美国简史06-Westward Expansion
A Biography of America
Program 6: Westward Expansion/The Empire of Liberty
Donald L. Miller with Virginia Scharff, Douglas Brinkley,
Stephen Ambrose and Pauline Maier
Introduction
Miller: The land. The rugged surface on which the American story is written.
Scharff: What happens out there on the ground shapes the American character in some fundamental ways. It reflects larger American processes.
Brinkley: The whole history of the United States is that constant movement westward, that constant march from the Europeans to either progress, or to de-civilizing the civilizations that were already here. But, I think, movement.
Scharff: But that?s the land again. I mean, so many places in the United States for so much of its history have been the possibility of running away from where you are, of lining up for the territory. It?s such a big country.
Miller: Americans could only travel as fast as a running horse could take them in 1800. But as the 19th Century begins, America is on the move. And the North and the South are changing forever. Historians Pauline Maier...
Maier: So the canals made all the difference in the world.
Miller: ...And Stephen Ambrose.
Ambrose: You can?t own another man, period.
Miller: Join us.
Miller: And they take advantage of what the frontier gives them.
Miller: Today, on A Biography of America, “Westward Expansion”.
The Louisiana Purchase
Miller: When President-elect Thomas Jefferson walked through the muddy streets of Washington to take the oath of office in March of 1801, America was that rare and wonderful thing: a hopeful democracy that had just seen power peacefully transferred from one ruling party to another. It was a new country, aching to grow, aching to push the limits of the land and the talents of its people –optimistic,
restless, invigorated by a vision Jefferson gave a name to: “an empire of liberty.”
America, however, had to contend with two great rival powers that dominated the world, France and Britain. Britain had lost her 13 colonies and maintained a presence only in what is today Canada. France was a different story. Under its brilliant and aggressive leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, France had plans for beating Britain at its imperial game. And those plans involved America – not for the first time.
More than a century before, an adventurer, a priest, and five voyageurs set out in two lightly outfitted birch bark canoes from a Catholic mission on the Upper Great Lakes. Louis Joliet and Father Jacques Marquette embarked with very different purposes. Father Marquette, a learned, passionate Jesuit, believed he was sent by his God to find the souls of pagan savages and convert them to Christianity. Joliet, only 27 years old, but a crack geographer and mapmaker, was sent by the French crown to find and claim the Mississippi. No one, least of all the French, acknowledged that the Spaniard De Soto had found that river 150 years earlier.
Marquette and Joliet made their way from the far northeastern edge of Lake Michigan through present-day Wisconsin, and down the Mississippi River, to what is today St. Louis. They recorded what they saw with great enthusiasm and interest. They described monstrous wildcats and fish and wild cattle, huge herds of bison that blackened the prairie.
Downriver, they saw cliff paintings so beautiful that Marquette said, “The good painters in France would find it difficult to paint so well.” They slept in the cabin of the chief of the Illinois Indians, who feasted with them. The next day, 600 of his people escorted them to their canoes.
Further downriver, the torrents of the swollen Missouri River almost overturned their canoes. And on their arduous return north, they paddled upriver through an inland sea of grass, the breathtaking tall grass prairie that fills the middle of America.
Amazingly, they paddled more than 2,500 miles in four months. And in doing so, they etched what would become the northeastern boundary of the Louisiana Territory, a huge tract of land, which Napoleon would secretly buy from the Spanish in 1800. With this piece of land, France could control the Mississippi River from Canada all the way to New Orleans.
In 1800 that land meant everything to President Thomas Jefferson with his vision of “an empire of liberty.” Jefferson had long planned an expedition – soon to be the Lewis and Clark expedition –to explore the country?s vast and wild northwest interior. So it was with genuine horror that he received the news of Napoleon?s
incredible real estate deal. He knew that whoever controlled the Mississippi would control his country?s destiny.
However, in three years, Napoleon?s colossal ambitions for a presence in North America came to an end. Jefferson was able to buy what he and other Americans wanted – for a mere $15 million dollars. With the stroke of the pen, the America of 1803 doubled in size.
The Louisiana Purchase opened the gateway West.
Discussion
Miller: 1800 was an exciting year for the country. We?d established our independence; we have a new president, Thomas Jefferson; and we have an unexplored, largely, and unknown frontier, on the west of the Appalachians. America had been an ever-expanding nation, but we were still largely a seacoast nation hugging the coast. What was out there, Steven, beyond those mountains?
Ambrose: As you say, the roads were hugging the coastline. And there was almost no settlement out west of the Appalachian Mountains. So it was unknown territory, and completely wide open. And who did it belong to was up for some kind of grabs. I mean, we had signed a peace treaty with Great Britain that made it a part of the United States, but the Brits kept keeping their forts down there on the part of the land that was supposed to belong to the United States, but it wasn?t quite clear yet whose it was. And the Spanish are still on the other side of the Mississippi River, very much so, in Texas and California and elsewhere out West.
Miller: How was the Louisiana Purchase, 1803, how was that received by the country?
Ambrose: With deliriums of joy. Everybody was--it was such a bargain. And to get it without having to go to war. What people were afraid of was we were going to have to fight Napoleon to get control of New Orleans, and you had to have control of New Orleans if you were going to make anything out of Kentucky and Tennessee and Illinois and all of the Northwest territory.
Miller: Steve, everybody knows the Lewis and Clark expedition. What?s the real importance of that expedition?
Ambrose: Well, Thomas Jefferson, who purchased Louisiana and sent Lewis and Clark out, had an idea that had never occurred to anyone else before, and had never been done anywhere before. And that was that we?re going to establish an …empire of liberty? that?s going to stretch from sea to shining sea. And when we start bringing in Kentucky and Tennessee and Illinois and Ohio into the Union, they?re going to come
in as equal states. They?re going to have all the same rights and privileges as New Hampshire, or Virginia, or New York, or the original 13 colonies. And, we?re going to go across the Mississippi with that, and, we?re going to go all the way to the West Coast with it. And when he sent Lewis and Clark out, it wasn?t just that they explored up the Missouri River and brought back the first description of what?s out there in that Louisiana Purchase. They crossed the mountains, and they went into the great northwestern empire of Oregon and Washington and Idaho. And they brought that area into the United States at a time when Jefferson had this idea -- we?re going to have this …empire of liberty,? it?s going to go the whole way.
Miller: Now, did Jefferson, or Lewis and Clark, or the three of them together, have discussions about how this untracked wilderness was going to be peopled? Here we are, before the steamboat...
Ambrose: Jefferson thought it would take 100 generations.
Miller: Yeah, exactly.
Ambrose: That?s right. It?s before steamboats. The steamboat, when Lewis and Clark came back, nothing moved any faster than it had when they left. And George Washington, or Thomas Jefferson, or Andrew Jackson couldn?t move any place any faster than Napoleon could or Caesar.
Miller: No telegraph, nothing.
Ambrose: You couldn?t move ideas, you couldn?t move mail. As fast as a horse could run--that?s the fastest that anything could move.
Maier: But did anybody have any idea how much there was west of those mountains? Did anybody have any idea the size of the continent? I mean they...
Ambrose: Well yes, they did, because the mouth of the Columbia had been discovered, and so they knew how far everything stretched. They didn?t know what was there. They didn?t know what the Rocky Mountains were like. They thought they were going to be like the Appalachian mountains. Well, the Rocky Mountains are a little bit bigger than that--it?s like 160 miles of Rocky Mountains out there, and way, way bigger than anything in the eastern part of the United States. But they knew that there was a lot of wealth out there on that Columbia River, there were a lot of Indians living out there, there was a lot of furs out there, there was a big country out there, that, and this gets us back to this …empire of liberty?...
Miller: Isn?t it interesting, though, how many times the country was discovered?
I mean, De Soto so-called “discovers”the Mississippi River. Marquette and Joliet discover the Mississippi River. LaSalle goes to the mouth of the Mississippi. Now here are the French, in the late 17th Century. They have a vision of empire almost like the Louisiana Purchase--it?s going to run north to south, from Quebec and
Montreal, all the way down to the Gulf. What was the real importance of New Orleans?
Ambrose: It was the only outlet to the world?s markets.
Miller: On the Mississippi.
Ambrose: You couldn?t move the corn or the wheat or other products, you couldn?t move them over the mountains. You could put them on a boat and bring them down the Mississippi River. But as long as the Spanish controlled New Orleans, and then the French immediately after -- they got it from the Spanish -- you don?t have an outlet. And Jefferson had originally thought he was going to just be buying New Orleans. But Napoleon said to hell with it, the whole thing. “I mean, we can?t hold it anyway. What are we going to do with Missouri, what are we going to do with the Dakotas, what are we going to do with Montana, what are we going to do with Arkansas?” There wasn?t anything the French could do with it. Sell the whole damn thing. And he did.
Miller: Yeah. But at the same time, there are people beginning to pour into the Ohio valley, right Pauline?
Maier: Right. And the one exception to the unoccupied character, the Trans-Appalachian west--rather big exception very important to the story--Kentucky and Tennessee. People start pouring in there in the 1780s. And it?s amazing, actually, when you think of the size of the migration. There may be 10,000 people in Kentucky in 1780, and they go up to 110,000 a decade later. I mean, it?s more than the whole migration of the 17th Century. It?s a massive movement of population.
Miller: This is largely a migration pattern out of Pennsylvania, through West Virginia, Virginia, down into the Carolinas, across the line, into the mountains.
Maier: Exactly. And, to some extent from--well, the Davis family comes from Georgia.
Miller: Jefferson Davis.
Maier: Jefferson Davis, right.
Miller: And the Lincoln family?s a Kentucky family.
Maier: Absolutely.
Miller: And there?s Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln, born within a year of each other, in the same state, Kentucky. One family, Lincoln?s father opposed to slavery, migrates out to Indiana. And the other family, a small slaveholding family, migrates out to Mississippi, near Vicksburg.
Ambrose: And they were born, as you say, within a year of each other, at a time when there were steamboats. Fulton had invented the steamboat--well, when they were kids, Fulton had invented the steamboat and you could go upriver for the first
time without having to paddle your way upriver. No railroads.
Miller: Without railroads, how was the west settled? What are the primary technologies that allow this settlement to take place, given the absolutely abysmal road systems?
Maier: It?s onto the Mississippi. And it?s -- the world was made up of bodies of water interrupted by land, and that continued to be true. It had been true historically.
Miller: That?s a wonderful way of putting it. I mean, that whole west -- people have this image of everybody just pouring out of there in Conestoga wagons or on foot, and don?t appreciate, I think, the magnificent waterway systems that we had, and how many settlers went west in these waterways.
Ambrose: And went west on the waterways, and shipped their produce to market on the waterways, and the waterways were the key to everything. The Ohio comes down, the Missouri comes down, all these...
Miller: Right smack in the middle of the continent.
Ambrose: ...The Cumberland, and the Tennessee, and the Illinois, and they all come together in the Mississippi and flow down to New Orleans. And the whole of the continent is one transportation system.
Miller: Right. Right. Canals... we...
Maier: Canals, absolutely critical. I was thinking, how important was the southern market to the west, to the upper reaches of the river, to the Northwest Territory? Which is, of course, where, after the 1780s and 1790s, a good many immigrants were going, from New England particularly. We know that the only way they could sell their products was down the river, and a great amount was shipped to New Orleans. But it wasn?t consumed in the South. Some of it was, but the greater part of it was re-exported out of New Orleans, to Europe and to the Northeast. So you had to go all the way down and then all the way up again. So the canals made all the difference in the world. And I think, ultimately, they had some political significance. You didn?t see the effect right away. 1825, the Erie Canal is completed. It really took another two decades, until all these ancillary canals are built in Ohio. And then you saw a massive change of the direction of western trade, not south but east and north, and the railroads just consolidated that. And it?s the Northeast that is a real customer, because they?re moving increasingly toward industrialization, to a more specialized economy, and they have a food deficit. So the West feeds the Northeast.
Miller: There had always been the theory that it was the railroads that first connected the two, but it?s actually the southern driving canals actually turn the other way and went out there like that.
Maier: Yeah. But it?s a relatively short period, really, the canal era. It might have done the trick. But perfectly in keeping with this idea that water is how you travel.
Miller: Water?s the key. Look at Fulton. I mean the steamboat, obviously, had enormous impact on the southern development, didn?t it?
Ambrose: Sure, very much so. The ability to be able to go upstream. Before the steamboat, if you made ten miles a day going upstream, that was a hell of a good day.
Maier: It was what, with poles?
Miller: Six mile current, six mile per hour current, that Mississippi River.
Ambrose: Right. Go out and try it today in a canoe, and you?ll find out in a hurry what it meant to go upstream, and only muscle power to do it with. Or you could get horses on land to draw the things along, but the turns in the river and other things made that very, very difficult. It was a lot easier on the canal to use horses to pull barges along the canal, because they were straight.
Miller: They?d send sailboats ahead of some of these keel boats. The sailboat would wrap a rope around a tree, and then they?ll pull themselves upriver, like this!
Maier: Yeah. No, this was not a viable system!
Miller: To see a boat going upriver.
Ambrose: Oh boy. A whole new world. And it was.
Maier: And how amazing it is, however, that that southern frontier developed in such a different way than the northern frontier did. They?re both agricultural...
Miller: That?s one of the most interesting things, I think, about the country, that you have pioneers--similar pioneers--going in, at the same time going into two regions of the country.
Maier: But creating very different economies, and very different societies.
Miller: Tremendously different political cultures, yeah.
Maier: I mean, you didn?t get any cities, except New Orleans, developing like Cincinnati or Pittsburgh, or St. Louis, Louisville. These were manufacturing centers. They were retail centers. You just didn?t get that in the Cotton South.
Miller: What explains that?
Ambrose: Eli Whitney.
Miller: Eli Whitney. Yeah.
Ambrose: Explains a lot of it.
Maier: Well, that explains why you had the growth of cotton into that area. But...
Ambrose: And the ability to grow cotton, and the fertility of the soil, and the heat in the South, and all of these combined, meaning you could grow the hell out of cotton there. And because of Eli Whitney, you could make that cotton available on
the market, and then you could ship it off to England, and they couldn?t get enough of it in England.
Miller: But the problem was, of course, that...
Ambrose: Getting the seed out.
Miller: Getting the seed out. When Whitney invents his gin, a slave could do that work in a half a day, whereas before it took 33 days to do. And that invention, of course, is what, 1793. And he does it on a Savannah plantation, and everybody steals it.
Ambrose: It had an effect that cannot be fully measured. It made that land more valuable. It made the slave system much more valuable. It meant that someone like Thomas Jefferson, for example, could make his living not by--Virginia soil was pretty well worn out by this time.
Maier: Peat moss, not too good.
Ambrose: But you could sell those excess slaves, because they had to have those slaves in Alabama, they had to have them in Mississippi, they had to have them in Louisiana. And the value of slaves went like this. And you had excess slaves, all the time, on these Virginia plantations. And so slavery became the key to Virginia?s economy, not because of what the slaves could grow, so much as what you could sell the slaves for.
Miller: Slave breeding.
Ambrose: Sell them down the river.
Miller: New Orleans and Natchez were the two big slave markets down there. So you didn?t have to bring your slaves with you when you settled out there. The slave traders were there. And as soon as you had any capital--I mean, that was the key. The land was so cheap. There were land grants in both areas: in the Northwest as well as in the Southeast, and Southwest. And you got there...
Maier: But think of the difference. If your family, to use Jefferson?s term, included a large contingent of slaves, those slaves, even as adults, aren?t going to be part of a market economy. They?re not going to be going to the local store to buy something. So you don?t need retailing centers in the same way you did need them in the Ohio territory, where the income went to families in a more nuclear sense. So that you had retailing centers, you had processing centers. You clearly need a different kind of a population than the mass of those who are in the Cotton South. You need people who are educated. And people in the West are investing much more heavily in schools, in libraries. You have very different cultures, very different economies.
Miller: Yeah, the capital?s all tied up in land and slaves in the south.
Maier: And it?s not a bad investment, we know. The return on it wasn?t bad. But the long-term prognosis wasn?t very promising.
Miller: Where you?re saying, in the North it?s a more mixed system.
Maier: You get a more mixed economy than you?re getting in the South.
Miller: But here?s a question, though. In this period there?s kind of a transition. From about 1800 to 1820 slavery is just getting established in the South -- most of the southerners are yeomen farmers. But by the 1830s, you start to get a so-called …Solid South.?
Ambrose: I think that?s absolutely right. And the original arguments against slavery come from Thomas Jefferson and other southerners, who looked around them and saw this is an evil system and we?ve got to get rid of it. But by the time you get to the 1830s and cotton has become king, all of a sudden it?s a very profitable system, or so it appears to them, and the Jefferson arguments lose their way.
Miller: And there?s land hunger, hunger for more slaves, pressure to reopen the slave trade, and all of a sudden, at the same time, the abolitionist movement arises, and you?ve got two separate sections. The South really is so much part of America in 1800, and then just kind of pulls away. It just pulls away.
Maier: Well, it also becomes more economically isolated, if you think about it; that the West is trading primarily with the Northeast; the South is selling abroad. It is, in some ways, the most independent economy within the regional economies of the United States.
Miller: The only place they really had ties to, ironically, were in New York, and they thought those were exploitative ties, because those New York manufacturers and merchants came in and took over, and made sure that cotton went through New York. And there was a kind of triangular trade, New York to Liverpool, back to New York, back to Charleston, places like that. And there?s talk of secession already in the 30s.
Maier: Hey, and you got a little bit of it in Thomas Jefferson, at the time of the Alien and Sedition Acts, his nullification. And of course, at the time of the Missouri Crisis, even more, he really thinks that the crisis over slavery is going to lead to a dismemberment of the union.
But the anticipations of secession or that the Union would fall apart, those weren?t the kind of things you memorialize. The idea that resistance and revolution was a continuing resort for people who were disaffected within the Union, or for states.
Miller: But here?s a question I?ve never been able to answer for myself
satisfactorily. A lot of northerners went south. Steven Duncan is a planter in Mississippi, who?s probably the largest plantation owner, the richest man in Mississippi. He?s from Pennsylvania. He supports slavery but he also supports the Union, and he leaves the South at the outbreak of the Civil War. Was there any difference, moral difference, between the people who settled in the Ohio Valley and out toward Illinois, and people who settled in Mississippi and Alabama?
Maier: That?s an interesting question.
Miller: See what I mean? Is it slavery that turns them in this way? I mean, we often think that the Civil War is this Manichaean struggle between good and evil, obviously, those who held slaves and those who were opposed to slaves.
Maier: Well, we?d like to think there was a moral difference, but racism was a national institution.
Miller: That?s what -- these guys were all frontier, and they take advantage of what the frontier gives them, I mean in terms of what soil?s there.
Ambrose: I would insist that there is a fundamental difference. And that is, in Illinois, even in southern Illinois, in Wisconsin, in Iowa, going out further west, or--you can?t own another man. Period. You cannot own another man. Now, you can discriminate against him, you can use him, you can be racist in many of them--you can?t own them, you can?t sell them. And there were a lot of people in the South that felt that way, to be sure. A lot of small farmers in the South who didn?t own their own slaves and who thought, we?re on the wrong track here, or who could not make it work economically for them. But the people that controlled the society in the South came up with a justification for slavery, in it?s the best of all possible systems, and the blacks are way better off under slavery than they would be if they were under wage slavery up north, and so on. We all know the arguments of the pro-slavery people. And it was accepted. And it became a part of the fiber of the being of a very large number of white southerners. And that was not the case up North. And that is a difference.
Miller: What causes the difference? We know there?s a difference.
Ambrose: The economic basis of society, and the way in which you become...
Miller: The way you can make money.
Ambrose: That?s right, the way you make money. And that you can be a white man in the South. And it used to be -- it?s not the case anymore, but it used to be -- when I first started going south, segregation was still in place. It was wonderful to be a white man in the South in those days. You never had to think about what you were doing to the other half of the population; you just did it, and you benefited from it. And it gnawed its way into your soul. There isn?t any way around it. You
can?t deny it.
Miller: That?s what I?m finding with these historical characters. I?m coming across in my own research how quickly northerners become southerners, adopting the ways of the South, accepting slavery, and defending slavery.
Ambrose: You read the Civil War letters, and...
Miller: The metamorphosis is quick.
Ambrose: An awful lot of the Union troops, who were campaigning in Mississippi, in the Vicksburg campaign, and they get to be the most violent anti-Negro people, and cursing them, and bringing them into camp and using them as their own slaves, their own personal slaves. Listen, it?s wonderful to be on top, it?s wonderful to be the master. Or so it seems. In the end, people up north and eventually in the whole country realize no, it?s not wonderful; it really is terrible, and it ruins not only the people that you?re subjecting to your whims and your wishes, it ruins you. It has this effect that, in the end, is going to destroy you. But boy, it takes a long time to come to that view.
反思美国第二次女权主义运动
反思美国第二次女权主义运动 上世纪20年代，历经半个多世纪的美国第一次女性运动以女性获得选举权而告终，而后归于沉寂，二战后美国各种社会运动风起云涌，为第二次女权主义运动提供了良好的环境，以1963年Betty Friedan的《女性的神秘》一书发表为标志，主张在经济、政治、法律、社会和个人生活等层面进行“女权主义的干预”的第二次女权主义运动兴起。本次运动从60年代持续到80年代，把女权主义的思想深入到美国社会生活的每一个层面，极大地改善了妇女的生活状况，对美国社会产生了深刻、久远的影响。 第二次女权主义运动相对于之前，还涉及到对美国女性的婚姻、家庭以及对自己身体的支配权等问题，在更大程度上动摇了过去以男人为中心的社会结构和作为这种社会结构支柱的价值观念。这场运动在美国有力地推动了生活与思维的改变，女性的权利进一步得到保障，但与此同时，学生也意识到一系列成就背后隐藏着的暗流与代价。 首先，女权主义者在处理男女差别的问题上存在直观、偏激的倾向。第二次女权主义运动在组织上更加有力，但也陷入了组织活动片面追求形式上与男性的绝对平等的误区。比如当时美国一些大学的女权主义者组建的“胡子协会”，还有人在着装上掀起男性化的浪潮，流于形式化的追求平等反映了女权主义者们的非理性倾向。另一方面，运动还存在忽视了男女在生产活动中的差异的问题，为了争取和男性同工同酬，以及平等就业的权利，无视人类分工的差异，主张男性能做的工作女性都可以去做，且应该去做——初衷是没错，但这样处理就不免陷入简单化处理问题的误区。 而更让人担忧的是把争取与男性一样平等的权利地位理解成简单地绝对反对父权制，进而演变成呼吁建立颠倒性的压迫。这种带有报复男权的女权主义色彩的思想，实际上是一种倒退。诚然这种思想和主张有其片面、过激之处所在，但也实在是对女权主义运动的开展造成负面影响，置之于一个不利的、非理性的地位。 第二，带来了居高不下的离婚率和一个个破碎的家庭。 本次运动冲击了美国女性传统的婚姻、生育以及观念，主张追求个性和自己的幸福，与此同时却造就了连续几十年高攀的离婚率，和为数众多的单亲家庭。第二次女权主义运动以前，离婚被视为耻辱，离婚率和结婚率的比例为1:16，然而运动开始后，这个比率在70年代和80年代分别达到1:3和1:2，而90%的单亲家庭是女性为家长，这些家庭大多经济拮据，美国社会中所谓的”女性贫困化“一方面就是受此影响的结果。这是一场对传统观念进行挑战的社会运动，女性在争取自身的幸福和权利的过程中，无疑也是付出代价的。这代价是否太过沉重？也许当时的女权主义者在做决定前已经做好承受代价的准备，但这样的追求幸福真的就能带来幸福吗？ 追求与男性平等的权利和地位是否就意味着要打破原先的家庭结构，学生也是持保留意见的。如果是以牺牲家庭幸福来满足个人对幸福的追求，在爱与理想之间座抉择，也许更好的抉择是能够两者兼容，而不是以“道不同，不相为谋”为由草草收场。婚姻若成儿戏，遇到挫折觉得不平等就想离开，实际上是有悖爱之真谛，也体现后工业社会人们在追求独立个性的氛围下一种浮躁的心态。所以从某种意义上而言，美国的第二次女权主义运动是纵容了这种浮躁心态。
常耀信《美国文学简史》(第3版)笔记和考研真题详解(9-14章)【圣才出品】
第9章地方色彩小说?马克?吐温 9.1复习笔记 I.Local Colorism（地方色彩主义） The vogue of local color fiction was the outgrowth of historical and aesthetic forces that had been gathering energy since early19th century.Local colorism as a literary trend first made its presence felt in the late1860s and early seventies.It is a variation of American literary realism. Local colorists were consciously nostalgic historians of a vanishing way of life,recorders of a present that faded before their eyes.They concerned themselves with presenting and interpreting the local character of their regions.They tended to idealize and glorify,but they never forgot to keep an eye on the truthful color of local life.Major local colorists are Bret Harte,Hanlin Garland, Harriet Beecher Stowe,Kate Chopin and Mark Twain. 地方色彩小说的流行是自19世纪早期以来历史和艺术力量凝聚的产物。作为一种文学潮流，地方色彩主义在19世纪60年代晚期和70年代早期初展头角。它是美国现实主义文学的一个分支。 地方色彩主义作家是怀念正在消逝的生活方式的历史家，他们记录了在他们眼前逝去的现在。他们致力于展示描述自己地方的特色，倾向于赞颂地方生活并将其理想化，但是他们又注意不失地方生活的真实色彩。主要的地方色彩主义作家包括布莱特·哈特、汉林·加兰德、哈里耶特·比彻·斯托、凯特·肖邦及马克·吐温等。 II.Mark Twain(1835-1910)（马克·吐温） 1.Life（生平） Mark Twain,pen name of Samuel Langhorne Clemens,is a great literary giant of America. He was brought up in the small town of Hannibal,Missouri,on the Mississippi River.He was twelve when his father died and he had to leave school.He was successively a printer’s apprentice,a tramp printer,a silver miner,a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi,and a frontier journalist in Nevada and California.This knocking about gave him wide knowledge of humanity. With the publication of his frontier tale,he became nationally famous.His first novel The Gilded Age was an artistic failure,but it gave its name to the American of the post-bellum period.The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was his masterwork.Mark Twain was essentially an affirmative writer.But toward the latter part of his life,due to some tragic events,he changed to an almost
二十世纪二、三十年代美国妇女生存状况与妇女运动研究
二十世纪二、三十年代美国妇女生存状况与妇女运动研究 【摘要】：1920年代和1930年代处于两次世界大战的间歇期，也是美国第一次女权运动和第二次女权运动之间的一个低潮期，此时美国社会经历了经济繁荣——危机——复苏的过程，处于一个政治、经济、社会、文化急剧转变时期，美国妇女生活丰富多彩，其外表、行为、婚姻家庭和就业都呈现新的特点。1920年代随着经济的繁荣，出现消费社会，新的大众媒体促进了信息的沟通和全国性价值观的形成，美国妇女享受着现代化所带来的物质和精神财富，其中特立独行的“新女性”群体尤其引人注目，成为1920年代女性自由与解放最突出的代表，并成为喧嚣的1920年代的象征。但随着大萧条的到来，美国妇女的生活状况急转直下，1930年代期间美国妇女的婚姻、家庭、就业都受到大萧条的的巨大冲击，她们承受着物质匮乏和精神痛苦的双重磨难，设法应对危机，努力维持家庭和自身的生存，她们不仅经受住了大萧条的考验，而且在家庭和社会中的地位有所提高。本文选取这个时期的妇女生存状态进行个案研究，考察此时美国妇女的婚姻家庭、就业和她们在政治和社会运动中的具体状况，指出这个时期美国妇女在家庭和社会中的地位和角色随着社会经济、政治和文化的变迁而变化。进而，在个案研究基础上，探讨社会政治、经济和文化变迁与妇女地位和角色变化之间的互动关系。妇女的生存状态受到外部世界的规范，社会政治、经济和文化变动对她们的生活有根本性的影响，妇女要获得真正的解放，自身的努力是关键，其中经济独立是妇
女走向平等和解放的基础。无论在私人领域还是公共领域，女性的地位与角色很大程度取决于其经济独立能力，这是女性思想解放、个人发展的原动力，但经济平等不仅取决于生活生产力发展水平，还受制于社会和文化发展水平，这些都需要经过长期的努力才能达到。同时，传统与文化因素的影响同样是强大的，在女性走向平等和解放的道路上，观念上的解放与经济上的平等同等重要。本文共分为5个部分，具体安排如下：序论部分主要阐述本选题的依据、意义、国内外研究现状和文章主要观点。笔者认为，1920年代和1930年代期间社会政治、经济和文化变动剧烈，妇女生活丰富多彩，但对1920年代和1930年代期间妇女状况的研究起步较晚，直到1970年代以后才出现大量研究成果，对这个时期不同种族和阶级群体的妇女生存状态进行比较深入的研究，对正确评价1920年代和1930年代期间妇女的地位和作用、全面了解这个时期的社会变迁起了重要作用，但大多数的研究侧重于展现妇女具体生存状况，而且多从“她史”角度进行研究，对社会性别关系中妇女地位和角色的变迁很少探讨，也很少把1920年代和1930年代作为一个整体进行考察，这为笔者利用已有成果、运用社会学、历史学和妇女学等方法、在“社会性别”角度综合考察这个时期妇女的生存状况及其地位和角色变迁留下了空间。第一章侧重分析1920年代妇女的生存情况以及其地位和角色变迁。本章首先分析了1920年代之前美国社会政治、经济和社会文化的变迁，笔者认为工业化和城市化改变了维多利亚时期的妇女观，社会文化在20世纪初也逐步走向开放，部分妇女走出家门，进入劳【关键词】：1920年代
美国的女权运动
女权运动在美国的发展 投票权 对妇女权利的关心可追溯至启蒙运动时期，这一时期的自由、平等主义和改良主义的理想当时正由中产阶级、农民和城市劳动者扩大至妇女。这一时期关于妇女权利的早期思想在玛丽．沃斯通克拉夫特的《为女权辩护》（1792）一书中得到充分的阐述。该书对女性的存在只是为了取悦于男性的观念提出挑战，并建议妇女在教育、工作和政治上应获得与男子同样的机会。但在19世纪，这种关于妇女需与男子平等的认识，却集中体现在获得妇女选举权的运动上，对妇女的社会地位、所扮演的角色及其在经济中所占的位置未能作出根本的或具有深远影响的重新估计。19世纪后期，一些妇女开始在专业领域中工作。以伊丽莎白·凯迪·斯坦顿 (Elizabeth Cady Stanton)为代表的全国妇女选举权协会(National Woman Suffrage Association) （NWSA）屡次要求联邦国会允许妇女参与政治投票，在14、15次修订案中屡次遭遇拒绝。最终20世纪上半叶，妇女作为整体获得投票权，于第十九次修正案（The Nineteenth Amendment(1920)）通过。此次法案虽已通过，离妇女真正参政还有时日。但对妇女所能从事的工作仍然受到明显的限制，流行的观念也仍然是把妇女限制在妻子、母亲和家庭主妇的传统角色之中。 劳动力 与此同时，造成妇女地位低下(或至少是依赖)的经济条件正在发生变化。是否生育被视为妇女的基本权利逐渐被社会认同，妇女生育的孩子少了，同时不再被视为地位地下。家用电器的发明，使她们免做许多以前与管理家务连在一起的笨重杂活。工业化的急剧发展，社会迫使女人参与部分工作。第二次世界大战后的数十年间，西方世界经济中服务行业的发展促使创造了妇女同男子一样能够胜任的新的工作，工厂中妇女比例缓慢增加。在美国中西部，私人拥有房屋及劳动能力的女性更受尊敬。所有这些因素使越来越多的妇女认识到，社会对她们的传统看法不像妇女的真实生活状况那样改变得快。此外，60年代美国的民权运动鼓舞着妇女通过相似的群众鼓动活动和社会批判来改善她们的状况。 妇女组织 波伏瓦的《第二性》(1949)一书是新女权主义兴起的里程碑。该书成为一本遍及全球的畅销书。它通过诉诸妇女的解放亦即男子的解放这一思想来唤起女权主义的觉醒。另一本重要的书是美国人B．弗里登的《女性的神秘》（1963）。她抨击失去活力的家庭生活——
美国纽约市英语简介
美国纽约市英语简介 纽约(New York)，是纽约都会区的核心，也是美国最大城市，同时也是世界最大的城市之一。纽约位于美国东海岸的东北部，是美国人口最多的城市，也是个多族裔聚居的多元化城市，拥有来自97个国家和地区的移民，在此使用的语言达到800种。截至2014年，纽约大约有849万人，居住在789平方千米的土地上。纽约市是一座世界级国际化大都市，直接影响着全球的经济、金融、媒体、政治、教育、娱乐与时尚界。纽约GDP于2013年超越东京，位居世界第一。下面为大家带来旅游英语美国纽约市英语简介，欢迎大家阅读! 纽约市英语简介： New York City is the most beguiling place there is. You may not think so at first - for the city is admittedly mad, the epitome in many ways of all that is wrong in modern America. But spend even a week here and it happens - the pace, the adrenaline take hold, and the shock gives way to myth. Walking through the city streets is an experience, the buildings like icons to the modern age, and above all to the power of money. Despite all the hype, the movie-image sentimentalism, Manhattan - the central island and the city's real core - has massive romance: whether it's the flickering lights of
美国文学简史(第三版)复习 常耀信
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Ralph Waldo Emerson:拉尔夫·沃尔多·爱默生 Nature 《论自然》Self-Reliance 《论自立》Essays 《随笔集》名篇：The American Scholar 《美国学者》（has been regarded as “American Declaration of Intellectual Independence”被誉为美国思想的独立宣言） The Poet Henry David Thoreau:亨利·戴维·梭罗 Walden 《瓦尔登湖》 Nathaniel Hawthorne:纳撒尼尔·霍桑 The Scarlet Letter《红字》 The House of the Seven Gables 《七个尖角阁的房子》 Mosses from an Old Manse《古厦青苔》 The Blithedale Romance《福谷传奇》 The Marble Faun 《玉石神像》 Ethan Brand 《伊桑布兰德》 Young Goodman Brown 《好小伙子布朗》 Dr. Heidggeger’s Experiment 《海德格博士的体验》 The Ambitions Guest 《野心勃勃的客人》 The Greast Stone Face 《巨石脸》
美国文学简史名词解释定义
American Puritanism: Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England in the late sixteenth century. Under siege from church and crown, it sent an offshoot in the third and forth decades of the seventeenth century to the northern English colonies in the New World--- a migration that laid the foundation for the religious, intellectual, and social order of New England, Puritanism, however,was not only a historically specific phenomenon coincident with the founding of New England; it was also a way of being in the world---a style of response to lived experience---that has reverberated through American life ever since. Doctrinally, Puritans adhered to the Five Points of Calvinism as codified at the Synod of Dort in 1619:(1) unconditional election ( the idea that God had decreed who was damned and who was saved from before the beginning of the world); (2) limited atonement ( the idea that Christ died for the elect only); (3) total depravity (humanity's utter corruption since the Fall); (4) irresistible grace (regeneration as entirely a work of God, which cannot be resisted and to which the sinner contributes nothing); and (5) the perseverance of the saints (the elect, despite their backsliding and faintness of heart , cannot fall away from grace). American Dream: The American Dream is the faith held by many in the United States of America that through hard work, courage, and determination one can achieve a better life for oneself, usually through financial prosperity. These were values held by many early European settlers, and have been passed on to subsequent generations. Nowadays the American Dream has led to an emphasis on material wealth as a measure of success and\ or happiness. Gothic tradition: Gothic novel or Gothic romance is a story of terror and suspense, usually set in a gloomy old castle or monastery. In an extended sense, many novels that do not have a medievalized setting, but which share a comparably sinister, grotesque, or chaustrophobic atmosphere have been classed as Gothic. It contributed to the new emotional climate of Romanticism. Historical novel: a novel in which the action takes place during a specific historical period well before the time of writing ( often one or two generations before, sometimes several centuries), and in which some attempt is made to depict accurately the customs and mentality of the period. The central character---real or imagined---is usually subject to divided loyalties within a larger historic conflict of which readers know the outcome. The pioneers of this genre were Walter Scott and James Fenimore Cooper American Romanticism:Romanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. The romantic period in American literature stretched from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil
20世纪60年代美国妇女解放运动
08历21 08022039 曹忆鸣 浅析20世纪60年代美国妇女解放运动 摘要：第二次美国妇女运动开始于20世纪60年代中期，是美国历史上影响最大的社会运动，其内容涉及历史、政治、经济、文化等许多方面，对个人和公共生活的各个方面都产生了影响，具有重大的研究意义。 关键词：60年代;美国;女权;解放运动 Abstract: the second American women's movement began in the 1960 s, the history of the United States has the biggest impact on social movement, which includes history, politics, economy, culture, and many aspects to the individual, and all aspects of public life, is of great significance. Keywords: 60s; the United States; feminist; liberation movement 目录 一、工业化对美国妇女运动的促进 (3) 二．20世纪60年代美国妇女解放运动的产生 (4) 三、美国妇女解放运动的实践 (5) 四、20世纪60年代妇女解放运动的影响 (6) 五、总结 (7)
一、工业化对美国妇女运动的促进 美国的工业化开始于19 世纪初，起飞于内战之后，蓬勃于19 世纪末、20 世纪初。工业化的进行加快了美国现代化建设的步伐，带来了社会结构和社会观念的变化。随着工业化的推进，美国妇女的经济地位，教育地位和婚姻家庭地位都得到了重大改变。这些变化都促使她们开始重新确立自己的社会角色。工业化为美国妇女解放提供了机遇，使得妇女经济地位、教育地位和婚姻家庭地位得以提高，这又大大提高了妇女的自我意识，为妇女解放运动的发展和妇女地位的进一步提高奠定了坚实的基础。 工业化带来的家庭模式和家庭功能的变化使妇女在家庭中的地位和角色都发生了很大变化。第一,妇女对婚姻和生育的态度发生很大改变。工业化带来的个人独立性的增强以及核心家庭的出现，使妇女的择偶成为一种个体性的行为，爱情和个人喜好代替家庭背景和经济能力成为择偶的主要因素。工业革命带来的经济独立，使女性改变了婚姻是生存需要的观点，纷纷推迟结婚年龄。随着核心家庭的出现，美国家庭拥有的孩子已经由殖民地时代的7-8 人降至1900 年的平均3.56 人。这期间的人口增长还包括1200 万移民的涌入，这就更加说明了人口出生率的下降。第二，妇女经济独立性的增强使妇女的家庭权利增强。妇女经济独立性的提高使妇女摆脱了对男性经济的依赖，有的甚至要养家糊口，这样妇女家庭生活就有了更多的自主权，家庭权利得到了提升。第三，工业化形成了新的家庭生活观。这一家庭生活观最早在城市中产阶级家庭中形成，随后被全社会所认同。由于这一时期城市中产阶级对儿童童年的重视，使母亲在养育孩子上花费更多的精力。由于家庭和工作严重分离，家庭被作为远离外部竞争压力的避风港湾。而妇女被期望集中精力料理家务和照顾孩子，不再分担家庭的经济负担。丈夫和妻子各司其职，妻子主要负责料理家务和抚养孩子，而丈夫则外出工作挣钱养家。这一家庭生活观念到现在还在制约着人们对妇女角色的理解，阻碍了女性在家庭之外对事业的追求，并影响至今。工业化为美国妇女解放提供了机遇，使得妇女经济地位、教育地位和婚姻家庭地位得以提高，这又大大提高了妇女的自我意识，为妇女解放运动的发展和妇女地位的进一步提高奠定了坚实的基础。 二．20世纪60年代美国妇女解放运动的产生 1、民权运动的催化 20世纪60年代的妇女解放运动是由影响巨大的民权运动发展而来的。民权运动是美国黑人斗争史上一页辉煌的篇章。从20世纪50年代中期，美国南部黑人就开始全面反抗白人的种族歧视，要求废除种族隔离，保障黑人的公民权利。经过持续的斗争，1964、1965年美国颁布民权法案，宣布消除劳动场所的种族隔离，保护黑人的投票权。此后，种族平等的观念深刻地影响了美国的社会生活。在民权运动中，黑人妇女堪称是"运动的脊梁"，在"追求尊严的斗争中处在风口浪尖上"。①20世纪美国黑人争取公民权利的则成为当代妇女运动的催化剂②。一个受到社会歧视的种族奋起反抗，发出"平等、自由、民主、正义"的呼喊，不可避免地影响到年轻女性。 2、妇女解放运动产生的社会背景 首先，理想、期待与现实之间的不一致是推动美国年轻女性走上社会运动道路的一个重
(完整word版)《美国文学选读》课程标准
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战后美国女权运动的发展及其影响
战后美国女权运动的发展及其影响 时春荣 美国的女权运动开始于19世纪中期, 至今己有近百年的历史。这一运动在其漫长的男史进程中, 虽然不乏曲折和起伏, 但是一直连绵不断更为重要的是, 到第二次世界大战结束以后, 特别是到本世纪的60年代, 美国的女权运动开始进入一个崭新的阶段女权运动与“美国式的革命”共鸣, ①着力地开展思想和理论建设工作, 大规模地发展和建立组织, 制定明确的斗争目标和策略, 有力地推动了其本身的发展和深入同时, 由于运动的深入发展,并且与民权运动的洪流相汇集, 在改善美国妇女的政治和社会地方面产生了广泛而深刻的 影响虽然到目前为止, 妇女运动获得的成功与其求得彻底解放的远大目标相比, 仍然是有限的, 但它为我们研究美国妇女运动问题提供了一把钥匙从中使我们看到美国妇女在其社会发展中的巨大力量战后, 美国女权运动与声势浩大的民权运动相结合, 是女权运动深入发展的一个重要标 美国的女权运动自年妇女获得普遍选举权和年国会提出“平等权利修正案”之后, 虽然一直为使国会通过这一宪法修正案进行斗争,但长期未能掀起高潮直到本世纪的年代才出现了新的生机妇女争取平等权利的斗争在许多方面与黑人争取平等权利的斗争是一致的正是在这种背景下, 女权主义者把女权运动与民权运动巧妙地结合起来一些老资格的女权运动领导者, 在进行院外活动的同时, 把许多年轻的女权主义者安排在民权运动的行列中, 使其与民权运动者共同进行活动这些年轻的女权主义者, 与民权运动的男人共商斗争大计, 向他们诉说妇女所受压迫和歧视的苦难, 设法使妇女争取解放的目标和民权运动的斗争目标有机地结合起来年轻的女权主义者还建立许多小型组织, 出版了报纸, 进行广泛的说服和动员工作。与此同时, 许多年轻的女权主义者还以个人的名义加入民权运动的组织, 从事细致的提高男人们“觉悟”的活动例如, 她们设法说服男人支持她们控制自己生育的权利一一使堕胎合法化女权主义者就是通过这种策略把女权运动与民权运动结合起来的由此看来, “年国会通过的“民权法案”载有禁止歧视妇女的内容, 并不是偶然的, 它既反映了女权运动与民权运动的结合, 又是一项女权运动的结果。更为重要的是, 在这个时期, 女权运动的理论工作呈现出一种空前的活跃局面, 并有力地推动了女权运动的发展。各种关于女权运动的理论和思想出现于许许多多的书错、小册子和报刊上, 并且受到女权主义者的热烈欢迎和喝彩在这些书籍甲, 一比较有影响的是贝蒂·弗里丹的《女性的奥密》、加特·米里特的《两性政治》、基曼茵·格里尔的《女性的弱点》、塞拉米斯·费尔斯顿的《两性的辩证法》和尤里特·米歇尔的《妇女的财产》了。这些女权主义作者在其著作中, 强烈谴责歧视妇女的传统和压抑妇女的文化以及其他不合理的的社会现象。她们当中有的人大声疾呼, 号召妇女要结束“小家庭”的束缚, 摆脱“家庭的两性关系” , 去过“公共生活”②但是, 在这些书籍中影响最大的是女权主义者贝蒂·弗里丹的《女性的奥密》, 她在此书中所阐述的思想与其他人的思想有所不同她除了指出使妇女最为庆恶的家庭束缚问题外, 着重强调了以妇女就业来作为解决问题的主要办法她认为, 自第二次世界大战以来, 女飞行员、女学者、政治家、艺术家和企业家之所以已成为罕见者, 关键问题是妇女倍受压制, 长期被束缚在住室和家庭之中以及丈夫身上解决的根本办法是结束对妇女在就业上的歧视制定自由堕胎和生育控制法并为劳动妇女提供托儿中心。弗里丹的自由主义观点又被另一位有名的女权主义者、《女士》杂志的创始人和主编格罗里亚·斯坦妮进一步阐述, 得到广泛传播《女性的奥密》所阐明的关于妇女解放的思想产生了深远的影响, 得到全美国的妇女特别是中产阶级妇女的共鸣, 随之重新展开了历史上曾发生过的“一背离厨房运动”。弗里丹的 思想对那些受过学院教育的年轻妇女的影响更大她们仿佛遇到了知音, 从挫折和愤怒中站了起来, 纷纷加入了女权运动的行列。弗里丹的书成为当时最畅销的书, 甚至被认为是女权运动重新崛起的标志, 它把成千上万的妇女卷进妇女运动的洪流之中。⑧随着女权运动思想和理论工作的加强, 女权运动在组织建设上也出现了新局面。年, 在各阶层妇女, 特别是年轻妇女的积极要求和支持下, 建立了一个新的女权运动组织—全国妇女组织, 并把社会学家、女权主义者、《女性的奥密》的作者弗里丹选为该组织的第一任主席这一组织成立后, 发展很快, 最近儿年其成员已达到。。人, 成为战后美国成员最多的女权运动组织④这一妇女运动组织之所以发展迅速, 主要有两个原因第一, 女权主义者的活动范围正在日益扩大, 已深入到全国妇女之中, 女权主义者所提出的奋斗目标不断扩大, 关系到更多妇女的切身利益第二, 自第二次世界大战以后, 由于越来越多的妇女参加了劳动和工作, 亲自尝到社会对妇女歧视的苦果, 因此开始积极参加关心她们的切身利益的女权组织和活动。除了新成立的全国妇女组织之外, 还有许多女权运动组织, 其中影响比较大的是妇女平等行动同盟和全国妇女政治核心组织全国妇女政治核心组织吸引了全国许多著名的女权主义者, 活动也十分积极, 其影响也越来越大。 战后美国女权运动的发展及其影响 女权运动在组织上的不断扩大, 是与其所制订的越来越广泛的斗争目标密切相关的这些内容广泛的目标, 既可以满足广大妇女改善政治和社会地位的要求, 又可以动员她们积极参加运动以全国妇女组织为例, 该组织在年召开的年会上, 通过一项包括八点内容的决议案争取通过平等权利修正案消除就业中的性别歧视妥善解决妇女的离婚问题降低托儿所的税收举办日托中心及实行平等和非隔离教育提供职业训练的平等机会和对贫困妇女的补助争取控制自己生育的权利。⑥与过去相比, 这一决议案所确定的斗争目标显然增加了新的内容, 因此, 又可以认为, 女权组织斗争目标的更新和扩展, 也是民权运动进一步发展的一种结果。随着斗争目标的扩大, 女权运动在斗争策略上也有改善, 即把年代
美国文学简史中文版
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