外文翻译--有争议的研究：科学的好与坏

译文：

有争议的研究：科学的好与坏

工作于因流感引起的变异，但这并非唯一一个风险可能会超过受益的项目。

Geoff Brumfiel

这听起来像一个很伟大的想法：实验变异产生一种罕见且致命的病毒以便于科学家在认识新兴的菌株方面做更好的工作。但这听起来也像一个可怕的想法——这项研究可以创造一种易于传播和生产的病毒，它将有益于有益使用生物武器的恐怖分子。

去年的新闻说道两个研究小组已经完成这项工作，但H5N1禽流感病毒就足以在全球各地造成恐惧，因此迅速暂停了工作。的一位美国生物安全小组已经撤销将调查结果公布在Nature和Science上的限制，认为工作有明确的潜在好处，社区的数据循环研究显示变异后的病毒似乎比原来少致死。但这段插曲突出显示了在有意义的研究和有威胁的研究之间的分界线是多么的薄。

在许多科学领域充满这样的调查。有些人可能会破坏全球安全，而其他人可能会为家庭创造困境。这四个自然的例子显示，这里几乎没有明确列出一个来，但他们真的感觉到这个难题出现的是多么的频繁——科学家们必须不断地问自己，是否利大于弊。

核燃料或核武器？

一种可以快速有效的区分核电厂和核医学的放射性同位素的技术是很多物理学家梦寐以求的。但同位素分离也是制造核武器的关键，因此，这种技术可以更容易执行和隐瞒对这类武器的非法工作。

自然存在的铀矿石，主要是铀-238，不能维持爆炸需要的链式反应，只有裂变成0.7%浓度铀-235才行。反应堆使用的原料多集中于浓度3-5%。而制造原子弹，它必须被浓缩到90％以上，从一个到另外一个的分类一直是核武器扩散的主要障碍之一。今天一个国家的最先进的技术，涉及到数千台离心机，因此需要大量的空间、电力，精密加工的零件和时间。

激光可以更加高效。铀原子核的微小质量差异改变其电子壳层的能量水平。微调的激光与其他技术一起可以激发所需的同位素的水平，可以从剩余的里面区分出铀-235。这工作可以做的很快速秘密。在2004年，韩国的科学家大约在几周之内发现用激光可以让少量的铀-235来靠近造武器的纯度。工作多年未被发现，最终向国际检查人员披露。

现在，廉价和可调谐激光技术的问世，在世界各地激光分离对物理学家而言是相对容易的，一个很好的例子是在得克萨斯大学奥斯汀分校的Mark Raizen，一个研究区分重要医疗同位素如钙-48的人，在骨骼疾病的诊断上有重要医疗作用，还有镍-64，一种治疗癌症的可靠药剂，世界上正面临紧缺这种医疗同位素，Raizen说：人们的生活将取决于寻找新的来源。”

Raizen的方法很简单：微调激光器用电将所需的同位素推入更高的能量状态，暂时改变原子的磁距。从这一点来说，所有要做的关键部分只是需要分离一个同位素。

Raizen说，他意识到，用激光和同位素工作带来了核扩散的危险。但他争论道：这和他的工作不同，他将用他的技术很好的工作于如铀的重元素。

其他人认为激光铀浓缩技术应当谨慎小心，“我认为风险高，”Francis Slakey说道，华盛顿乔治敦大学公共科学项目的主任。Slakey,一个公开反对商业化激光分离核燃料同位素的人，喜欢见到一个在社会更加开放的辩论—尤其那些在原子和分子光学领域与raizen研究方向相似的物理学家，“我认为这有暂停和反应的价值，”slakey说道。

在良好的社会物理学的兴奋驱动下，raizen正在向前推进，至于风险，“你不能停止科

学思想”，他说道，如果他不这么做，别人也会做的。他希望他在一两个月内的第一个成果是在轻原子上，如锂。

脑扫描或独裁者？

一台机器能够准确地读取一个人的想法可能有非凡的好处—让官方安全人员在恐怖分子行动之前了解他们的行动，比如，为一些脑部受损的不能动或交流的病人提供新的说话方式。但此类设备可能也是科幻小说中令人产生噩梦的工具，它提高了独裁者的鬼性和镇压思想自由的警察的警惕性。

这可能是为什么做这种“读心”研究的更喜欢叫他脑扫描或脑解码。“整个心概念的到来使很多观念都过时了，”Adrian Owen说道，一个在伦敦的加拿大西安大略大学的神经学家。

不过，这些研究人员在人类思想方面已经取得了非凡的成绩。最主要的是磁共振的成像功能，这使得研究人员能够监督血液流过大脑的过程。现在血流量被认为是合理的神经活动，所以磁共振成像提供了脑病的动态图片。

例如，owen，工作于研究那些明显因为外伤伤害成为植物人的病人。通过问特殊的问题来刺激脑部不同部位的活动，他已经可以确认大概16%的此类病人可以做出回应了，这表明他们已经至少有了一些意识能力。

Jack Gallant,一名加利福尼亚大学伯克利分校的神经学家，已经开发了一种能够跟踪在视觉皮层的激活模式的方法就像人们看电影一样。改变这些计算机代码可以创造人们任何想看的虚幻的电影。Ganllant认为这项工作能够产生更多与那些瘫痪但苏醒的或靠脑部机器联系他们想法的病人的交流的先进方法。

更进一步分析，John-Dylan Haynes，一名意图明确的柏林医疗大学的神经学专家。Haynes扫描了脑子来看是否能找到对应于一个人的决定的行事模式。它适用于简单的情况：例如，他可以看到一个按钮在按下去前几秒时是否决定按下这个按钮。

无论这项工作是否可以扩展到实际的应用程序，如测谎或反恐则是另一回事。Gallant 说道，首先，每一个人的大脑是不同的；它远不像科学家声称的将能够研究出对于每个人都通用的大脑想法的公式。Haynes,又说道，核磁共振成像机不能简单的部署在机场。即使他们部署了，一个简单的晃动就会甩掉他们。你不可能造一个能说出“这个人正准备炸毁一架飞机”的侦察器的。

即使如此，这种装置的前景依然被人引起怀疑。Gallant说道：“因为某些人如果能够使用一台机器获得你最秘密的内心想法的做法是不能令人接受的。”

然而已经有企业家涉足这一领域。两家美国公司已经派出fRMI测谎服务，世上的广告也已经包含这种神经营销学的理念——研究使用磁共振成像功能和其他技术来衡量人的潜意识的情绪反应的促进因素。到目前为止，如此的努力使关注者增加似乎被认为是在炒作。大多数法院已经听从关于科学家对fMRI测谎的怀疑，并且不批准作为证据，Steven Laken 说，斯公司的董事长，在马赛诸塞州廷斯波罗的的fMRI的测谎公司首席执行官。Haynes 说道：神经营销学是更加值得怀疑的。但是Gallant认为这种应用的技术将会随之而来。“它会比你想像的走的更远”他说道。

气候救世主或气候灾难？

支持者说，人类最大的希望是通过全球工程来逃离全球气候变暖：在一个与地球相同比例的行星上操纵它的气候环境。这可能涉及到太阳的辐射管理——喷射微小的粒子到很高的平流层，例如，那些他们可以通过反射一些进来的阳光来进行冷却的地方。或者他可能介入二氧化碳的撤除，可能通过播种大量的铁来创造藻花然后吸收空气中的二氧化碳，最后当他们死亡时带到海底。

反对者说，地球工程是极度鲁莽的——并且可能进一步恶化气候使气候变迁更加的不稳定。

目击一场关于英国政府是否应该在平流层注射粒子的气候工程注资的争论，这些人包括布里斯托，剑桥，爱丁堡和牛津大学的专家们，更包含了在剑桥的英国气象局和马歇尔航空局。Spice是设计与测试日光辐射工程的原理证据。想法是抽1公里长的水管的水将它喷洒入空气。海拔太低的话是不能改变气候的，在那儿它已经有了大量水蒸气，David Keith说道，一位在加拿大卡尔加里大学的一位全球工程专家。“这不同于将一根管子掉在某人头上那样具有危险”他说道。

然而，当环保主义者在去年得知这情况时便敲响了警钟。完全是因为地球工程可能会引起潜在的意想不到的后果——如不慎移位降雨模式并引发干旱——这样一种工作存在道德危机，ETC组织的执行董事Pat Mooney争论到，这个环保组织是总部设在加拿大渥太华的。与世界各地的气候谈判陷入僵局，在这样恰好的时间参加这样的实验很可能使政客们认为有办法设法逃避自己的任务帽责任。“这将是一个简单的办法为政府回避自己的义务，”Mooney 说道。

ETC和其他团体在去年秋天集体请愿英国政府停止SPICE，在今年巴西里约热内卢举行的气候谈判中说道它将会损害国家的信誉，“在那时它并没有得到一点阻碍，”一位英国达勒姆大学地理学家Phil Macnaghten说道，他是负责对SPICE在伦理和社会方面监督的人。在2011年9月份，在专家与公众和感兴趣的团体交流时Macnaghten和其他人建议暂停实验——目前，它仍然被搁置着。

Mooney希望看到全球协商一致的规则，包括地球工程实验的禁止以及跨国后的后果,直到重要问题被回答了。例如，地球工程会继续吗？他可能会产生什么意想不到的后果？但是，随着全球气温继续上升，Macnaghten坚信，假如专家回答公众的担心，这项科学将被允许继续进行下去，“当你不知道你不知道的是什么的时候，它是很难知道如何进步的，”他说道。

出处：Geoff Brumfiel，“Controversial research: Good science bad science”，Nature,2012.4.27

原文：

Controversial research: Good science bad science

Work on mutant flu caused a furore, but is far from the only subject in which risks might

outweigh benefits.

Geoff Brumfiel

It sounds like a great idea: experimentally mutate a rare but deadly virus so that scientists can do a better job of recognizing dangerous emerging strains. But it also sounds like a terrible idea — the studies could create a virus that is easier to transmit and produce findings that are useful to

bioterrorists.

Last year's news that two research teams had done exactly that with the H5N1 bird flu virus was enough to spread fear around the globe and prompt a temporary moratorium on the work. A US

biosecurity panel has since lifted its restrictions on publication of the teams' findings in Nature and Science, arguing that the work has clear potential benefits, that the modified virus seems to be less lethal than the original and that the data are already circulating in the community. But the episode has highlighted how thin the line can be between research that's a blessing and research that's a threat.

Such fraught lines of enquiry exist in many scientific fields. Some could undermine global security, whereas others could create painful ethical dilemmas for families. The four examples Nature profiles here are hardly a definitive list, but they do give a sense of how frequently such conundrums arise —and show that scientists must constantly ask themselves whether the benefits outweigh the risks.

Nuclear fuel or nuclear weapons?

A technology that could quickly and efficiently separate radioisotopes for nuclear power plants and

nuclear medicine is one that many physicists might find irresistible. But isotope separation is also key to making nuclear weapons, so such a technology could make it easier both to perform and to conceal illicit work on such weapons.

Naturally occurring uranium ore is mostly uranium-238, which cannot sustain the kind of runaway chain reaction required to produce an explosion. Just 0.7% is fissile uranium-235. Enriching that quantity to 3–5% makes fuel for reactors. To make a bomb, it must be enriched to more than 90%.

Because the chemistry of the various isotopes is almost identical, sorting one from another has always been one of the major barriers to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Today's state-of-the-art

technology involves cascades of thousands of centrifuges, and so requires space, a massive amount of electricity, precision-machined parts and time.

Lasers can be more efficient. Tiny differences in the mass of uranium nuclei alter the energy levels of their electron shells. Finely tuned lasers can excite just the levels associated with the desired isotope and, together with other technology, can sort the uranium-235 from the rest. The work can be done quickly and secretly. In 2004, it emerged that scientists in South Korea had used lasers to enrich small quantities of uranium-235 to near weapons purity in a matter of weeks. The work went undetected for years before it was eventually disclosed to international inspectors.

Now, with the advent of cheap and tuneable lasers, laser separation is within relatively easy reach of physicists the world over. A good example is Mark Raizen at the University of Texas at Austin, who is developing lasers to separate medically important isotopes such as calcium-48, used in the diagnosis of bone disorders; and nickel-64, a promising agent for cancer therapy. The world is facing a shortage of medical isotopes1, Raizen says. ―People's lives will depend on finding new sources.‖

Raizen's technique is straightforward2: finely tuned lasers push electrons in the desired isotope into higher energy states, temporarily changing the atoms' magnetic moment. From that point, all that is needed to sort the isotopes is a large, static magnet.

Raizen says he is aware that working with lasers and isotopes poses a proliferation risk. But he argues that it is unlikely that his technique will work well for heavy elements such as uranium.

Others stress that laser-enrichment technology should be undertaken with caution. ―I think the risks are high,‖ says Francis Slakey, co-director of the programme on science in the public interest at Georgetown University in Washington DC. Slakey, who has openly opposed the commercialization of laser isotope separation for creating nuclear fuel3, would like to see a more open debate in the community — especially given that many physicists in the field of atomic and molecular optics could follow lines of enquiry similar to Raizen's. ―I think there's value in taking a pause and reflecting,‖ Slakey says.

Raizen is pushing ahead, driven by the excitement of using physics for the good of society. As for the risks, ―you can't stop scientific ideas‖, he says. If he didn't do it, somebody else would. He expects his first results, on light atoms such as lithium, in a matter of months.

Brain scanning or Big Brother?

A machine able to accurately read a person's thoughts could be an extraordinary boon — allowing security officials to catch terrorists before they act, for example, or providing a new voice to some brain-damaged patients who cannot move or communicate. But such a device could also be the stuff of science-fiction nightmares, raising the spectre of Big Brother and ever-vigilant thought police.

That may be why the scientists doing such 'mind-reading' research prefer to call it 'brain scanning' or 'brain decoding'. ―The whole concept of 'mind' comes with a lot of baggage,‖ says Adrian Owen, a neuroscientist at the University of Western Ontario in London, Canada.

Nevertheless, these researchers have made extraordinary progress in understanding the human mind. The key has been functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which allows researchers to monitor blood flow throughout the brain. Blood flow is believed to be a reasonable proxy for neural activity, so fMRI gives a picture of the brain in action.

Owen, for example, has worked with patients who have been left in an apparently vegetative state by traumatic injuries. By asking specific questions to stimulate activity in different parts of their brains, he has been able to establish that around 16% of such patients can respond4, suggesting that they have at least some level of awareness.

Jack Gallant, a neuroscientist at the University of California, Berkeley, has developed algorithms that track patterns of activation in the visual cortex as people watch videos. Reversing those computer codes can create shadowy movies of whatever people are looking at. Gallant thinks that this work could lead to even more advanced methods of communication with locked-in patients, who are paralysed but aware, or brain–machine interfaces that allow people to operate devices with their thoughts.

Going further still, John-Dylan Haynes, a neuroscientist at the Charité Medical University of Berlin, is looking for intent. Haynes scans the brain to see whether he can pick out patterns of activity that correspond to a person's decision to act. It works in simple cases5: he can see whether an individual decides to press a button up to seconds before the button is pressed, for example.

Whether this work could be extended to real-world applications such as lie detection or

counter-terrorism is another matter. For one thing, says Gallant, each person's brain is different; it's far from clear that scientists will ever come up with a general-purpose 'mind-reading' algorithm applicable to everyone. For another, says Haynes, fMRI machines could not easily be deployed in airports. Even if they were, a simple shake of the head would throw them off. ―You can't build a detector that says 'this person is going to blow up a plane now',‖ Haynes says.

Neverth eless, even the prospect of such a device raises hackles. ―The thought that someone could use a machine to gain access to your most secret inner thoughts is not pleasant,‖ says Gallant.

Yet entrepreneurs are already dabbling in this arena. Two US companies have fielded fMRI

lie-detection services, and the world of advertising has embraced the concept of 'neuromarketing' —the use of fMRI and other techniques to measure people's subconscious emotional responses to stimuli. So far, concerns raised by such efforts seem hyped. Most courts have listened to scientists' doubts about fMRI lie-detection, and are not admitting them as evidence, says Steven Laken, chief executive of Cephos, an fMRI lie-detection firm in Tyngsboro, Massachusetts. Neuromarketing ―is even more dubious‖, says Haynes. But Gallant thinks that the applications of the technology will come. ―It'll go way further than you think,‖ he says.

Climate saviour or climate disaster?

To hear proponents talk, humanity's best hope to escape the ravages of global warming may be geoengineering: manipulating Earth's environment on a planetary scale. This might involve

solar-radiation management — spraying tiny particles high into the stratosphere, for example, where they could cool things down by reflecting some of the incoming sunlight. Or it might involve the removal of carbon dioxide, perhaps by seeding the ocean with iron to create algal blooms that would take up carbon dioxide from the air and then carry it to the ocean floor when they die.

To critics, geoengineering would be reckless in the extreme — and might further inflame the volatile politics of climate change.

Witness the controversy that has swirled around the UK-government-funded Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering (SPICE) project, which involves researchers from the universities of Bristol, Cambridge, Edinburgh and Oxford, as well as the UK Met Office and Marshall Aerospace in Cambridge. SPICE is a proof-of-principle project designed to test solar-radiation management. The idea is to pump water up a 1-kilometre-long hose and spray it into the air. The altitude is too low to alter the climate, and there is plenty of water vapour already up there, says David Keith, a

geoengineering specialist at the University of Calgary in Canada. ―It doesn't pose a risk other than the hose falling on someone's head,‖ he says.

Nevertheless, environmentalists sounded the alarm on SPICE as soon as they caught wind of it last year. Quite aside from geoengineering's potential for unintended consequences — such as accidentally shifting rainfall patterns and triggering droughts — there is a moral hazard to such work, argues Pat Mooney, executive director of the ETC Group, an environmental organization based in Ottawa, Canada. With climate negotiations stalled around the world, the very presence of such an experiment may make politicians think that there's a way to wriggle out of missions caps. ―It will be an easy way for governments to sidestep their obligations,‖ Moone y says.

ETC and other groups petitioned the British government to halt SPICE last autumn, saying it would hurt the country's credibility in this year's climate talks in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ―It did get a little bit bumpy at the time,‖ says Phil Macnaght en, a geographer at Durham University, UK, who is overseeing an ethical and societal assessment of SPICE. In September 2011, Macnaghten and others recommended that the experiment pause while researchers engage with the public and interest groups — at present, it is still on hold.

Mooney wants to see internationally agreed rules that would include prohibitions on geoengineering experiments with transnational consequences until major questions are answered. For example, will geoengineering even work? And what unintended consequences might it have? But as global temperatures continue to rise, Macnaghten believes that, provided researchers answer public concerns, the science should be allowed to continue. ―When you don't know what you don't know, then it's very hard to know how to progress,‖ he says.

Baby blessing or Brave New World?

Within a pregnant mother's blood is her unborn child's full genetic sequence. Soon, say geneticists, the question will no longer be how to get at it, but how to use it to understand the baby's future behaviour and health — and how to cope with the thorny ethical issues that will inevitably ensue.

The key to this new form of prenatal diagnosis lies in the fragments of DNA that float freely through every person's bloodstream. In pregnant women, around 15% of that DNA comes from the fetus, according to Dennis Lo, a pathologist at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, who is working to develop fetal genetic screening with Sequenom, a biotechnology company based in San Diego, California.

The trick is figuring out which DNA belongs to the fetus and which belongs to the mother. Finding the father's genetic contribution is easiest. Researchers extract DNA from the expectant mother's blood and look for variations in common with the father's genetic code to separate his half of the fetal DNA. The mother's half is tougher to identify because it is identical to the rest of the DNA in her blood. To find it, researchers count the number of times particular versions of genes are sequenced. Those held by the child and mother will appear fractionally more frequently than those held by the mother alone.

Screens for specific diseases based on this method are already nearing the market, says Lo. Scientists can check for Down's syndrome, a disorder that arises when an embryo receives three copies of chromosome 21, instead of the usual two. The test is more than 95% sensitive, making it comparable to more invasive tests such as amniocentesis6. Because it carries no risk, Lo believes that it will soon become nearly universal.

It may sound positive that many more parents will be forewarned of Down's syndrome and other genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis, but it raises some thorny societal questions, says Henry Greely, a bioethicist at Stanford University in California. With universal screening, many more pregnancies might be terminated — and women who choose to carry a child with, say, Down's syndrome to term could face social and legal stigmas, he warns. ―There are countries that are very concerned about mental retardation and might be willing to enforce genetic selection to avoid it,‖ he says. Private insurers or public-health services might resist paying for the care of disabled children if their birth could have been avoided. These dystopian developments aside, some patient advocates fear that a sudden drop in the number of children with these diseases could mean less social support and fewer research dollars for their conditions.

Going beyond targeted diseases, full sequencing of the fetal genome is technically possible and will soon be affordable, says Stephen Quake, a researcher at Stanford University who works with Verinata Health, a fetal-screening company in Redwood City, California. And that, says Greely, will raise even more contentious issues. ―People who come from a family with Alzheimer's might choose to terminate a pregnancy at high risk of Alzheimer's even though that Alzheimer's might occur 65 years into the future,‖ he says — or might never occur at all, given that it is currently impossible to predict whether this condition or the vast majority of other diseases will occur on the basis of genetic information alone.

At present, there are no guidelines on how to counsel prospective parents about the avalanche of genetic information they may be about to receive. Lo says that he would be wary of telling parents before birth about a disease that could be cured within a child's lifetime. ―Who knows where medical science will be in 60 years?‖

But that is no reason to stop the research, says Quake, who has a cousin with Down's syndrome. He says he has thought long and hard about the issues raised by early testing, but in the end feels that the benefits greatly outweigh the risks. ―The earlier parents find out, the better prepared they are,‖ he says.

人形机器人论文中英文资料对照外文翻译

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。安全保存和存储记录，以防止未经授权的访问；。与学生与学校关系的学术方面相关的记录与涉及该关系的财务、纪律、社会、支持和合同方面的记录明显分开。这将使不同的保留期适用于其中的每一项，以满足业务和法规要求。什么是学生记录？ 记录是文件或其他项目。包含记录信息； 。在一项活动的发起、进行或完成过程中产生或接受的；。被保留作为该活动的证据，或者因为它们具有其他信息价值。 记录的信息可以是任何形式(例如，文本、图像、声音)，记录可以是任何介质或格式。 学生记录——与管理机构及其学生之间的关系相关的记录——可以分为三大类，每一类又可以进一步细分: 1.记录学生和学校之间合同关系的记录 例如记录入学和注册、学费支付、非学术纪律程序的记录。 2.记录学生作为学习者的记录 例如，记录所开展的项目、学术进步和表现、奖励的记录。 3.记录学生作为个人和机构所提供服务的消费者的记录 例如，记录住宿服务、咨询服务、图书馆和信息技术支持服务、职业和就业服务使用情况的记录。 第1类和第3类中的大多数记录都有特定的保留期，这是由学生与某个机构的直接关系正式结束而触发的，尽管它们所包含的信息可能会被汇总和分析以提供第三方要求的数据1或 2

英文文献及翻译(计算机专业)

NET-BASED TASK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Hector Garcia-Molina, Jeffrey D. Ullman, Jennifer Wisdom ABSTRACT In net-based collaborative design environment, design resources become more and more varied and complex. Besides common information management systems, design resources can be organized in connection with design activities. A set of activities and resources linked by logic relations can form a task. A task has at least one objective and can be broken down into smaller ones. So a design project can be separated into many subtasks forming a hierarchical structure. Task Management System (TMS) is designed to break down these tasks and assign certain resources to its task nodes．As a result of decomposition.al1 design resources and activities could be managed via this system. KEY WORDS：Collaborative Design, Task Management System (TMS), Task Decomposition, Information Management System 1 Introduction Along with the rapid upgrade of request for advanced design methods, more and more design tool appeared to support new design methods and forms. Design in a web environment with multi-partners being involved requires a more powerful and efficient management system .Design partners can be located everywhere over the net with their own organizations. They could be mutually independent experts or teams of tens of employees. This article discusses a task management system (TMS) which manages design activities and resources by breaking down design objectives and re-organizing design resources in connection with the activities. Comparing with common information management systems (IMS) like product data management system and document management system, TMS can manage the whole design process. It has two tiers which make it much more f1exible in structure. The 1ower tier consists of traditional common IMSS and the upper one fulfills

机械类毕业设计外文翻译

外文原文 Options for micro-holemaking As in the macroscale-machining world, holemaking is one of the most— if not the most—frequently performed operations for micromachining. Many options exist for how those holes are created. Each has its advantages and limitations, depending on the required hole diameter and depth, workpiece material and equipment requirements. This article covers holemaking with through-coolant drills and those without coolant holes, plunge milling, microdrilling using sinker EDMs and laser drilling. Helpful Holes Getting coolant to the drill tip while the tool is cutting helps reduce the amount of heat at the tool/workpiece interface and evacuate chips regardless of hole diameter. But through-coolant capability is especially helpful when deep-hole microdrilling because the tools are delicate and prone to failure when experiencing recutting of chips, chip packing and too much exposure to carbide’s worst enemy—heat. When applying flood coolant, the drill itself blocks access to the cutting action. “Somewhere about 3 to 5 diameters deep, the coolant has trouble getting down to the tip,” said Jeff Davis, vice president of engineering for Harvey Tool Co., Rowley, Mass. “It becomes wise to use a coolant-fed drill at that point.” In addition, flood coolant can cause more harm than good when microholemaking. “The pressure from the flood coolant can sometimes snap fragile drills as they enter the part,” Davis said. The toolmaker offers a line of through-coolant drills with diameters from 0.039" to 0.125" that are able to produce holes up to 12 diameters deep, as well as microdrills without coolant holes from 0.002" to 0.020". Having through-coolant capacity isn’t enough, though. Coolant needs to flow at a rate that enables it to clear the chips out of the hole. Davis recommends, at a minimum, 600 to 800 psi of coolant pressure. “It works much better if you have higher pressure than that,” he added. To prevent those tiny coolant holes from becoming clogged with debris, Davis also recommends a 5μm or finer coolant filter. Another recommendation is to machine a pilot, or guide, hole to prevent the tool from wandering on top of the workpiece and aid in producing a straight hole. When applying a pilot drill, it’s important to select one with an included angle on its point that’s equal to or larger than the included angle on the through-coolant drill that follows. The pilot drill’s