《中华人民共和国合同法》第378条之理解与完善(1)

《中华人民共和国合同法》第378条之

理解与完善(1)

关键词: 货币保管合同混藏保管消费保管民事保管商事保管

内容提要: 民法学界对《中华人民共和国合同法》第378条的规定普遍存在误解。该条规定所针对的并非货币的消费保管,最多只能是混藏保管。这种立法模式存在诸多缺陷。我国合同立法应区别对待货币的民事保管与商事保管。对于民事保管,应以当事人的意思自治为原则,即依合同约定来判断货币保管是否为消费保管;在此基础上适当兼顾保管效率,依合同的约定判断是否为混藏保管。对于商事保管,除对银行业金融机构的货币保管以促进货币融通为立法目的外,其他营业中产生的货币保管应以货币财产之安全为最高价值目标,规定此类货币保管为混藏保管,保管人不可使用其所保管货币,但可就替代物负返还义务。

货币本质上为一般等价物,充当着价值尺度、流通手段、支付手段及贮藏手段的基本职能,更是商品社会必要劳动时间的衡量标准及外在体现。这种经济特质决定了货币与其他物品有着根本差别,因此法律应当区别对待之。考察《中华人民共和国合同法》对货币保管合同的规定可以发现,立法者对货币及货币保管合同的特殊性认识不足,导致有关保管合同的规定存在诸多问题,有必要加以完善。

一、学界对《合同法》第378条规定的误解及其纠正

我国对货币保管合同的特别规定主要集中于《合同法》第378条。（虽然《中华人民共和国合同法》第375条确立了货币寄存人的声明义务,但该规定对货币保管合同的性质、当事人主要权利义务没有重大影响,因此笔者将不作特别讨论。）《合同法》第378条规定:“保管人保管货币的,可以返还相同种类、数量的货币。保管其他可替代物的,按照约定返还相同种类、品质、数量的物品。”学界主流观点认为,该条是货币保管合同,属于消费保管合同。【1】笔者以为,从现行法规定难以得出这个结论。

判断消费保管的关键在于

“消费”消费保管又称为不规则保管,是一种以货币或其他替代物作为保管标的的保管,保管人有权消费或处分保管标的,而归还种类、品质、数量相同的保管物。【2】《德国民法典》第700条规定的消费保管就属于这种情形。

笔者认为,判断消费保管的标准有二:其一,寄存人是否允许保管人消费保管物;其二,是否存在标的物所有权转移至保管人的约定。其中,关键标准又在于前者———消费。因为约定所有权转移的目的是使保管人取得消费物的处分权,否则约定便无任何意义。这就意味着,如果能找到保管人可消费其所保管的货币或货币的所有权转移至保管人的立法,则《合同法》第378条之规定为消费保管;反之,则否。

至于保管人“以种类、数量、品质相同之物负返还义务”,并非消费保管的根本特征,而是其必然结果。因为在保管物所有权转移或被消费的情形下,如果不允许保管人以替代物履行返还义务,弥补寄存人利益的唯一手段只剩支付价款,但这样一来,寄存人与保管人之间的关系就变成了买卖。然而,正是因为《合同法》第378条规定的重点落在了保管人“替代物返还义务”之上才造成了上述误解。

依相关立法不能得出保管人可“消费”货币的结论

1.保管人是否可“消费”其所保管的货币?

依《合同法》的规定,我们无法得出保管人可使用其所保管货币的结论。其理由如下:首先,《合同法》第378条只规定了保管人可返还相同种类、数量的货币,并无保管人有权使用货币的规定。其次,根据《合同法》第372条的规定,保管人不得使用或许可第三人使用保管物,除非当事人另有约定。而且,货币属于消费物。所谓消费物,是指依其本来用法不能以消耗或让与以外之方式使用的物。【3】据此,非“消费或转让不能使用”的特性决定了消费物使用权行使是一次性的,使用权行使完毕则物也归于消灭。因此,使用权一般适用于非消费物,对消费物的“使用”实为处分。【4】既然非消耗性的使用都为《合同法》所禁止,依“举轻以明重”的法律原则,笔者认为,在法律无明确规定的情况下,“保管人拥有消费物的处分权”的结论缺少充分的理由。

2.保管人是否拥有货币所有权?

对于这一问题,根据《合同法》“保管合同”章的规定,无任何条文可以得出“保管人取得货币所有权”的结论。相反,以最典型的货币保管———银行存款———为例,从《中华人民共和国宪法》、《中华人民共和国民法通则》到中国人民银行的相关规章,均确认了存款所有权属于存款人。暂且不论这种立法的科学性如何,笔者认为,单纯依据成文法的规定,无法得出货币保管者取得所有权的结论。（与之前立法相比,《中华人民共和国物权法》第223条将“存款单”与“债券”并列作为权利质权的质物,反映出立法对存款所有权归属的态度有所变化。但是,这也仅限于以银行为保管人的货币保管,不能由此得出所有货币保管人都能取得货币所有权的结论。）此外,《中华人民共和国物权法》否认了“占有货币者取得货币所有权”的传统理论。民法学界一直持“货币的占有与所有同一”的理论主张,但该理论最终没有为《物权法》采纳,这鲜明地表达了立法者对这个问题的否认态度。因此,“替代物的保管,法律推定保管物的所有权转移给保管人”【5】、“既然肯定了可以返还替代物,也就意味着被保管的货币不再属于寄存人”【6】等说法,仅属学理探讨,并无立法支撑。

《合同法》第378条规定的最多属于混藏保管

既然保管人无权“消费”其所保管的货币,就无法得出

我国“货币保管属消费保管”的结论。笔者认为,《合同法》第378条最多只能算是对一般保管的特殊形态———混藏保管———的规定。所谓混藏保管,是指保管人将数个寄存人同种、同质的替代物混合保管,对于其中特定寄存人无须返还其寄存的原物而返还混合物中同数量之物的保管类型【7】

《合同法》第365条规定:“保管合同是保管人保管寄存人交付的保管物,并返还该物的合同。”可见,一般保管关系之核心在于保管人的保管义务和原物返还义务。但是,在混藏保管中这两项义务履行的要求则完全不同,即保管人可将不同寄存人交存的替代物混同保管,并仅负替代物返还义务,而不需返还原物。【8】之所以规定替代物的混藏保管,立法目的在于提高保管效率。由于货币为具有高度替代性的替代物,权利人一般只考虑其价值,对其个性多不重视,因此这就为“效率”价值的弘扬提供了空间。这里的“效率”至少包括两层含义:提高货币保管义务履行的效率。在只需返还同等种类、数量货币的情形下,保管人自然更愿混同保管,不对各个寄存人的货币进行单独、区别保管,从而提高保管的效率。提高返还义务履行的效率。在返还替代物的情形下,保管人无须查找、确认寄存人交存的特定货币,从而提高履行返还义务的效率。

二、对《合同法》第378条在新定性背景下的立法缺陷

分析

如前所述,《合同法》第378条的规定最多只能是关于混藏保管的规定。笔者之所以不确定,主要原因有二:一是《合同法》并无明确规定;二是《合同法》第378条的规定存在诸多缺陷,无法与明文规定的混藏保管合同相提并论。这些缺陷主要表现在以下方面。

未全面认识货币的特殊性

从《合同法》第378条第2句“保管其他可替代物”的表述可以看出,立法者在观念上视货币为替代物。根据《德国民法典》第91条的规定,所谓替代物是指在交易中按习惯能够以数量、容量和重量加以确定的动产。据此,史尚宽先生认为,替代物与非替代物的区别主要基于交易习惯,无关其物理性质。【9】一般情况下,货币作为一般等价物,在商品交易中执行着价值尺度、流通手段及支付手段的职能,无疑属“具有高度替代性”的替代物。【10】这意味着,货币是否均属替代物取决于其在交易中执行的功能以及该交易领域中的交易习惯。

在货币收藏中,与其他普通商品一样,具有收藏价值的货币成为收藏或交易标的本身,不再执行价值尺度、流通手段或支付手段等职能。依货币收藏市场的交易惯例以及一些收藏习惯,一些特殊货币如纪念币、即将依法停止流通的货币、已经依法停止流通的货币、特殊号码货币等,是独一无

二的不可替代品。《合同法》第378条武断地将所有货币视为替代物,必然产生与市场交易习惯和收藏习惯相悖的结果。例如,XX年,中国人民银行发行了10元面值的奥运会纪念币,网络价格最高达1万元。【11】当中国人民银行发布公告XX 年4月1日起将停止第二套人民币在市场上流通时,人民币收藏市场立即作出了反应,相关钱币的价格纷纷看涨。【12】而已经依法停止流通的货币,因其稀缺性更显珍贵。（已经依法停止流通的货币是否仍然属于货币的范畴,我国法律并未作出明确规定。但是,依照《人民币管理条例》第39条的规定,停止流通的人民币不得流通,这意味着它不再具有货币的一般职能。而依照该条例第23条的规定,停止流通的人民币,由中国人民银行负责回收、销毁,这又意味着它仍然是货币管理的对象。此外,在货币收藏市场中,它也是货币收藏的种类之一。因此,单从这两个方面来看,它应属于货币的范畴,只不过是属于禁止流通的货币。）例如,我国1955年发行的背面印有阿拉伯数字的1分、2分、5分纸币由于发行数量少,收藏价值较高,一般品相的一套1953版分纸币价格在100元以上;特殊号码纸币,比如末尾多个数字是“8”的吉祥号码,整套价格一般要比普通号的贵上十几元到几十元。【13】即使流通中的普通货币,也会因其号码特殊而被认为独一无二的物品,如号码与某人生日、结婚纪念日等特殊日期一致的纸币。虽然现行法律禁止此类纸币的买卖,但并不妨碍其

具有收藏价值以及在交易习惯中的不可替代性。（关于在不兑现的信用货币制度下,纸币是否具有贮藏手段的职能,货币银行学界有着不同的观点,本文对此不作特别讨论,但一些特殊纸币退出流通领域,起到价值积累和保存手段的作用则是实际存在的。）事实上,对于这些特殊货币,保管人尽管也可以相同种类、数量的特殊货币来替代,但受品相及编号等因素的影响,其不可替代性同样比较突出。

未充分尊重货币寄存人的意思自由

如前所述,《合同法》将保管合同的核心确定为保管人的保管义务和原物返还义务,体现了尊重当事人尤其是寄存人意愿的立法价值。这种做法的合理性主要表现在以下两个方面:一是基于保管合同缔结的目的———为不方便自己保管财产的寄存人提供保管服务;二是维护寄存人“期限届满保管人返还原物”的合理预期。

然而,在保管物为货币的情形下,为提高保管效率,立法者却牺牲了寄存人的这种意思自由。笔者认为,《合同法》第378条的规定违背了货币寄存人的真实意思。保管合同订立的直接目的是由保管人保管物品, 【14】货币保管也不例外。这意味着在缔结货币保管合同时,寄存人内心同样有着“期限届满返还原物”的预期。普通人很难注意到法律竟有完全不同的规定,故不大可能作出特别约定。如此造成的实际效果是:鼓励保管人使用其所保管的货币,一旦造成亏

损不能返还,将会给寄存人带来财产风险。这种立法模式强烈诱惑甚至鼓励保管人挪用其所保管的货币。这既有悖于当事人意思自治的私法基本原则,也不利于对货币寄存人利益的保护。

另外,《合同法》虽将货币定性为替代物,但仅承认该特性对保管人之保管义务和返还义务的影响,未考虑到货币寄存人的权利可能由此产生变化,故没有确立“适用借款合同相关规定”的转介性条文,仍将货币保管合同定位为一般保管合同。如此一来,在寄存人怀有双重目的———既能实现货币保管,又能收取利息的情形下,其与保管人之间的关系仍只能适用保管合同规定,难以享受借款关系中债权人的系列权利。而对于此种情形,德国、日本、瑞士等国民法典则规定可适用消费借贷的规定。相比之下,《合同法》在当事人意思自治的引导与保障方面做得远远不够。

模糊了“保管人是否拥有货币使用权”这一重大问题

保管人是否拥有其所保管货币的使用权,是该类保管合同需要规范的核心内容。然而,由于《合同法》的规定并不明确,学界对此产生了两种理解。如前所述,学界一般认为《合同法》第378条规定的是消费保管合同。根据消费保管的原理,货币的所有权转移至保管人;既然保管人拥有所有权,当然拥有使用权与处分权。通过对消费保管、混藏保管、《合同法》第378条、第372条的分析,笔者认为立法者在

本意上并不允许保管人使用其所保管的货币。

我国实行民商合一立法体例,《合同法》第378条普遍被视为存款合同的一般条款。但是,依《合同法》的规定,保管人并不能当然取得其所保管货币的使用权。然而,银行业金融机构只有在取得其所保管货币之所有权后才能开展一系列资产业务,从而发挥资金融通的功能。因此,对于银行业金融机构的货币保管,《合同法》的规定无法作为存款合同的一般条款适用。

客观上给保管人挪用其所保管的货币提供了方便

如前所述,虽然《合同法》第378条之立法目的在于提高货币保管效率而无促进货币融通的目的,但由于其明文规定保管人只需返还替代物,这强烈诱惑甚至鼓励保管人挪用其所保管的货币,从而客观上起到了为保管人使用货币提供便利的作用。可以说,《合同法》第378条的规定在一定程度上不利于保护交易安全,也由此启发了笔者对货币商事保管应区别于货币民事保管的思考。

随着社会分工细化及交易需要,市场上逐渐出现了以为客户保管货币为主营业务的商事主体。因货币保管只是其业务经营的环节之一,故不属于吸收公众存款。这种现象在现代社会广泛存在,如证券公司为客户保管证券交易保证金,二手房中介机构为房屋买卖双方保管房款,保险代理机构及代理人为保险公司保管保险费,保险经纪机构为投保人保管

保险金,网络支付平台【15】为买卖双方保管交易款项等。这些交易中介机构的货币保管量之大,保管行为发生之频繁程度,甚至不亚于商业银行。证券公司挪用客户保证金的危害,早已是众所周知,目前已经被特别法禁止;深圳二手房中介机构挪用房款无法归还甚至破产,目前只能靠地方政府联合中国人民银行地方分行予以规制;《中华人民共和国保险法》修订前,保险中介机构挪用保险费或保险金的行为只能依部门规章禁止,在XX年修订后,禁止保险中介机构挪用保险费或保险金的规定才上升为法律。由于《合同法》第378条的规定含混不清,在未有特别法作禁止性规定之前,使用合法保管之货币的行为难说其违法,因此借鉴其他国家和地区的先进经验和成熟做法,完善我国合同立法便成为当务之急。

三、货币保管合同立法的比较法考察

其他国家和地区的民事立法,对货币保管合同的规定被学界概括出以下四种不同的立法模式。

1. 货币保管合同为混藏保管合同

此类立法以《法国民法典》为代表。《法国法典》第1932条规定:“受保管人应当原封不动地返还其收受的原物。依此规定,收受保管的钱币,不论其价值增减,均应返还原保管种类相同的钱币。”【16】该条文的核心内容为保管人返还义务的履行:第一句为保管人返还义务履行的一般条款;第二

句则为货币保管的特别条款,即货币保管人无须返还原物,只需“返还原保管种类相同的钱币”。返还原物还是返还种类物,这是一般保管合同与混藏保管合同的区别所在。因此,《法国法典》规定的货币保管合同为混藏保管合同。

2.货币保管合同可能为混藏保管合同

《俄罗斯民法典》第890条规定:“在保管合同明文规定的情况下,接受一个寄存人的保管物可以同其他寄存人的同种类同质量的物混合。返还给寄存人的应为同等数量或双方约定数量的同一种类同一质量的物。”【17】《俄罗斯民法典》对货币保管合同的规定颇有特点:第一,并未专门针对货币保管作出特别规定,而是把货币保管当作非特定物保管的一种,适用《俄罗斯民法典》第890条“混藏保管”的规定。而且,《俄罗斯民法典》第890条的规定明确指出了混藏保管的特别之处,即保管人的混合保管义务及替代物返还义务。第二,并非所有货币保管都构成混藏保管,是否构成混藏保管,取决于当事人合同的约定。根据《俄罗斯民法典》第890条的规定,只有在保管合同有明文规定的情况下,保管人方可对其所保管货币采取混藏保管方式,并仅负有替代物返还义务。换言之,如当事人无明文约定,则保管人必须依一般保管对保管人的要求履行其货币保管义务和返还义务。

3.货币保管合同可能构成消费保管合同

德国及日本采这种立法模式。根据《德国民法典》第700

条“不规则保管”的规定,如货币是以“所有权应转移给受寄人,且受寄人应有义务将种类、品质和数量相同的物予以返还”或“保管人许可受寄人消费”保管物的,则构成消费保管,并“适用关于贷款的规定”。【18】《日本民法典》第666条也规定:“保管人可以依契约消费金钱保管物时,准用有关消费借贷的规定。”【19】

该立法模式有以下三个显著特点:第一,此种立法模式没有专门针对货币保管的规定,而是依货币为替代物或消费物的特性,适用有关替代物保管或消费物保管的法律规定;第二,货币保管并非都是消费保管,其是否为消费保管取决于当事人的意思表示,如《德国民法典》第700条的规定;第三,如货币保管构成消费保管,则适用法律有关消费借贷的规定。

4.货币保管直接被法律推定为消费保管合同

《意大利民法典》、《瑞士债法典》及我国台湾地区所谓“民法”采这种立法模式。《意大利民法典》第1782条规定:“如果保管物是一定量的金钱,则受寄人因对保管物的保管权而取得其所有权,并承担将同一性质和同样数额的物返还给保管人的义务。”【20】《瑞士债法典》第481条规定:“经明示或默示约定保管金钱的,保管人不必返还保管的金钱,只要求返还相同数量的金钱,收益与风险随之转移于保管人。如金钱未签封或未包装而交付的,视为默示约定。”【21】我

国台湾地区所谓“民法”第603条则规定:“保管物为金钱时,推定其为消费保管。”这里的“消费保管”为第602条规定的“保管物之所有权移转于受寄人,受寄人以种类、品质、数量相同之物返还的”保管。

这种立法模式有着两个鲜明特点:第一,为促进货币融通,立法者牺牲了货币原所有权人的自由,直接授权保管人取得其所保管货币之所有权。该立法模式明确地区别对待货币保管和其他替代物保管:对于前者,由法律授权保管人取得其所保管货币之所有权;对于后者,是否构成消费保管则依当事人意思自治。笔者认为,作此区别的目的在于提高货币的使用效率,避免货币在保管人处无益沉淀,从而促进货币融通。第二,货币保管可适用有关消费借贷的规定。对此,《意大利民法典》第1782条第2款、我国台湾地区所谓“民法”第603条均有明文规定。

综上所述,我国的货币保管合同立法与《法国民法典》最为类似,其缺陷之明显,已如详述;俄罗斯模式和德国、日本模式均在一定程度上体现了合同自由原则,各有可取之处;而意大利、瑞士及我国台湾地区所采取的立法模式完全不顾及当事人的意愿,且其立法目的与现行金融法原理和立法相互矛盾,最不足取。

四、我国货币保管合同民商分立的立法选择及其理由

虽然我国采民商合一的立法体例,但这并不能抹杀两者

之间存在的显著差别。就货币保管合同而言,立法同样应采用民商分立的立法体例,分别就货币民事保管合同与货币商事保管合同作出规定,以适应现实发展需求。这是因为这两类合同在价值取向上存在重大差别。

货币民事保管合同以充分尊重当事人意愿、兼顾效率为原则

我国立法应适当综合借鉴《俄罗斯民法典》的混藏保管模式和德国、日本的消费保管合同立法模式,以充分尊重当事人意愿,适当兼顾效率为原则。其理由如下:

1.这种模式充分体现了合同自由原则

合同是当事人自由的产物。只要不违反法律,当事人应享有充分的契约自由。笔者认为,由当事人自己决定是否缔结消费保管合同关系,更符合契约自由的现代合同法精神。在当事人有约在先时,应承认这种约定的有效性,并运用适当的立法技术,使借款合同的相关规定适用于货币消费保管,从而明确双方当事人的权利义务。同理,在寄存人同意混藏保管的情况下,保管人仅负混合保管义务和替代物返还义务。

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1 北京学位英语阅读理解模拟试题一 31省市学位英语网特别提示： 请同学们在听完讲课或者掌握了答题方法后再做练习,你会觉得英语很容易。 一定要认真做作业，动手能力和举一反三的能力，是衡量一个人素质的重要因素，也是掌握好英语的关键。 Passage 1 Advertisement can be thought of “as the means of making known in order to buy or sell goods or services.” Advertisement aims to increase people’s awareness and arouse interest. It tries to inform and to persuade. The media are all used to spread the message. The press offers a fairly cheap method, and magazines are used to reach special sections of the market. The cinema and commercial radio are useful for local market. Television, although more expensive, can be very effective. Public notices are fairly cheap and more permanent in their power of attraction. Other ways of increasing consumer interest are through exhibitions and trade fairs as well as direct mail advertisement. There can be no doubt that the growth in advertisement is one of the most striking features of the western world in this century. Many businesses such as those handling frozen foods, liquor, tobacco and medicines have been built up largely by advertisement. We might ask whether the cost of advertisement is paid for by the producer or by the customer. Since advertisement forms part of the cost of production, which has to be covered by the selling price, it is clear that it is the customer who pays for the advertisement. However, if large-scale advertisement leads to increased demand, production costs are reduced, and the customer pays less. It is difficult to measure exactly the influence of advertisement on sales. When the market is growing, advertisement helps to increase demand. When the market is shrinking, advertisement may prevent a bigger fall in sales than would occur without its support. What is clear is that businesses would not pay large sums for advertisement if they were not convinced of its value to them. 1. Advertisement is often used to _______. A. deceive customers B. increase production C. arouse suspicion D. push the sale 2. The word “media ” (in the first paragraph) includes_______ A. the press B. television C. radio D. all of the above 3. Advertisement is mainly paid for by ________ A. the customer B. the producer C. increased sales D. reduced prices 4. Advertisement can increase demand ________ A. all the time B. in any circumstances