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times,e.g. ‘A man changes his habits, alters his conduct, and varies his manner of speaking.’

Sources of synonyms: borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic Discrimination of synonyms: Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning. Some words have a wider range of meaning than others.

1)difference in denotation For example, extend, increase, expand share a general sense but have different implications.. Each of the three terms expresses a different kind of enlargement

This can be illustrated by the following graphs

[1] The company has decided to increase its sales by ten per cent next year.

[2]The owner of the restaurant is going to extend the kitchen by ten feet this year.

[3]The mental will expand if heated.

[4]a rich man and a wealthy lady are both rich, but the wealthy lady is felt to possess more money and property than a rich man

2)Difference in connotation, By connotation we mean the stylistics and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.

a. Borrowed words are generally more formal than native words: answer/respond, homely/domestic. The group of policemen, constable, bobby, cop serves as another example. Policeman and constable are stylistically neutral, yet the former is used in British English an American English while the latter is only British Bobby is colloquial, used only in British English and cop is slangy

b)archaic , poetic and standard

Ire/anger, bliss/happiness The second is standard in usage whereas the first is old-fashioned and archaic, only found in poetry, earlier writings.

3) Clear affective values e.g. Result is neutral while consequence always has a negative implication. Compare the italicized words:

[1] Look at that lovely little boy.

[2 ] Look at that small boy.

[3] Look at that tiny boy.

The three adjectives all describe the smallness of the boy. But little suggests ‘attractiveness and ‘pleasantness’, tiny implies the abnormal growth of the child and small simply conveys the idea of being not big. Therefore,little is appreciative, small is neutral and tiny is derogatory.

4)difference in application Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations We can say ‘The word has two senses/meanings’He is a man of sense’is acceptable, but ‘He is a man of meaning’is not acceptable, Empty vacant are synonyms but their collocations are not the same. Empty(box, street, room, vacant (seat, chair, apartment Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some place is not occupied.

4．Antonym：opposite in meaning are generally called antonyms.

Types of antonyms:

1）Contradictory terms互相矛盾反义词These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are in such a relationship that the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other, e.g., alive and dead, single and married. Contradictory terms are nongradabe and thus one cannot say “He is very alive/dead.”

2.）Contrary terms相对的

Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor; good and bad. They are gradable adjectives, i.e. they can be modified by adverbs which convey the degree of the intensity of the adjective, for example: very/so/extremely rich/poor

A middle ground belong to neither to one pole nor to the other as beautiful, good-looking, plain, ugly

3）Relative terms

This third type consists of relational opposites such as parent and child, lend and borrow, husband and wife ,employer and employee

Relative terms are different from contradictory terms. There is an absolute opposition between contradictory terms. IF the adult is not a man, then the adult must be a woman.

Characteristics of antonyms

1）They are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.Words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms. Many words, though having synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites, hit, book, house.

2）A word may have more than one antonym. Different antonyms in different contexts. For instance, when the word “fast” is used in the sense of “fixed firmly”, then the antonym will be “loose” or “insecure”. But when it means “rapid”, its antonym will be “slow”.

3）. Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.反义词在语义的包容上不同

In many pairs we can find that one member is more specific than the other and the meaning of the specific is included in that of the general. e.g. man/woman, tall/short, old/young

There has been no man in the island. Man signifies ‘human being’ naturally including woman

How tall is his brother?

How short is his brother?

4.）Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity.

For example, hot and warm are synonyms. Their difference lies in intensity. The opposite of hot is cold and that of warm is cool.

5. Hyponymy

Superordinate and subordinate terms

From the above diagram, we can see the word food is a general term, linguistically called a superordinate term, i.e., it includes all the other terms listed underneath it. Meat, vegetable, and fruit are specific terms and they are all hyponyms/subordinate terms of food. The relationship between specific words and general words are called hyponymy.

Lecture 8 Meaning and Context

1.Types of Context

1.1Extra-linguistic context/ Context of situation(语言之外的环境)

The extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire cultural background., which may also affect the meaning of words.

1. The actual speech situation in which a word occurs

There are cases in which the meaning of a word is determined not by linguistic factors, but by the speech situation in which a word is used. e.g. “ Father’s c oming”.

In everyday life, word meaning is more often dependent on the actual situation in which a word is used rather than on verbal context.

2. The entire cultural background against which a word is used

The extra-linguistic context may lead on to an even broader view of context embracing the entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance, or a speech event has been set. Because of

the cultural differences, the same lexical item may not mean the same thing to people of different countries e.g.

“ dragon” in Chinese and English

“ landlord” in Chinese and English

“ liberalism” in Chinese and English自由主义：一种政治理论，它以人性本善为基础，提倡个人自治，强调公民和政治的自由，主张用被统治者所同意的方法进行统治，提倡保护个人使其免受专断权威的迫害

2.Linguistic context

2.1 Lexical context(词汇语境):

This context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question.

The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring. e.g. make, it also means the following meanings:

My father made 5000 yuan a month. ( earned)

The train was making 140 kilometers an hour then. ( moving at a speed)

She made coffee for us. ( boiled)

The rules and regulations are mad e to protect everybody’s right. ( enacted)

Paper has a number of meanings in the dictionary, yet in each of the following context, it conveys only one sense.

(1)A sheet of paper (thin flat sheets of substance for writing, printing, decorating walls, etc. )

(2) A white paper (government document)

(3) A term paper (essay written at the end of the term)

(4) today’s paper (newspaper)

(5) Examination paper (a set of questions used as examination)

2.2.Grammatical context:

The meanings of a word in this context may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. Though less common, it is by no means rare.

In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word. Take the verb get for example; its meaning varies in different syntactical structure: ?get +n. means “ to receive” , as in “ I got a gift from Mary”.

?get + adj. means “ to become”, as in “ Tom is getting taller and taller”.

?get + n. + adj. means “ to bring something to a certain condition; cause to be or become”, as in “ She soon got herself ready for the party”.

?get + infinitive means “ to succeed in doing “, as in “ If I get to graduate this summer, I will take the job as an accountant in that company”.

?get + n. + infinitive means “ to cause somebody to do something”, as in “ I will get the gardener to water my plants when I am out”.

? 2.The Role of Context

? 2.1 Eliminating ambiguities

Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning. Lexical ambiguity often arises due to polysemy

a) He is a hard businessman

b) John ran the egg and spoon race. “hardworking” “difficult”

“participated” “organized”

1.Role of Context

1.1Elimination of ambiguity

Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with a multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.

Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as two separate words share the same form.

Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.

Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning. Lexical ambiguity often arises due to polysemy

a) He is a hard businessman

b) John ran the egg and spoon race. “hardworking”“difficult”

“participated” “organized”

?Structural ambiguity arises from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or a phrase.

? e.g. young men and women ( both the men and women are young; or young men and all women) ?I like my students more than Bill. ( This sentence can be understood as “ I like my students more than Bill does.” or “ I like my students more than I like Bill.”)

1.2Indication of referents限定所指

Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing.

In conversation, in order to avoid repetition, pronouns( like I, he, you, this, or that) are often used instead of a noun or a noun phrase; do, can, might, or should can be used in place of a verb phrase, and then, or there is used in place of an adverbial phrase of time or place. Context is of great importance in understanding the referents of such word.

? e.g. “ – Do you think he will?

?-- I don’t know. He might.

?-- I suppose he ought to, but perhaps he feels he can’t.

?-- Well, his brothers have. They perhaps think he needn’t.

?-- Perhaps eventually he may. I think he should, and I very much hope he will.”

3.3 Provision of clues for inferring word meaning. 提供线索推断词义

In many cases, when a new word appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints that might help the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:

A. Definition The author gives formal definition immediately after a new term.

E.g.Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinestics, the study of body movement,was

suggested by Professor Birdwhistell.

B. explanation

If the concept is complicated and must involved technical terms in the definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words. E.g. It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors - those tiny parts of computer commonly known as ‘silicon chips.

C. Example cite an example to throw light on the meaning of the term.

E.g. Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Ms. Mary, for example, speaks five languages

D. Synonymy

Their greatest fear was of a conflagration大火, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.

E. Antonymy

As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadir.

F. Hyponymy e.g. The village had most of the useful amenities: a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medical center, and a school.

G. Relevant details

e.g. In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearing sou’westers, the storm was so heavy that they were wet through.

H. Word structure e.g. Copernicus哥白尼believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in geocentric theory.

If we know the form geo- as in geology or geography as well as the fact that it is used in contrast to helio-, we can guess the meaning，他提出地球及其它行星绕太阳运动的日心说，

4. Suggested ways for the correct comprehension of word meaning

A. the use of an up-to-date and adequate monolingual dictionary

B. A good knowledge of the culture of the English-speaking people

C. Development of the ability to determine the meaning of a word from its context

Question

Study this sentence. If you find anything wrong , please explain why and then improve it.

Flying plane is dangerous.

(1) It is ambiguous.

(2) Ambiguity caused by the grammatical structure

(3)This sentence can be understood as:

a. It is a dangerous to fly a plane.

b. A plane that is flying is dangerous.

(4)Improvement

a.John told me that he didn’t want to be a pilot, because flying a plane is dangerous.

b. A flying plane is dangerous.

Lecture 9Changes in Word Meaning

Types of Changes

Changing in word meaning has never ceased since the language came into being and will continue in the future. Yet no one has been able to systemize the ways in which changes occur. However, there are a few patterns that changes follow.

1.3Extension(generalization)词义的扩大

A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development.

Extension of meaning, the opposite of restriction, means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed. Take the word “manuscript”for example, it originally meant something hand written, but now it refers to an author’s copy

whether written by hand or typed. Another example is “fallout”.

1.4Narrowing词义缩小

It means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which

is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted. An example was the word “meat”

which originally meant “food; especially solid food, as distinguished from drink.”In the course of time, the range of meaning was narrowed to mean specifically “the flesh of animals used as food, excluding fish and birds.”More examples:

disease（discomfort. 不安；烦恼；弊病；疾病,）

1.5Elevation (amelioration)词义升格

Elevation of meaning is the opposite of degeneration. Words often rise from humble beginnings to positions of greater importance. The word “knight爵士”for example, once meant “boy仆人”, came to alter its use as a title of rank through military and feudal associations. More examples

marshal“马夫”元帅/shrewd

1.6Degradation

When the meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning it is called degeneration or pejorative change. A villain, for example, originally referring to a man who worked on a farm and implying nothing unfavorable, came to be a term of reproach. Similarly, boor, which once meant a farmer, now implies “a rough, ill mannered man”.

A peasant regarded as vile and brutish.

【废语】乡巴佬，粗汉：被认为低鄙和粗野的农民A wicked or evil person; a scoundrel.

恶棍；流氓

2.Causes of Changes

2.1Extra-linguistic factors词义演变的语言外部原因

Historical reason历史---it often happens that a word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed.

Class reason阶级---language records the speech and attitude of different social classes. So different social varieties of language have come into being. Churl农业工人,乡下人,粗野的人, 吝啬鬼, hussy、放荡的女子, wench指农村女孩, 妓女嫖妓villain as we already know were originally neutral in color but have all down-graded as ‘ill-mannered or bad people’.

Psychological reason--- the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives. Many low, humble and despised occupation often take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons. For example, in the Second World War, prevalent in the Australian forces were peasant for ‘soldier of ordinary rank’, squeak for sergeant, comedian 喜剧演员for commando突击队员(pejorative), stew keeper：炖制而成的菜for ‘cook’Besides, religious influence is another kind of psychological need. Angel, martyr and paradise have their meanings elevated because of the influence of Christianity

2.2Linguistic reasons

Shortening

One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole, e.g. gold is used for‘gold medal’ gas for ‘cold gas’

Borrowing

The influx of borrowings has caused some change in meaning. For instance, deer formerly meant animal, and later animal from Latin and beast from French found their way into English. As three terms were synonymous, animal retained the original meaning, the meaning of deer was narrowed.

Analogy

Fortuitous偶然的, 幸运的formerly denoted ‘happening by chance’, ‘accidental’and later took on the meaning ‘fortunate’probably by analogy because two words look similar.

Lecture 10 English Idioms

Objectives

This chapter discusses idioms, their major characteristics, the way of classification in terms of grammatical functions and their variations in the actual use.

Teaching emphasis and difficulties

To understand idioms correctly in actual context and use them properly in production.

1.Sphere of idioms

The English language abounds in idioms like any other highly developed tongues. English idioms are colourful, forcible and thought-provoking. Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms俗语, catchphrases醒目的广告用语, (政治宣传中的)标语, slang expressions俚语, proverbs谚语, etc.

2.Characteristics of idioms

2.1Semantic unity语义的整体性

Idioms each consist of more than one word, but each is a semantic unity. Though the various words that make up the idioms have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom, they have lost their individual identity. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom. Many idioms are semantically inexplicable(无法说明的).e.g. till the cows come home means ‘forever’as a adverb; Rains cats and dogs means‘rain heavily’literally makes nonsense

2.2Structural stability结构稳定性

The structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable. Firstly, the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. Eg. Lip service *mouth service Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed. by twos and threes *by threes and twos Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article eg. out of the question.adv.不可能Finally, many idioms are grammatically unanalysable. It should be pointed out that the idiomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of a scale, with the true idioms established at the upper end and regular combinations at the bottom. In between are the semi-idioms. The fixity of idioms depends on the idimaticity. The more idiomatic the idioms, the more fixed the structure.习语性越强的习语，结构越固定Many of the idioms of the lower scale do allow some changes.;

Lecture 11 English Dictionaries

Objectives

This chapter attempts to introduce and expound four types of dictionaries, their contents, scope and characteristics, and discusses how to choose and use dictionaries, and finally introduces three popular dictionaries.

Teaching emphasis and difficulties

How to choose and use dictionaries.

Key Points:

1.Types of dictionaries

1.1Monolingual and bilingual dictionaries

1.2Linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries

1.3Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries

1.4Specialized dictionaries

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/177399056.html,e of dictionaries

2.1Choice of dictionaries: monolingual or bilingual; general or specialized; British or American;

early or late

2.2Content of the dictionary: spelling; pronunciation; definition; usage; grammar; usage notes

and language notes; etymological information; supplementary matter

2.3Use of the dictionaries: read the contents page to find out quickly what information is

included in the dictionary; read the guide to the use of the dictionary, where the compilers explain in detail how to use the dictionary.

3.Three Good General Dictionaries

3.1Longman Dictionary of Contemporary Englsih(new edition 1987): clear grammar notes,

usage notes, language notes, revised and updated definitions

3.2Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (CCELD, 1987): definition, extra column

另辟专栏, usage examples

3.3 A Chinese-English Dictionary(revised Edition, 1995): the new edition has an addition of

800 single character entries and of 18’000 multi-character entries in adding catchphrases, sayings, and proverbs; the new edition revised some old entries; the new edition keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes it easy to use.

1. As far as the origins of the words are concerned, English words can be classified into ___B__.

A. content words and functional words

B. native words and borrowed words

C. basic words and borrowed words

D. loan words and dialectal words

2. A word is __A___ of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

A. a minimal free form

B. a basic part

C. a minimal element

D. a free element

3. English lexicology embraces ___A__, semantics, etymology, stylistics, and lexicography.

A. morphology

B. phonology

C. syntax

D. pragmatics

4. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is _D____.

A. innovations made by linguists

B. influence of the work of scribes

C. stabilization of spelling by printing

D. the fact of more phonemes than letters in English

5. The relationship between sound and meaning is ___C__ and conventional.

A. logical

B. objective

C. arbitrary

D. consistent

6. Pronouns and __C___ are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability.

A.adverbs

B. adjectives

C. numerals

D. prepositions

7. Which of the following is not a functional word? D

A.through

B. But

C. they

D. four

8. Listed in the course book are _C____ features of native words.

A.Five

B. Six

C. seven

D. eight

9._A____ are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.

A. Aliens

B. Denizens

C. Semantic-loans

D. Neologisms

10. The words borrowed from French or Latin are mostly _B____.

A. neutral

B. formal

C. colloquial

D. informal

11. There was _A___ agreement between sound and form in Old English than in Modern English.

A.more

B. little

C. less

D. a bit more

12. Nonbasic vocabulary includes all of the following except __B___.

A. neologisms

B. Anglo-Saxon words

C. archaisms

D. technical terms

II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions given in the course book.

1. Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the _____ and history of the form and meaning of

(完整word版)大学英语一期末考试题以及答案

精心整理 大学英语（一） 行政班级分级班级姓名学号 C. A measuring system. D. A control system. 2. A. Car prices. B. Car services.

C. The company’s business. D. The company’s culture. 3. A. It’s easy to do. B. It’s challenging. dialogue, there are some recorded questions. Both the conversations and questions will be spoken two times. Conversation 1

6. A. Breakfast. B. Dinner. C. A 5 dollar gift card. D. Bus service to the airport. 10. A. Make an appointment with her. B. Talk with her about a new order.

C. Send her an email about the shipment. D. Call her back when receiving the shipment. Directions: This part is to test your ability to construct grammatically correct sentences. It consists of 2 sections.

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料c h a p t e r 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]

Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.

英语词汇学考试重点整理

Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by

(完整版)英语词汇学英语词汇学习题3及答案

试题三 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.(30%) 1.According to the degree of similarity, homonyms can be classified into ( ) A. perfect homonyms B. homonyms C. homophones D. all the above 2.Transfer as a mode of semantic change can be illustrated by the example ( ) A. ad for “advertisement” B. dish for “food" C. fond for “affectionate” D. an editorial for “an editorial article" 3.It is a general belief that the meaning does not exist in the word itself, but it rather spreads over ( ) A. the reader’s interpretation B. the neighbouring words C. the writer's intention D. the etymology of the word 4.Which of the following is a prefix of time and order? A. extra- B. pro- C. re- D. semi- 5.Which of the following dictionaries is not a specialized dictionary? A. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology B. Chamber's Encyclopedic English Dictionary C. Longmont Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs D. Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms 6.Which of the following statements is Not true? A. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. B. The relationship between a word and its referent is arbitrary. C. Concept is universal to all men alike. D. Sense denotes the relationships outside the language. 7.The words which occur before or after a word and may affect its meaning form ( ) A. physical context B. grammatical context C. lexical context D. linguistic context 8."Smith is an architect. He designed World Trade Center. "The clue provided in the context is ( ) A. definition B. explanation C. example D. hyponym 9.The term "vocabulary" is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that ( ) A. it can refer to the common core of a language B. it can refer to the total number of the words in a language C. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical period D. it can stand for words in given dialect or field 10.The idiom "a dark horse" is a ( ) A. simile B. metaphor

专业《大学英语》期末考试试卷

系2004级专业《大学英语》期末考试试卷(B) 楚雄师学院 2004 学年上学期期末考试卷 B 卷课程《大学英语》考试时间： 120 分钟 班级：学号 Section A Directions：In this section, you will hear 10 short conversations. At the end of each conversation, a question will be asked about what was said. Both the conversation and the question will be spoken twice. After each question there will be a pause. During the pause, you must read the four choices marked A), B), C) and D), and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter on the ANSWER SHEET with a single line through the center. Example：You will hear: M: Is it possible for you to work late, Miss Green? W: Work late? I suppose so, if you really think it's necessary. Q：Where do you think this conversation most probably took place? You will read: A) At the office． B) In the waiting room. C) At the airport. D) In a restaurant. From the conversation we know that the two were talking about some work they have to finish in the evening. This is most likely to have taken place at the office．Therefore, A) "At the office" is the best Answer. You should mark A) on the ANSWER SHEET with a single line through the center. 1. A) She's studying for a physics exam. B) She's planning her class schedule. C) She has a degree in astrophysics. D) She plans to graduate this year. 2. A) He already has a job. B) He wi11 probably work at the library. C) He needs to study full time. D) He plans to work at the library in the summer. 3. A) 35 miles per hour.

《英语词汇学教程》论文(中文版)

英语词汇学论文(中文版) 单词记忆法细谈 一，读音规则记忆法 它就是按照元音字母、元音字母组合、辅音字母及辅音字母组合在开音节和闭音节的读音规律记忆。例如：ea，ee，er，ir，ur，or分别能发［i：］［：］［：］等。还有些固定的字母组合，例如：ing发［i］，ly发［li］，ty发［ti］和各种前缀、后缀，例如：a-，re-，un-，dis-，im-；-ed，-ing，-ly，-er，-or，-ful，-y等都有其比较固定的发音。掌握了这些规则，记单 词时就不必一个字母一个字母地记忆了。 二.字母变化记忆法 英语单词中以某个单词为基础，加、减、换、调一个字母就成了另一个新单词。具体方法 如下： 1.前面加字母。例如：is/his，ear/near/hear，read/bread 2.后面加字母。例如：hear/heart，you/your，plane/planet 3.中间加字母。例如：though/through，tree/three，for/four 4.减字母。例如：she/he，close/lose，star/tstar 5.换字母。例如：book/look/cook，cake/lake/wake/make/take 6.调字母（即改变字母顺序）。例如：blow/bowl，sing/sign， from/form 三.联想记忆法

在日常生活中可以根据所处的环境，所见到、所摸到的事物，联想相关的英语单词。例如： 打球时联想到：ball，(play)basketball，(play)football，(play)volleyball，playground等等；吃饭时联想到：dining-room，(have)breakfast，(have)lunch，(have)supper等等；睡觉 时联想到：bed，bedroom，gotobed，sleep，gotosleep，fallasleep等等。如果长期坚持下支，效果就会很好。 四.归类记忆法 众所周知，单词本身、单词与单词之间都存在着或多或少的联系，英语词汇中 有许多单词有着其近义词、反义词、一词多义、一词多音、同音词或形音形似词等内 在或外在的联系。因此，记忆单词的主要方法是把单词之间存在的这种联系挖掘归纳 出来，通过对比、对照的方式把学过的单词从各个方面进行归类 1.按词的构造归类 按词跟、前缀、后缀、合成词归类，找出词与词最本质 的联系。这种联系不仅使新词记得快、记得牢、记得久，而 且也同时复习了大量的旧词。合成词，如： schoolbag,school-boy,classroom,football,blackboard,etc. 前缀后缀词，如：unhappy,unhealthy,unfriendly,unlucky,worker,writer,visitor,us

(完整word版)英语词汇学复习大纲整理

1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)

(完整版)全国英语词汇学(00832)高等教育自学考试试题与答案

全国高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码：00832 Ⅰ．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket.（30%）1．According to semanticists, a word is a unit of ______.（） A．meaning B．Sound C．combination of sounds D．Group 2．The pronunciation has changed ______ spelling over the years.（） A．more slowly than B．As quickly as C．more rapidly than D．Not so quickly as 3．Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by ______.（）A．use frequency B．notion C．origin D．sound 4．Rapid growth of science and technology breeds such new words as the following EXCEPT______.（） A．green revolution B．fast food C．moon walk D．space shuttle 5．Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new ______ to meet the new need. （）A．form B．meaning C．look D．pronunciation 6．Reviving archaic words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary. For instance, in American English “fall” means ______ in British English.（） A．four B．fell C．for D．autumn 7．The plural morpheme “-s” is realized by /s/after the following sounds EXCEPT ______. （）A．/t/ B．/g/ C．/p/ D．/k/ 英语词汇学试卷第 1 页共9 页

大学英语期末试题B卷

学号 姓 系部 专业 班级 考试科目 考试时间 年 月 日 密 封 山东师范大学历山学院201３—2014学年第二学期 期末考试试题(B 卷) 试题卷 (时间12０分钟,满分10０分) 课程编号: 课程名称: 大学英语 适用年级: ２01３级 适用专业: 非英语 学制: 三 注意:１、本试题试题卷共六页。 2、本试题所有答案应写在答案卷上,否则不予计成绩。 Ⅰ ⅠListe ｎing pr ｅhens ｉｏn (1５％) Sectio ｎ Ａ D ｉｒe ｃtions: In ｔhi ｓ s ｅct ｉon ｙo ｕ ｗill ｈear 10 short dial ｏgue ｓ。 At t ｈe e ｎｄ of e ａc ｈ ｄi ａlog ｕe, a q ｕｅstion ｗｉll b ｅ asked abou ｔ w ｈa ｔ was said 、 Ｂｏth the dialo ｇues and questio ｎｓ will be spo ｋｅn tw ｉce 。 After ea ｃh q ｕest ｉon th ｅre w ｉll b ｅ a pause 。 Ｄuring the p ａu ｓe, yo ｕ must read th ｅ ４ choices marke ｄ A,B,C an ｄ D,ａnd dec ｉde w ｈich is the bes ｔ answ ｅｒ。 Then write the corresp ｏndi ｎg letter ｏn the A ｎｓwer Ｓheet 。 １。 Wher ｅ did thi ｓ c ｏnversatio ｎ p ｒo ｂa ｂl ｙ ｈappen ？ A In a d ｒu ｇ st ｏr ｅ、 Ｂ I ｎ ａ sh ｏｐ、 C In a ｓupermarke ｔ。 Ｄ In a ｒｅｓｔaurant. 2、 When wi ｌl ｔh ｅ t ｒａin leave? A １4:２0 Ｂ １４:00 Ｃ 14:40 D 14:30 3。 How m ａｎy ｐeople ar ｅ th ｅre in the m ａn ’s f ａmily ？ ?A 5。 B ４、 C 3、 D 6、 4. Ho ｗ i ｓ ｔｈａｔ school? A It ＇s even ｗo ｒs ｅ th ａn peop ｌｅ say 、 B It's bet ｔer than it used t ｏ be 。 ? C It’s b ｅtte ｒ t ｈan people sa ｙ、 D I ｔ’ｓ not a ｓ g ｏo ｄ as it w ａs 。 5。 What is imp ｌi ｅd in t ｈe co ｎversatio ｎ？ Ａ T ｈe ｃhildren w ｅr ｅ ｅｎjoyin ｇ t ｈemselve ｓ、 ? B T ｈe ch ｉldren d ｉd ｎ＇t e to th ｅ ｐar ｔy 。 ? C Ｔhe childr ｅn were ｇｉving ａ l ｏt of ｆu ｎ ｉｎ th ｅ party. Ｄ The chi ｌｄｒen wer ｅ n ｏｔ ｂe ｈa ｖi ｎg th ｅmselves ｉn ｔh ｅ party 。 6. Wha ｔ will ｔhe ｗｅathe ｒ be l ｉke ？ A Ｉt ｗｉll ｇet be ｔｔer Ｂ Ｒａiny C Ｓｕnny 、 D It ｉs ｃolder. ７。 Ｗｈat does th ｅ ｗｏman mean ？ A Sh ｅ doe ｓ not agree ｗit ｈ the ｍan 。 B She ｄｏes ｎo ｔ know what

自考英语词汇学复习大纲自己整理

11 C h a p t e r 1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 p ol ysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 semantic-loans 借义词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点

大学英语词汇学期末考试 重点复习资料整理 权威版 后附试题

2012词汇学复习资料 The development of the English Vocabulary 1.Indo-European Language Family The Indo-European Language Family is considered as one of the most important language families. It includes most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. Those languages, which are believed to have originated from this language family and developed alone different lines, show various degrees of similarity to one another. They fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern Set东部诸语族: Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语, Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族, Armenian 亚美尼亚语族and Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语族; a Western Set: 西部诸语族Celtic凯尔特语族, Italic 意大利语族, Hellenic希腊语族, Germanic日尔曼语族. All the languages in both sets shed some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary. Prussian普鲁士语 Lithuanian立陶宛语 Polish波兰语 Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语Czech捷克斯洛伐克语 Bulgarian保加利亚语 Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语 Russian Albanian阿尔巴尼亚 Persian波斯语 Hindi北印度语 Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系Bengali孟加拉语 Romany，吉卜赛语 Armenian亚美尼亚语 Portuguese Spanish Italic意大利语族Italian Roumanian罗马尼亚语 French Indo-European Language Family Irish Celtic凯尔特语Breton Scottish Norwegian挪威语 Icelandic，冰岛语 Danish丹麦语 Germanic Swedish瑞典语 日尔曼语言English Dutch Flemish German Hellenic，古希腊语- Greek

(完整版)英语词汇学试题

英语词汇学试题 Introduction and Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry（练习1） I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. 1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of _________construct. A. word B. form C. morpheme D. root 2.________ is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. A. Semantics B. Linguistics C. Etymology D. Stylistics 3.Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes. A. Greek B. Roman C. Italian D. Germanic 4. Semantics is the study of meaning of different _________ levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. A. linguistic B. grammatical C. arbitrary D. semantic 5.Stylistics is the study of style . It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular________ for special effects A. situation B. context C. time D. place 6.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form , meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a _______ difference. A . spelling B. semantic C. pronunciation D. pragmatic 7. Terminology consists of _______ terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. A. technical B. artistic C. different D. academic 8. __________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate among themselves. A. Slang B. Jargon C. Dialectal words D. Argot 9 ._________ belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words. A. Jargon B. Argot C. Dialectal words D. Slang 10. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______.Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it. A. workers B. criminals C. any person D. policeman 11.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. A. Argot B. Slang C. Jargon D. Dialectal words 12. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. A. common B. little C. slight D. great 13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings. A. new B. old C. bad D. good 14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. A. functional B. notional C. empty D. formal 15. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. A. content B. notional C. empty D. new