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Hicks 2005 ewaste china

The recycling and disposal of electrical and

electronic waste in China—legislative and

market responses

C.Hicks a,*,R.Dietmar a ,M.Eugster b

a Deutsche Gesellschaft fu ¨r Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)GmbH,Sino-German Technical Cooperation

Programme b Environment Oriented Enterprise Consultancy Zhejiang Q (EECZ),306Wen Yi Rd.,

Room 617,Hangzhou,310012,Zhejiang,P .R.China

b ETechnology and Society Lab.,Empa,Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research,

Lerchenfeldstr.5,9014St.Gallen,Switzerland

Received 1April 2005;received in revised form 19April 2005;accepted 20April 2005

Available online 3June 2005

Abstract

The development of new legislation on collection,recycling and disposal of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)as well as the scaling-up and privatisation of the WEEE processing industry,are indications of major changes for WEEE management in China.However,China’s attempts to regulate the industry and establish a financially viable,environmentally benign and safe WEEE management system are facing significant challenges.The existence of an extensive informal sector,combined with a lack of environmental awareness among WEEE collectors,recyclers and consumers,are contributing to China’s difficulties in developing a financially and environmentally sound recycling and disposal system.This paper discusses the current status of WEEE recycling and disposal in China,and its impacts on the environment,human health,and the economy.It also examines the legislative and market responses to the WEEE issue,and how these will be affected by Chinese attitudes and practices towards WEEE recycling.

Keywords:WEEE;E-waste;Waste management;Informal sector;Recycling;China

*Corresponding author.Tel.:+8657128869064.

E-mail addresses:charlotte@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1f13163030.html, (C.Hicks),dietmar@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1f13163030.html, (R.Dietmar),martin.eugster@empa.ch (M.Eugster).

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https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1f13163030.html,/locate/eiar

1.Introduction

In response to the growing concern over how China will manage its increasing piles of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE),central government departments have drafted a number of interrelated legislations.A national pilot program has also been initiated by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC)to determine the most suitable model for a Chinese WEEE management system.Growing interest in the WEEE recycling business from the private sector is another indicator of the significant changes in store for China’s largely unregulated and environmentally unsound WEEE processing industry.The rationale behind these legislative and market developments is clear,driven by factors such as the environmental and health impacts of WEEE recycling and disposal,and the incentive of complying with international environmental standards.

However,the reform of China’s WEEE recycling and disposal system is facing a number of significant challenges.First,China’s extensive informal waste sector collects,recycles and disposes of the major part of the country’s WEEE before it can reach officially sanctioned recycling and disposal enterprises.There are a number of reasons for the existence of such a large and effective informal WEEE processing sector.In China,as in other developing and industrialising countries,waste is viewed as a resource and income-generating opportunity.There is a general reluctance to pay for waste recycling and disposal services,particularly when consumers can make money by selling their old and broken appliances.In addition,research shows that waste collection and disposal services in developing countries cost a higher proportion of the average income than in developed countries (Cointreau,2005).Another challenge for the reform of China’s WEEE recycling and disposal practices is a lack of awareness among consumers,collectors and recyclers of the potential hazards of WEEE.Although the informal sector and the understanding of waste as a resource encourage the collection and recycling of WEEE,these will also have a decisive impact on attempts in China to apply the principles of existing models of WEEE management from abroad.

2.The environmental,health and economic aspects of WEEE recycling and disposal

2.1.Environmental and health impacts

In China,WEEE is becoming an important waste stream,both in terms of quantity and toxicity.WEEE refers to discarded appliances,such as televisions and refrigerators,as well as a variety of associated waste products,such as electrical wiring,printed wiring boards (PWBs),and batteries.WEEE also contains a myriad of toxic components and materials that can cause significant damage to the environment and human health if recycling and disposal is unregulated.

China’s WEEE can be sourced both to domestically produced and discarded products and imported waste.China is the destination for a substantial proportion of WEEE from developed countries,ostensibly exported to developing countries for d reutilisation T .For example,representatives within the United States’recycling industry have indicated that around 80%of the WEEE they receive is exported to Asia,and 90%of this goes to China

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(BAN et al.,2002).Although figures on the actual quantity of WEEE imports are unavailable,certain news reports in China claim that imports are an increasing problem, and have spread from Guangdong to Hunan,Zhejiang,Shanghai,Tianjin,Fujian and Shangdong(for example;The People’s Daily,June21,2004).In response to this influx of WEEE imports,the Chinese government announced a ban on the import of the seventh category of waste in China’s waste catalogue,including waste appliances and electronic products,which came into effect on February1,2000(SEPA,2000).

Although the long-term generation of WEEE has yet to be determined,with rapid industrialisation since the1980s,a peak period in both the ownership and dumping of household and office appliances is also expected in China.China will see the additional purchase of an estimated5million new computers,4million refrigerators,5million clothes washers,and10million televisions every year after2003(Xinhuanet,May23, 2004).Moreover,the majority of WEEE in China is processed in small workshops using basic methods such as manual disassembly and open incineration.The appliances are stripped of their most valuable and easily extracted components and materials,while the remainder is dumped.

The most prominent areas for the small-scale,unlicensed processing of WEEE are in southern Guangdong Province,and around the city of Taizhou,in eastern Zhejiang Province.The town of Guiyu,in Guangdong,attracted international attention after a report by non-governmental organisations,including the Basel Action Network(BAN)and Greenpeace China,on WEEE trading and processing in Asia.

Guiyu is an established WEEE recycling centre,made up of many small-scale enterprises.Investigations carried out in December2001by BAN and Greenpeace personnel indicated that the growth of this industry has lead to serious environmental and health impacts in the area(BAN et al.,2002).The potentially hazardous recycling practices witnessed in Guiyu included the manual and unprotected removal of printer cartridge toner,the open incineration of wires to recover copper,the de-soldering of printed wiring boards,and the use of acid baths to retrieve gold from chips and other components.Children were also seen employed in sorting plastic chips for recycling.In addition,the report states that large amounts of materials and residues were being dumped in fields,rivers,and irrigation ditches.Water samples taken by BAN and by Eastweek Magazine at the same locations on the Lijiang River show cadmium content in the range of 0.01–0.033mg/L,compared to the WHO guideline of0.003mg/L,and lead content varying between1.9and24mg/L,higher than the WHO guideline of0.01mg/L(see Table 1).Due to groundwater pollution,Guiyu’s drinking water has been delivered from a nearby town since approximately1year after the appearance of the WEEE industry. Table1

Water samples taken at the Lijiang River(BAN et al.,2002)

Substance Lijiang River

sample A(mg/L)Lijiang River

sample B(mg/L)

WHO guideline

values(mg/L)

Lead 1.9240.01 Cadmium0.010.0330.003 Mercury b0.001b0.0010.001

Copper 1.3 2.62

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Further,the report claims that a large proportion of the WEEE found in Guiyu originated in the USA,Japan and Europe.

In September 2003,the Shantou University Anthropology Department and Green-peace China ,followed up on this report with a survey of the anthropological aspects of WEEE processing in Guiyu.The survey details the social and health effects of Guiyu’s WEEE processing industry,which is now more than a decade old and involves approximately 80%of the families in the area.Guiyu residents have made substantial profits from the industry,which is organised and controlled by local family groups.Actual recycling and treatment,however,is carried out by poorly paid migrant workers from outside the area who are willing to put up with the inferior conditions and the hazards of WEEE processing.These workers numbered more than 100,000at the time of the survey.Interviews at the local hospital show that Guiyu suffers from many cases of respiratory tract infection and kidney stones,and that the incidence of these health problems is higher among migrant workers.The report also concludes that WEEE processing is increasingly industrialised and now a fundamental part of Guiyu’s economy and society.

The international and domestic attention given to the processing of WEEE in southern and eastern China has drawn responses from the central and local authorities in China.In Taizhou,the city government has attempted to regulate and control its WEEE processing enterprises,and asserts that it has made significant progress in controlling the illegal import of WEEE.According to a report by the Pollution Control Division of the Taizhou Environmental Protection Bureau (EPB)(Shen,2005),the processing of imported waste and domestically produced WEEE is moving towards a system of b fixed-point processing parks Q .These are government-established industrial parks,where processing enterprises can set up regulated recycling and disposal businesses.The Taizhou EPB states that Taizhou now has 42fixed-point waste processing enterprises capable of processing waste including WEEE.

2.2.Economic considerations

China also faces incentives to comply with international environmental standards.Of particular concern to China’s electrical and electronic equipment producers are the EU’s two new directives.The Waste Electrical Electronic Equipment (WEEE)Directive requires EU member countries to have mandatory recycling systems for WEEE in place by August 13,2005.The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)Directive bans the use of six hazardous substances in electric and electronic products put on the market after July 1,2006.According to statistical data presented in Guo et al.(2005,draft),exports from the electrical and electronic equipment sector earned China US$227.46billion in 2003,accounting for 51.9%of the country’s total export value.Of these exports,approximately 25%went to the EU.Around 70%of the China Electronics Import and Export Corporation’s exports to the EU,for example,fall under the WEEE and RoHS directives,and unless full compliance with the new standards can be achieved,there is a risk these will be reduced by 30–50%(Business Weekly,October 13th,2004).The economic imperative of complying with WEEE standards overseas is therefore an encouraging factor in the development of a domestic WEEE management system.

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WEEE recycling and disposal also has a role in resource reutilisation and income

generation.China is often characterised as a resource-poor country,with per capita

distribution of natural resources at58%of the world average(SEPA,2004).In

addition,China’s growing appliance manufacturing sector requires large amounts of

raw materials and components,and recycled materials are regarded more favourably

than they are in Europe or North America.The unregulated processing of WEEE

results in the recycling of only the most precious and easily extracted materials,such

as copper wiring,lead solder and gold plating.Other more difficult to process or less

valuable components,such as toner cartridges and desoldered printed wiring boards,

are often discarded.It is therefore viewed by the Chinese government as a waste of

useful resources.

The WEEE industry also provides income generating opportunities for both individuals

and enterprises,as waste is sold and traded among collectors,processors,second-hand

dealers and consumers.For example,the extensive WEEE processing industry in Guiyu

has been valued at about RMB600million per year,or approximately US$72million

(Dayoo Daily News,October19,2004).More formal recycling enterprises are also

developing an interest in WEEE recycling and processing in China.Cheap labour and a

favourable investment environment have already seen the relocation of recycling business

in general from industrialised countries to China.New WEEE recycling and treatment

facilities are planned and financed by both governments and private companies for

Hangzhou,Wuxi,Nanjing and Beijing,despite the current lack of a regulatory framework

for such enterprises.

3.Legislative and market responses:a potential revolution for China’s WEEE

industry

3.1.Draft legislation

Three major,national-level legislations have been drafted in response to the

perceived problem of WEEE management in China.These build upon and strengthen

earlier regulations on the prevention of pollution from solid waste and the import of

waste,which have proven insufficient for the management of WEEE.For example,

SEPA,2003b Notice on Strengthening the Environmental management of WEEE Q

prohibits the non-environmentally sound processing of WEEE and states that

provincial-level EPBs may issue hazardous waste processing licenses to enterprises

that can meet environmental requirements for WEEE recycling,in accordance with the

b Law on the Prevention of Environmental Pollution from Solid Waste Q(SEPA,2003). However,a specifi

c licensing system for waste appliance recycling an

d treatment does

not yet exist.Prepared by different government agencies,the three new legislations

focus on different stages of WEEE management,with two draft laws in a similar

format to the two EU directives on WEEE and RoHS,and a third technical policy

providing guidance for the State Environmental Protection Administration’s(SEPA)

management of WEEE.The three legislations are summarised below.Please see Table

2below for an overview of legislation relevant to WEEE management in China.

3.1.1.The draft ordinance on the management of waste household electrical and electronic products recycling and disposal

The NDRC began preparation of this law in 2001,including research,workshops,and the initiation of a pilot program to trial WEEE management measures.The major content of the draft include:

!The establishment of a special fund to assist in the financing of WEEE recycling and disposal.

!The use of positive measures to encourage the establishment of WEEE recycling and disposal enterprises,as well as support the development of relevant technology,methods and education.

!The implementation of d extended producer responsibility T (EPR),obliging producers to cover the costs of collection,recycling and disposal.Their responsibilities will include using designs beneficial to recycling,choosing non-toxic,non-hazardous substances and recyclable materials,and providing information to aid recycling.Appliance retailers and service providers will also be obliged to collect WEEE from consumers.

Table 2

Overview of China’s national WEEE management-related legislation a

Law or regulation

Major content Status/date Law on the prevention of

environmental pollution

from solid waste (SEPA)

Disposal of municipal and industrial solid waste;use of solid wastes as raw materials.Effective from April 1,1996.Notification on the import

of the seventh category

of wastes (SEPA)

Ban on the import of the seventh category of waste.Effective from February 1,2000.Notice on strengthening the

environmental management

of WEEE (SEPA)WEEE processing to meet the requirements of the b Law on the prevention of environmental

pollution from solid waste Q ;

generation of WEEE to be

reported to local EPBs.

Issued August 26,2003.Ordinance on the management of waste household electrical and electronic products recycling and disposal (Draft,NDRC)Mandatory recycling of WEEE,

based on extended producer

responsibility;certification for 2nd

hand appliances,and recycling

enterprises.

Submitted for approval to the State Council in early 2005.Management measure for the prevention of pollution from electronic products (Draft,MII)

Restrictions on the use of hazardous

substances;d green T product design;

provision of information on the

components,hazardous substances,

and recycling.If approved,effective from July 1,2005;restrictions to be enforced after July 1,2006.a Sources:BAN et al.(2002);Guo et al.(2005,Draft);NDRC (2004,Draft);SEPA (2003,2000,1995);Chen (2004).

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C.Hicks et al./Environmental Impact Assessment Review25(2005)459–471465 !The establishment of standards and a certification system for second hand appliances, and recycling and disposal enterprises,to ensure safety and the environmentally-sound processing of WEEE.

A draft for comments was released in September2004,and has now been submitted to the State Council(The People’s Daily,February7,2005).However,the actual date for the official issuance of the legislation remains a matter of speculation.

3.1.2.The draft management measure for the prevention of pollution from electronic products

The national Ministry of Information Industry(MII)began drafting this law in2002.It aims to reduce the hazardous and toxic substances and materials present in electronic appliances,and to reduce the pollution caused by the production,recycling and disposal of these products.This draft legislation is a counterpart to the EU RoHS directive,including: !Restrictions on the use of six hazardous substances in electrical and electronic products: lead,mercury,chromium IV,cadmium,PBBs1and PBDE2.

!Requirements for d green T product design.

!Requirement for producers to provide information on the components and hazardous substances present in their products,as well as on safe use and recycling.

According to representatives from the MII Economic Systems Reform and Economic Operations Department,it will also involve a component on standards and testing,and a catalogue of products covered by the law(Huang,2004;Gao,2004).If passed this year,it will come into effect on July1,2005with the restrictions on hazardous substances to be enforced after July1,2006,corresponding with the EU’s RoHS Directive.

3.1.3.The technical policy for the prevention of pollution from waste electrical and electronic products

Drafted by SEPA,this technical policy was approved at an expert meeting in September 2004.The goal of this policy is to reduce the overall volume of WEEE,to increase the reutilisation rate and standard of WEEE recycling,and to reduce negative environmental impacts.It includes content on:green product design and green product labels;the management of WEEE collection,storage,recycling and disposal;the encouragement of research and development of technology and equipment;and the formulation of associated national policies and standards(Guo et al.,2005,draft).

China’s draft WEEE and hazardous substances legislations have drawn cautious responses from stakeholders,such as the electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing industry.Although the improvement of environmental standards is recognised as an opportunity to promote the technological advancement and competitiveness of Chinese industries,there are major concerns about how the future WEEE management system will be financed and enforced.The manufacturing sector

1PBB:Polybrominated biphenyls.

2PBDE:Polybrominated diphenyl ethers.

claims to have too small a profit margin to bear the increasing costs of d green T design,testing and recycling.Recyclers are also worried about the high costs of purchasing WEEE in China,and the lack of preferential policies for recycling and disposal companies (for example:Southern Daily,November 4,2004).In addition,enforcement of legislation is already a contentious issue in China,where government departments have limited resources for monitoring and control.

3.2.Pilot programs

The NDRC is currently implementing a national pilot program,with the goal of addressing the problems in the draft legislation and the difficulties in establishing a WEEE recycling system.In 2003,the city of Qingdao and the Province of Zhejiang were selected to implement pilot WEEE management systems and explore different models for WEEE recycling and treatment.In addition,the NDRC (2003)asked that the pilots make use of technology and processes suited to China’s circumstances,carry out analysis of recycling costs,and develop relevant technical standards.

Qingdao is host to China’s largest appliance manufacturers,such as Hai’er,Aucma and Haixin.The Qingdao Economic and Trade Commission directs the pilot,and will trial a producer-owned recycling plant model,aiming to establish a plant with the capacity to process 600,000items 3of WEEE per year.According to the China Business Herald (January 4,2005),the Hai’er Group is implementing the project,and a total of RMB 80million (https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1f13163030.html,$10million)will be invested in establishing the WEEE treatment plant.Of this investment,approximately 15%will be contributed by the government.At this stage,the project has reportedly been put on hold,as it is not clear how the investment will be recouped,and no local WEEE management regulations have been prepared.

The WEEE management pilot in Zhejiang will follow a b specialised Q disposal plant model,with the establishment of a WEEE treatment facility by a specialised company.The agency responsible for the management of the pilot is the Zhejiang Provincial Economic and Trade Commission (ZETC).According to the ZETC (2004),the Hangzhou-based company,DADI Environmental Protection Co.Ltd,has been commissioned to construct a centralised disposal centre,which will make use of a network of collection and recycling points across the province.After its establishment,Zhejiang Province aims to recycle 800,000units of WEEE each year.At this stage,DADI’s recycling and disposal facility will process major appliances,including air-conditioners,washers,refrigerators,televisions,and computers,as well as printed wiring boards.Together with the China Home Appliance Research Institute and the China Home Appliance Association,DADI has invested RMB 2million (US$250000)in the establishment of an R &D centre.Approximately RMB 100million (US$12.5million)will be invested in the centralised treatment facility,which has already obtained approval and begun collecting WEEE.The ZETC has also formulated standards for the certification of second-hand appliances for resale,and a provisional WEEE Management Measure,which came into effect on January 1,2005.The Measure is broad and temporary,to allow changes once national regulations are in place.

3Quantities of WEEE in China are often provided in items rather than tons.

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Both pilot programs have experienced difficulties in collecting WEEE and covering the costs of environmentally sound processing.According to a representative from Hai’er, environmentally sound processing measures account for fully one half of recycling costs, and if the company pays more for waste to compete with collectors,it will make a loss of tens of millions of yuan(China Business Herald,January4,2005).Similarly,DADI collected a relatively small amount in2004,including35.6t of waste appliances,4.6t of waste computer products,and10.2t of light bulbs and tubes.According to Mr.Hong Liang(2005),DADI’s vice general manager,the company has slowed down its collection activities due to the high cost of paying for WEEE,which averages RMB110(US$13)per item,not including transport and personnel costs.

As well as the national pilot program,local government WEEE management initiatives are being developed in Tianjin,Shijiazhuang and Shanghai.Tianjin,for example,is currently attempting to revive the state-owned recycling network that existed from1955to 1990.The Economic Observer(November17,2004)reports that the Tianjin Green Angel Co.Ltd.is setting up the d1931T system,referring to1000neighbourhood recycling stations,9transfer stations,3exchange centres for recycled materials,and one WEEE treatment plant.The Shanghai city government is also planning to establish its own facility,with a capacity to treat500,000items per year(Shanghai Star,August26,2004). As in Zhejiang and Qingdao,these initiatives are facing collection difficulties,as appliances are stripped of valuable components and dumped or sold to second-hand dealers and workshops.

3.3.Industry and market developments

The demand for recycled materials and the potential new regulatory framework are contributing to industrial scaling-up and increased interest among companies in investing in WEEE processing.In addition,large international electronics companies are extending their corporate responsibility programs to China.Instead of relying on the Chinese regulatory system,a number of companies are developing their own initiatives,and sending external auditors to check compliance with corporate social responsibility principles.

As well as the development of WEEE facilities in the pilot programs in Qingdao and Zhejiang,China’s Huaxing Group is currently choosing a site in Beijing for a pilot WEEE recycling and treatment plant(The People’s Daily,February7,2005).New,large-scale recycling and treatment plants are also being set up in Nanjing and Wuxi.Nanjing’s Jinze Co.Ltd.has invested RMB10million(US$1.25million)in a plant that became technically operational in October2004,but remains idle:the plant can process all the printed wiring boards collected over a long period in approximately one hour(China Business Herald, January4,2005).The industry news service,Computer Business Information(November6, 2004)also reports that a new facility with a total investment reportedly of US$65million is being established in Wuxi,Jiangsu Province,by the Singaporean WEEE recycling firm Citiraya,and expects to begin operations in March2005.

Private sector WEEE take-back schemes are still limited in China,although mobile phone producers have begun to collect waste phones and accessories.Nokia launched its b Future is in Your Hands Q campaign in the Asia-Pacific in2001,and in China in2002, with more than200recycling bins placed in around100major cities at Nokia service

centres.At this stage,Nokia China has only collected approximately 0.5t of batteries and chargers,as consumers prefer to sell old mobile phones on the second-hand market,a common practice in China 4.Philips has stated it will soon choose a company to recycle its products in China and sponsored the b Sino-Netherlands Electronic Waste Recycling Conference Q in November 2004(Central TV Economic News Broadcast,November 20,2004).In addition,Fortune Plastic and Metal Inc.won a contract from Motorola to collect and recycle mobile phones in more than 100Chinese cities,to be processed at the Jinze WEEE plant in Nanjing.

China’s changing WEEE processing industry and growing equipment manufacturing sector offers both opportunities and risks for companies.As well as the chance to enter China’s WEEE recycling and disposal market at an early stage,the need to comply with environmental and technical standards has created a market opportunity for the provision of consultancy to Chinese companies on d green T design,design for disassembly and testing for hazardous substances.However,the difficulties of operating in an uncertain regulatory environment and competing with China’s large and effective informal sector also demonstrate the risks of investing in this field.

4.Conclusions

An examination of China’s fledgling WEEE management system shows that attempts to regulate and industrialise the processing industry are facing a major challenge in terms of financing and collection.The pilot programs in Qingdao and Zhejiang,as well as newly established facilities,are finding it difficult to compete with China’s large and unregulated informal https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1f13163030.html,rmal collectors and second-hand appliance dealers remove WEEE from the waste stream before formal recycling companies can obtain it,and divert it to informal processing workshops and poorer regions of China.

There is a fundamental difference between the current European models of WEEE management and the reality of WEEE recycling in China.In various European and in the Japanese WEEE recycling system,consumers either pay to return waste appliances or return them free of charge.Recycling companies can generate revenue from selling refurbished appliances,components and recycled raw materials,as well as charging fees to producers or consumers.In China,however,a consumer or company expects to receive payment for their WEEE,which is viewed as a potentially valuable resource.Recycling enterprises must pay for their materials and lose the extra revenue of charging fees.The cost of buying WEEE,combined with the expense of environmentally sound processing,means that official WEEE recycling businesses in China find it very difficult to compete with small,unlicensed collectors and workshops that operate with limited environmental protection measures.

Uncertainty as to how recycling businesses will obtain a return on their investment increases the risk for foreign companies investing in China’s WEEE industry.Recycling and treatment facilities require a high initial investment,particularly those fitted with 4Personal correspondence with Nokia China,dated March 7&March 10,2005.

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C.Hicks et al./Environmental Impact Assessment Review25(2005)459–471469 technologically advanced equipment and processes.The risk of setting up businesses outside China’s government-supported WEEE pilot programs is high,and formal,modern recycling and treatment facilities still rely on government co-financing and preferential policies.The reform of China’s WEEE industry requires the environmentally-sound and regulated processing of waste,but how this will be paid for requires further research and consideration.

The implementation of China’s draft WEEE ordinance aims to significantly reform the framework of the WEEE recycling system.The institution of licensing and a system based on extended producer responsibility,for example,will transfer some of the burden of recycling onto appliance producers,make the arbitrary dumping of WEEE illegal,and institute standards for the sale of second-hand appliances.However,it is a difficult task to reduce the costs of collection and recycling by banning the sale and trade of WEEE in a country where it represents a resource.The draft ordinance does not attempt to do so,with Article14stating that b(c)onsumers should sell their waste electric and electronic equipment to appliance distributors,after-sales service organisations,or recycling enterprises Q(NDRC,2004).Further,the ordinance does not state that informal or individual WEEE collection will be banned or restricted.Given the difficulty of controlling China’s informal processing sector,new strategies must be sought to develop financially viable,environmentally sound and safe processing.As noted by Darby et al. (2004),new regulatory approaches can have long-term implications for financial, environmental and social sustainability beyond the initial intentions of their designers. Similarly,a lack of attention to the issues of sustainability may result in a new policy unable to effect the desired change in practice and behaviour.Darby et al.(2004) recommend,for example,increased efforts to include all relevant stakeholders and consumers in WEEE recycling systems.Raising awareness among collectors,recyclers and consumers of the potential dangers of recycling and dumping old and broken appliances can contribute to building new attitudes toward WEEE.

How to incorporate the informal sector into a well-regulated WEEE management system,how to transfer the experience and know-how of existing models from abroad,and how to successfully combine this with the reality of current practice in China are therefore important questions for the country’s developing WEEE recycling and disposal system. Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

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report.Presentation at the Zhejiang WEEE recycling and treatment workshop,Hangzhou,March 4,2005.Huang Wuzhong,(Economic Systems Reform and Economic Operations Division,P.R.C.Ministry of

Information Industry).Opening statement.Conference on testing and materials substitution for six types of hazardous substances in electronic and electric equipment.Beijing,December 14–15,2004.

P.R.C.National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC).NDRC Office notice regarding the selection of

Zhejiang province and Qingdao City as pilot sites for the establishment of the national WEEE recycling and treatment system.NDRC Office,Environment and Resources (1384),December 12,2003.

P.R.C.National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC).Ordinance on the management of waste

household electrical and electronic products recycling and disposal (Draft).NDRC Express,September 19,2004.

P.R.C.State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA).Notice on the environmental management

situation of waste electric and electronic products.https://www.wendangku.net/doc/1f13163030.html,/hykx(36).htm [access date:October 25th,2004].

P.R.C.State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA).Notice on strengthening the environmental management

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wastes.SEPA Document 19/2000,2000.

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from solid waste.PRC Presidential Order,No.58,October 30,1995.

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dismantling in Guiyu.Shantou 7Shantou University Anthropology Department,September,2003.

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of regulation and reform of solid waste import processing in Taizhou.Presentation at the Zhejiang WEEE recycling and treatment workshop,Hangzhou,March 4,2005.

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470

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Charlotte Hicks is a liaison and research officer for the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research(EMPA)at the Sino-German Technical Cooperation Programme b Environment-oriented Enterprise Consultancy Zhejiang Q.She holds a Masters Degree in International Relations and Asian Politics from the University of Queensland,Australia.Her research focuses on the environmental management,policy and financial aspects of WEEE recycling systems,with emphasis on China.Empa and EECZ are cooperating to develop a project to support the establishment of a regulated and environmentally sound WEEE management system in Zhejiang Province.

Rolf Dietmar,employee of the German Technical Cooperation(GTZ),is the director of the SinoàGerman Cooperation Programme b Environment-oriented Enterprise Consultancy Zhejiang Q,which is located in Hangzhou,China,and started in2002.He graduated from the University of Bonn,Germany,with a Master’s Degree in Agricultural Sciences.Since1990he gained substantial experience in the development and implementation of environmental policies in the Ministry of the Environment of Brandenburg in the eastern part of Germany.In1998he became Senior Advisor at the Administrative Centre for China’s Agenda21,an institution in Beijing that operates under the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology.

Martin Eugster works as project manager at the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA).He holds a Master’s Degree in Environmental Engineering from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology(ETH)Zurich.At EMPA he started in2001in the unit Sustainable Technology Cooperation and worked in different projects in the field of eco-efficiency and waste management.

(完整版)人教版小学英语六年级下册课文

六年级下册 Unit One How tall are you ? I’m 21 metres tall. I’m tallest! I’m 1.6 metres tall. I’m taller than dinosaur. It’s so tall! Some dinosaurs are bigger than houses. Some are smaller than our schoolbags. How heavy is it? It’s five tons. What size are your shoes? My shoes are size 35. Look! That’s the tallest dinosaur in this hall. Yes, it is. How tall is it? Maybe 4 metres. Wow! It’s taller than both of us together. Look！There are more dinosaurs over there! They’re all so big and tall. Hey, this dinosaur isn’t tall! I’m taller than this one. Oh, yes. How tall are you? I’m 1.65 metres.

How tall are you? I’m 1.61 metres. Oh! I’m taller. You’re older than me, too. How old are you? I’m 12 years old. How tall are you? I’m 1.64 metres. Wu Yifan is taller than John, but Zhang Peng is taller than Wu Yifan. Those shoes in the window are nice! Let’s have a look. What size are your shoes, Mike? Size 7. Size 7? That’s so small. In China I wear size 40 shoes. Oh! Your feet are bigger than mine. My shoes are size 37. Really? You look taller than me. But I think you are heavier. How heavy are you? I’m 48 kilograms. Yes, you’re heavier. I’m 46 kilograms.

人教版小学六年级下册语文课文

人教版小学六年级下册语文课文（要求背诵的有全文更好）第一课：《文言文两则》 1、《学奕》弈秋，通国之善弈者也。使弈秋诲二人弈，其一人专心致志，惟弈秋之为听；一人虽听之，一心以为有鸿鹄将至，思援弓缴（zhuó）而射之。虽与之俱学，弗若之矣。为是其智弗若与？曰：非然也。 2、《两小儿辨日》孔子东游，见两小儿辩斗问其故。一儿曰：“我以日始出时去人近，而日中时远也。” 一儿以日初出远，而日中时近也。一儿曰：“日初出大如车盖，及日中盘盂（yú），此不为远者小而近者大乎？” 一儿曰：“日初出沧（cāng）沧凉凉，及其日中如探汤，此不为近者热而远者凉乎？” 孔子不能决也。两小儿笑曰：“孰（shú）为汝(rǔ）多知（zhì）乎？” 第二课：《匆匆》燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。但是，聪明的，你告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？——是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？我不知道他们给了我多少日子；但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了。在默默里算着，八千多日子已经从我手中溜去；像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。去的尽管去了，来的尽管来着；去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。太阳他有脚啊，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去，天黑时，我躺在床上，他便伶伶俐俐地从我身上跨过，从我脚边飞去了。等我睁开眼和太阳再见，这算又溜走了一日。我掩着面叹息。但是新来的日子的影儿又开始在叹息里闪过了。在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只

中国各城市的古称谓及得名由来

中国各城市的古称谓及得名由来华北和东北：天津——意为“天子的津渡”，明代永乐帝朱棣在这里率领大军渡过海河南下推翻建文帝邯郸——城市名押an韵，邯郸意为“邯山至此而尽”，郸同单，“单”意思是山脉的尽头，邯郸是中国沿用最古老的地名之一秦皇岛——秦始皇求仙入海之岛，秦皇岛是中国唯一用古代帝王称号来命名的城市太原——取“广大的平原”之意大同——取自“天下大同之地”，“大同”是古代政治上的最高理想长治——长治古称上党，明代在此地设置长治县，取“长治久安”之意赤峰——得名于城东北的褐色孤峰包头——包头由蒙古语“包克图”演化而来，意思是“有鹿的地方”，包头由此别称为鹿城乌海——乌达与海勃湾的合称大连——大连旧称青泥洼，青泥洼大部分都是山东移民，在山东有一种很流行的事物叫做褡裢，大连就是由褡裢演变而来，另一说大连来自俄语“达里尼” 阜新——取“物阜民丰，焕然一新”之意盘锦——盘山和锦州各取一字而成，也取“盘根错节，锦上添花”之意本溪——本溪得名于境内的本溪湖，本溪湖古称杯犀湖，杯犀湖因“湖底上阔下窄，状如犀牛之角”而得名，清代雍正年间因杯犀湖名称过雅又难写难辨，故取其谐音改称为本溪湖长春——意为“长年春色的城市”，东北的春天是非常寒冷的，以长春命名城市说明了该城的气候特点是寒冷占据主导

吉林——吉林全称吉林乌拉，满语意思是“沿江的城市”，吉林市是中国唯一省市同名的城市佳木斯——佳木斯清代又称“嘉木寺”，在满语是“驿丞”的意思，因为佳木斯在古代地处松花江通往黑龙江江口的驿道华东：烟台——意为“狼烟升起的炮台” 青岛——因岛上“山岩耸秀，林木蓊郁”而得名，且与“琴岛”谐音威海——明代在此地设威海卫，取“威震东海”之意日照——取“日出初光先照”之意淄博——淄川与博山的合称莱芜——莱是植物名，俗称灰菜，芜指田野荒芜，古时这里是一片荒凉的地方，故名莱芜菏泽——城市名押e韵，菏山与雷泽的合称，菏泽也是中国沿用最古老的地名之一合肥——因东淝河与南淝河在此汇合而得名蚌埠——意为“盛产蚌珠的港埠”，蚌埠由此别称为珠城宿迁——春秋时为钟吾子国，后宿国迁都于此，宿迁由此得名连云港——意为“在连岛与云台山之间的港湾”，云台山是江苏省的最高峰镇江——唐代为镇海军节度使的驻地，到了宋代因地理环境的变化，此地距大海较远，故而更名为镇江，取“镇守长江”之意无锡——先秦锡山产锡，至汉朝锡尽，故名无锡上海——得名于松江（即苏州河）的一条支流上海浦，上海意为“通向大海的地方” 金华——意为“金星与婺女争华之地” 宁波——宁波古称明州，宁波得名于“海定则波宁”

古今名人名字的由来含义

古今名人名字的由来含义姓名是中华文化的脉承之一，它是人们以血脉传承为根基的社会人文标识。历史上名字起得好的名人，人也惊艳，名也惊艳。下面让我们一起品味中国的名字艺术。 1、子，神国公嘉的后代，公嘉字文。我国古人有的以祖先的“字”为姓，如公子牙字叔，他的子就叫叔得臣。子也是近这种式为姓的。故姓。为什么人们叫子为“老二”呢?原来，子的父亲叔梁纥，是国的一个将军，他原有九个女儿和一个儿子。这仅有的一个儿子是个瘸子。在当时男尊女卑的情况下，叔梁纥当然很不满意。于是，他就和妻子一起到曲阜东南的尼丘山求天神另赐一子。后来，果然又生下了子，叙梁纥以为这是在尼丘山上求来的，就给他取名为丘，字仲尼。“仲”字是排行，表示“第二”的意思，因为子是叔梁纥的第二个儿子，所以人们又叫子为“老二”。 2、白，相传白到七岁时还没有正式的名字。原因是他在“抓”时，抓了《诗经》这本书，这不但喜坏了他父亲，而且也难坏了他父亲。他想：如果儿子长大成了诗人，若没有一个叫得响的好名字岂不遗憾?于是，越往诗人的名声面想，越发对儿子取名之事慎之又慎了，故此一拖多年没有定名。这年春天，白一家在家院中游玩，他父亲想作一首春日的七绝诗，有意考考儿子的本事。他咏了两句：“春风送暖百花开，迎春绽金它先来”后就说：“后面的诗句我想不出来了，由你们母子二人续上吧。”白的母亲想了一会道：“火烧杏林红霞

落”，她的话音刚落，白就用手指树，脱白说道：“花怒放一树白。”他父亲听后，连声叫好，忽然心里一动：这句诗的头一个字不正是自家的姓吗？这最后一个“白”字不正说出了花圣洁高雅吗？于是，他当即决定儿子的名字就叫白。 3、，1896年9月，日本青年宫崎滔天、平山，经过多曲折，在日本横滨中国革命志士少白的寓所，见到了文。文谈及革命时，其慷慨激昂之情，犹如深山虎啸。他俩被文的革命热情、见识和抱负深深感动，决心帮助文，并为他的生命安全担忧，劝他暂时留驻日本。文同意后，宫崎和平山就陪同文找旅馆。他们绕过日比谷公园，路过候爵府邸，来到“对鹤馆”旅馆，并由平山替文代笔登记。当时，文处于流亡之中，不便公开姓名身份。填写什么好呢？平山执笔踌躇一番，忽然想起刚才走过候爵府时看见的那块牌匾，于是就在旅馆簿上写下了“”两字。但按日本习俗，只是个姓，还得有一个适当的名字才好，平山又踌躇起来了。正在这时，文接过登记簿，在“”两字下面添上了一个“樵”字，笑着对平山说：“我是中国的山樵。”这就是名字的由来。 4、迅，著名史学家候外庐同志在一篇文章中，对迅之所以取名迅，作了如下解释：一般人把迅字解释为“快迅”，是不确切的。迅字《尔雅?释兽》云：“牝狼，其子激，绝有力，迅。”注云：“狼子绝有力者，曰迅。”“缴”即激，从犬言兽性，从水言水性。都是激烈的意思。迅的，取自迅的母亲的姓。迅，古义的狼子。迅的字义可理解为牝狼一个有勇力的儿子。迅为什么要以狼子自居？他曾说过自己甘做封建制

中国省会和简称汇总

记忆各省简称京津沪渝直辖市蒙宁新藏桂自治一国两制台港澳东北三省黑吉辽冀鲁晋归华北苏浙皖赣在华东湘鄂豫归华中华南还有粤闽琼川滇黔归西南西北还有陕甘青记忆我国的行政区域省份名称两湖两广两河山五江云贵福吉安四西二宁青甘陕海内台北上重天香港澳门和台湾爱我祖国好河山第1句：湖南,湖北,广东,广西,河南,河北,山东,山西第2句：新疆,黑龙江,江西,浙江,江苏,云南,贵州,福建,吉林,安徽第3句：四川,西藏,宁夏,辽宁,青海,甘肃,陕西第4句：海南,内蒙古,台湾,北京,上海,重庆,天津

23个省份

中国各省简称的由来一、四个直辖市 1、北京（京）北京有据可查的第一个名称为“蓟”，是春秋战国时燕国的都城。辽金是将北京作为陪都，称为燕京。金灭辽后，迁都于此，称中都。元代改称大都。明成祖朱棣从南京迁都于此，改称“北京”。名称一直沿用至今。1949年设为直辖市。取全称中的“京”字作为简称。 2、天津（津）唐宋以前，天津称为直沽。金代形成集市称“直沽寨”。元代设津海镇，这是天津建城的开始。明永乐2年（1404年）筑城设卫，始称天津卫，取“天子经过的渡口”之意。1949年设为直辖市。取全称中的“津”字作为简称。 3、上海（沪）上海之称始于宋代，当时上海已成为我国的一个新兴贸易港口，那时的上海地区有十八大浦，其中一条叫上海浦，它的西岸设有上海镇。1292年，上海改镇为县。这是上海这一名称的由来。1949年，上海设为直辖市。古时，上海地区的渔民发明了一种竹编的捕鱼工具“扈”，当时还没有上海这一地名，因此，这一带被称为“沪渎”，故上海简称“沪”。春秋战国时上海是楚春申君黄歇封邑的一部分，故上海别称“申”。 4、重庆（渝）重庆古称“巴”。秦时称江州。隋称渝州。北宋称恭州。重庆之名始于1190年，因南宋光宗赵敦先封恭王，后登帝位，遂将恭州升为

人教版六年级语文下册课文

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我国各个城市的简称

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称中都。元代改称大都。明成祖朱棣从南京迁都于此，改称“北京”。名称一直沿用至今。1949 年设为直辖市。取全称中的“京”字作为简称。 2、天津（津）唐宋以前，天津称为直沽。金代形成集市称“直沽寨”。元代设津海镇，这是天津建城的开始。明永乐 2 年（1404 年）筑城设卫，始称天津卫，取“天子经过的渡口”之意。1949 年设为直辖市。取全称中的“津”字作为简称。 3、上海（沪）上海之称始于宋代，当时上海已成为我国的一个新兴贸易港口，那时的上海地区有十八大浦，其中一条叫上海浦，它的西岸设有上海镇。1292 年，上海改镇为县。这是上海这一名称的由来。1949 年，上海设为直辖市。古时，上海地区的渔民发明了一种竹编的捕鱼工具“扈”，当时还没有上海这一地名，因此，这一带被称为“沪渎”，故上海简称“沪”。春秋战国时上海是楚春申君黄歇封邑的一部分，故上海别称“申”。 4、重庆（渝）重庆古称“巴”。秦时称江州。隋称渝州。北宋称恭州。重庆之名始于1190 年，因南宋光宗赵敦先封恭王，后登帝位，遂将恭州升为重庆府，取“双重喜庆”之意。1997 年，重庆设为直辖市。隋时，嘉陵江称渝水，重庆因位于嘉陵江畔而置渝州，故重庆简称“渝”。五个自治区 1、内蒙古自治区（内蒙古）(呼和浩特市) 蒙古原为部落名，始见于唐代记载。1206 年，成吉思汗统一蒙古各部，建立蒙古国。元灭后，蒙古族退居塞北。明清形成内、外蒙古之称。晚清以后，泛指大漠以南、长城以北、东起哲里木盟、西至套西厄鲁特所以盟旗为内蒙古。取全称中“内蒙古”三字作为简称。

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中国历史各朝代名称来历我国历史悠久，朝代更零星纷繁。每朝的创建者要首手办的第一件事就是确立国号（朝代名称）。国号就是一个国家的称号。《史记·五帝本纪》：“自黄帝至舜禹，皆同姓而异其国号，以章明德。” 朝代的名称是由什么决定呢？大致有五个来由：由部族、部落联盟的名称而来，来自创建者原有卦号、爵位；源于创建者原始所或政权统治的区域；源于宗族关系；寓意吉祥。具体说： w.w.w.k.s.5.u.c.o.m 夏：据传禹曾受卦于夏伯，因用以称其政权为“夏”。另据历史学家范文澜先生说，禹的儿子启西迁大夏（山西南部汾浍一带）后，才称“夏”。商：相传商（今河南商丘南）的始祖契曾帮助禹治水有功而受卦于商，以后就以“商”来称其部落（或部族）。汤灭夏后，就以“商”作为国名。后盘庚迁殷（今河南安阳西北）后，又以"殷"或"殷商"并称。周：周部落到古公檀父时，迁居于周原（今陕西岐山）。武王灭殷以后，就以“周”为朝代名。周前期建都于镐（今陕西西安西南），后来平王东迁洛邑（今河南洛阳），因在镐的东方，就有“西周”和“东周”的称号。秦：据《史记》记载，本为古部落，其首领非子为周孝王羊马有成绩，被周孝王赐姓为“嬴”，并赐给了一小块土地（今甘肃天水县，另说是陇西谷名）。后来襄又救周有功被封为诸侯，秦始皇统一六国，始建秦国。汉：项羽封刘邦为汉王，以后刘邦击败项羽，统一中国，国号称“汉”。汉朝前期都长安，后期都洛阳，故从都城上有“西汉”和“东汉”，从时间上有“前汉”和“后汉”之分。魏：汉献帝曾封曹操为“魏公”、“魏王”爵位，曹丕代汉后便称“魏”以皇室姓曹，历史上又称“曹魏”。蜀：刘备以四川为活动地区，蜀指四川，其政权称“蜀”。历史上也称“蜀汉”。汉指东汉的继续。吴：孙权活动于长江下游一带，历史上曾建吴国，曹魏曾封孙权为“吴王”，故史称“孙吴”；又以地位在东，也称“东吴”。晋：司马昭逼魏帝封他为“晋公”，灭蜀后进爵为晋王。后来他的儿子司炎继承他的爵位，逼令魏帝退位，自立为皇帝，国号“晋”。隋：隋文帝杨坚之父杨忠，曾被北周封为“随国公”。隋文帝后袭用此卦爵，称为“随朝”。他认为随有走的意思，恐不祥改为“隋”。唐：唐高祖李渊的祖父李虎，佐周有功，被追卦为“唐国公”，爵位传至李渊。太原起兵后，李渊称“唐王”，后废杨广建唐朝。辽：辽原称“契丹”，改“辽”是因居于辽河上游之故。宋：后周恭帝继位后，命赵匡胤为归德节度史，归德军驻宋州（今河南商丘），赵匡胤为宋州节度使。故陈桥兵变后，发迹在宋州，国号曰“宋”。西夏：拓拔思恭占据夏州（今山西横山县），建国时以夏州得名，称“大夏”。因其在西方，宋人称“西夏”。金：金都城上京会宁（今黑龙江阿城南），位于按出虎水（今阿什河），相传其水产金，女真语“金”为“按出虎”。元：据《元史》记载：“元”的命名，是元世祖忽必烈定的。是取《易经》上“大哉乾元”句中的“元”，有大、首等意思。但也有人认为与蒙古人的风俗与图腾有关，有的认为与佛教有关。明：朱元璋是元末起义军之一，是继承郭子兴而发展起来的，郭子兴属于白莲教组织。白莲

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