汽车发展史 英文资料

by Arthur D. Delagrange, Massachusetts Beta ’64

F ONE PIECE OF TECHNOLOGY had to be cho-

sen to represent twentieth-century America, a likely candidate would be the automobile or, more precisely, the presence of a car in every household,on the average. (There are more cars than licensed

drivers.) The microcomputer is certainly impressive, but every new car has at least one of these plus a host of other highly-developed parts. The machines that produce these cars, nearly au-tomatically, are marvels in themselves. If engineering is science in quan-tity, then the au-tomobile is an engineering mas-terpiece. Not only is auto-mak-ing the biggest industry in the U.S., it supports a number of other major industries,e.g., steel.

S o c i o l o g i -cally, few things define the American cul-ture better. One

of my earliest memories from childhood was our car. I was

impressed that you just got in, turned the key, pumped the accelerator, pulled out the choke, pushed a button, and it started—if the weather were not too cold—and it went nearly anywhere you wanted to go. I was told our car would go clear across the country, and when I was 10 we went! I was told a car was a precious thing (it was World War II),and I should be thankful we had one, which I was.

Today’s young people see the car pretty much as a given.You turn the key and it goes; if it doesn’t, you pick up the cell phone and call for another. Of course, we engineers re-alize there is really much more to it. There was a lot of de-velopment to get to this point, and a lot of things have to work correctly to drive down the road safely and reliably.Tales of traveling by horse and buggy seem further removed from today’s life than Star Trek is in the future. Actually,this is probably correct, because it took not just one cen-tury, but more than two, to reach this point.

The development of the modern automobile is a micro-cosm of the development of modern engineering. The story is recounted here, both for those young people who would like to know how we went about achieving personal land rockets that sit in massive traffic jams, and for the old-tim-ers who long for the good-old days when cars wouldn’t start in cold weather, boiled over in hot weather, and wouldn’t stop in wet weather.

Origins:

T he 1700s

The history of the automobile can be conveniently divided into three periods: the 19th century (and earlier!) and the first and last halves of the 20th century. That break may be taken at WWII as civilian car production ceased during the war and resumed immediately afterward—pre-war models.The first section is short. Steam-powered vehicles were demonstrated in the latter half of the 18th century, the first practical application being traction engines (tractors) avail-able in the 1770s. Some steam-powered horseless carriages were used in the 1800s. They were large, and there were few roads adequate for them. Instead, steam was mostly applied to boats and locomotives where large size and heavy weight were partly an advantage.

Beginnings:

Cars & T raffic

A major, if not overriding, factor in the advent of the auto-mobile (literally, moving by itself) was the invention of the internal-combustion (IC) engine (as opposed to steam, where combustion takes place outside the cylinder). Electric was also a competitor, but the required batteries were expensive,short-lived, heavy, and of limited capacity. In this applica-

tion, nothing could match the performance of the IC engine.

Steam-powered “traction engines” (tractors)such as this were available in the 1770s.(Henry Ford Museum)1896Duryea:one of 13similar cars from the first real auto factory.(Henry Ford Museum)

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There is some argument, but the first car is generally credited to Benz in Germany. In 1885, he designed, as an integral unit, a 3/4 hp, 8mph three-wheeler (it still exists) with a surprising number of features still used, including a four-stroke gasoline engine with electric ignition and a differential. The first automobile factory likely belonged to the Duryea Brothers in Massachusetts, who produced 13 similar cars in 1896.By 1900 there were more than 100 brands. Early vehicles were mostly built one-at-a-time, sometimes entirely by the builder, and were often to a customer’s specifications. This made them very expensive, but it was understood they were for the rich. As quantities increased, sec-tions were farmed out, particularly the coachwork, which was often of parlor quality. When Ransom E. Olds suffered a fire in his factory, he contracted out nearly everything and became basically a designer/as-sembler. Some of Ford’s early cars used almost entirely parts made by the Dodge brothers, who did not sell a car of their own—yet.

The early twentieth century was dotted with the names of pioneers,some becoming rich from cars that bore their names, some winding up broke, and several doing both: Chevrolet, Ransom E. Olds (Oldsmobile and REO), Ford, Dodge, Chrysler, Cord, Duesenberg, Firestone, Benz,Bugatti, Buick, Daimler, Renault, Packard, Studebaker, Dunlop,Michelin, Mitsubishi, Bentley, Citroen, Peugeot, Rolls, and Royce. Some attempts were made to produce an inexpensive car, notably by Olds,but it was Henry Ford who succeeded beyond anyone’s imagination. He made some decisions that revolutionized the industry (although some of these were apparently accidental), and he made some bad decisions, too.He felt it wrong to charge too much for a car, and hit a more favorable spot on the s u p p l y /d e -mand curve.The product of many buy-ers times a low price turned out to be much more than a few buyers times a high price.Ford was also persuaded by his partner that workers

should be treated and paid better.

They reduced the workday from nine hours to eight and nearly dou-bling the prevailing wage rate. This gave Ford the pick of the work force and worker loyalty, at least for a while. He set a speed record, 91 or 100 mph, depending on the account, personally driving a car of his own design at considerable risk. He was also responsible for the first re-corded auto accident, running his first car over a pedestrian, who went on his way once the spindly car was lifted off him.

Ford’s crowning achievement was the Model T in 1908. To achieve his goals, he had to cut costs and improve efficiency. The key was an assembly line producing identical cars in huge quantities. Ford didn’t invent assembly line mass production, but he mastered it. He may have invented the moving assembly line, which produced a “steady stream of cars flowing forth” from the factory. Everything was carefully engi-neered to support the process. Parts suppliers, eager to be chosen for the huge quantities used, were required to ship the parts in boxes made with certain-size boards with certain-size holes drilled in specific places.These re-appeared in the cars as floorboards (hence the name). The T was a front-engine, rear-drive layout. It used a water-cooled four-cycle

engine and would exceed 40 mph. The transmission used epicyclic (plan

1908 Model T Ford: the start of major mass production. (Henry Ford Museum)FORD FLATHEAD V-8

In 1932 Ford advanced from a four-cylinder engine directly to a V-8. The result established the Ford name for performance, but it was almost a disaster. Being frugal, Ford did not want to add an oil pump but wanted to stay with splash lubrication. His engineers finally persuaded him that the power achieved

destroyed the engine without it.Ford was also overly optimistic as to making an integral V-8block with the casting tech-niques of the day, and many defective blocks had holes welded in order to get enough engines built.

The engine clearly reflected its lineage; the two sides were nearly independent: twin water pumps had twin hoses from the radiator, which had twin return hoses from the heads. The

distributor had twin caps for the two sides. The carburetor had two barrels, each pretty much feeding its side. Oddly, it had but a single exhaust, a tortuous design where the two manifolds were connected together and only one was connected to the exhaust pipe.

The Chevrolet straight-6 was a nicer design, theoretically, being inherently balanced, whereas the V-8 was not. But this was of little consolation when one was literally left in the dust . Perfor-mance was especially exciting because Ford resisted changing from mechanical brakes to hydraulic. The Ford flathead V-8was the choice of hot rodders for decades, and performance parts are still made for it today!

etary) gears, which would be replaced later, only to re-appear in auto-matic transmissions.

But the production line had its downside. Workers, installing the same part hour after hour as the line moved faster and faster, began to envy the freedom and individuality of the farmer, even at more work for less pay. It was called dehumanizing , certainly true in the sense that Ford sought to eliminate human error. Ironically, the first big labor demon-stration in the industry was directed at Ford, who had originally im-proved the worker’s lot. He responded with force against the union, which quickly learned the tactic. He was ready to close his plant rather than admit a union, until his wife persuaded him otherwise.

Ford reduced the price of the Model T several times, finally down to $260. The ubiquitous T sold 15,000,000 cars in 20 years, more than any other model until the Volkswagen Beetle broke the record in the 1990s,but only after a production run of more than half a century. In some countries, and indeed parts of the U.S.A., Ford became synonymous for car . Ford tried to enjoy the success too long. He believed that if the car did the job, there was no reason to change it. Meanwhile, other makers were offering improved models. Sloan of General Motors (GM) created the concept of regularly introducing new models, planned obsolescence .But Ford came up with a trick of his own. He terminated production of the Model T before the new Model A was ready! All the details of the A were kept secret: no specifications, no pictures, no price, nothing. (Ap-parently, industrial espionage was not in vogue yet.) The suspense and speculation created a new type of market. When the A finally appeared,it was not outstanding. Nevertheless, dealers took 400,000 orders in the

first two weeks!

On the other end of the scale, many others tried their hands at making auto-mobiles, typi-cally after working for an e s t a b l i s h e d company. In e n g i n e e r i n g terms, some of these were masterpieces.There is little on today’s cars

that wasn’t at least tried before WWII. But economically, most firms were failures in the sense that they didn’t produce a large number of cars or stay in business for a long time. In fact, a surprising number of companies never got as far as actually selling a car. The Depression elimi-nated many of them. The number of brands available today may be be-wildering, but it is small compared to the number that no longer exist.The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars lists more than 300 makes un-der the letter A alone!

Cars quickly changed the American landscape, filling in the spaces be-tween the towns. Motor hotels , later shortened to motels were built along the highway. Ford himself, with his friends Harvey Firestone and Thomas Edison (for whom he had worked), pioneered the motoring vacation. In 1913 the Gulf Refining Company opened the first filling station; previ-ously motorists had to drive to a railroad station and fill from a tank https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2c6246856.html,ernment, rather than supporting the wonderful invention, con-sidered it a nuisance and discouraged it with high taxes and low speed limits. Bad technical design was purposely used to avoid repressive regu-

lations, but the concept was too powerful to kill.

Willys-Overland Jeep : THE vehicle of WWII.

(Walter P. Chrysler Museum)

Production of civilian cars ceased shortly after the country’s entry into WWII. All industry turned to manufacturing war materiel. Even re-placement parts to keep the existing cars going were sometimes un-available. Gasoline was rationed, but if you needed extra, you just bought tickets from someone else, and the free market continued as the black market. Tires, the fastest wearing parts on the car, were nearly unavail-able, but they used inner tubes, which were. If the tire were torn too badly to contain the tube, “boots” (essentially pieces of ultra-heavy tube) were available to cover the hole. The main problem was that the supply of natural rubber from the Orient had been intercepted by the Japa-nese. This led to the development of synthetic rubber, which turned out to be better anyway.

The best-known vehicle of WWII was the Army’s general-purpose vehicle, abbreviated GP, which came to be pronounced Jeep, now a reg-istered trademark. In 1939 the Army sought a lightweight, but tough, utility vehicle. The first successful models were built by Bantam, but the contract was awarded to Willys-Overland Company. With Ford also producing the vehicle under forced license, 660,000 were produced for WWII. It had four-wheel-drive (4WD), unusual back then, and was known for chewing through muck while everything else was getting stuck. Aside from the complexity of 4WD, it was simple and rugged. If the defrosters couldn’t keep up with the snow, which was most of the time, you disassembled the top, folded down the windshield, and sol-diered on. At one time Jeep was used to signify any 4WD vehicle. A notable anomaly was the ubiquitous U.S. postal jeep (neither rain, wind, nor snow, etc.), which was 2WD.

After WWII, Willys redesigned the Jeep slightly for civilian use and designated it the CJ for civilian Jeep. Willys-Overland was taken over by Kaiser in 1953 and then by American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1970. After a model run of 33 years with minimal changes, the CJ was replaced by the YJ, allegedly for yuppie Jeep, although never officially acknowledged. AMC became dominated by Renault and then was bought entirely in 1988 by Chrysler, now part of Daimler-Chrysler. The Jeep survived all of this and is now a complete line, all 4WD.

Post WWII

At the end of WWII, the mighty wartime industry returned to manu-facturing cars for the public in record numbers as fast as factories could be reconverted and scarce supplies replenished. These were bought hun-grily by returning military personnel who had not been home to spend their pay and by civilians, who had not spent theirs because there were few goods to buy. Initially, the cars were the same as before the war, but the industry was already preparing for explosive growth. If the economy could produce millions of vehicles to be destroyed, why not millions for good use? In 1946 the miles of surfaced roads exceeded the unsurfaced total for the first time.

American manufacturers began making their cars look different with sheet metal, chrome, and ornaments, but underneath they were pretty much the same: water-cooled flathead V-8 or straight-6 engine, front-mounted, rear drive. Automatic transmissions were just beginning, and some were not fully automatic. Independent front suspension was be-ginning to replace beam axle. Rear was solid or live-axle with leaf springs. Although far from optimum, the combination was quite ad-equate, serviceable, and reliable. Options consisted of: exterior color, whitewall tires, radio (AM only), heater/defroster, and cigarette lighter. Generally not available were: power steering, power brakes, power windows/door locks, air conditioning, any safety equipment, or any sort

of sound reproduction.

1950s:

T he Modern Automobile

All that changed in the 1950s. If one decade were selected out of the century as that of the automobile, it would be the fifties. By now most families again had a car; the industry set out to convince them they needed a new one, perhaps more than one! Each model year was im-proved, mostly restyled. Options proliferated even for the less expen-sive brands: a range of models within each brand, a variety of engines,standard or overdrive or automatic transmission, anti-spin differential,power accessories, air conditioning, two-tone paint, seat belts, full-wheel covers (very important), fender skirts, and continental kits for the spare tire. Low-profile tubeless tires were introduced, and wheel diameter was reduced to 15 inches, and then 14, to lower vehicle height. It was assumed that each year’s models would be slightly bigger, heavier, bet-ter, and, of course, more expensive than the previous year’s. The luxury marque would, over a few years’ span, be downgraded and replaced with a new name and eventually be relegated as the economy model. Compe-tition was fierce, but it consisted more of copying than innovating. In-dustrial spying was becoming big business. Although model changes had to be planned years in advance, features in one make were invari-ably reflected in the others. Grilles in Fords and Chevys had an un-canny resemblance. One year it was noted that the prices of the base models from the big three were within $20 of each other.

I might be slightly biased, because it was the year I got my license,but 1955 seemed to be the outstanding year of the outstanding decade.Chevrolet put the first V-8 in its passenger cars, and it was overhead valve (OHV) and a potent engine. Plymouth had a V-8 for the first time.Ford had gone OHV the year before, but horsepower was up for 1955.Chrysler upped the horsepower of its hemi engine to 300 for a special new model. The 300 series endures today. Styling completed the transi-tion from bulbous to boxy. Chrome was an integral, or even defining,element of the styling. That great American icon, the tailfin, had spread from Cadillac to all makes, although in modest form at first. With the V-8’s popularity came dual exhaust. A beltline chrome strip separated the body into halves for two-tone paint (or three!). The buyers loved it all;by the end of 1955 there were twice as many cars in the country as in 1945.

Another notable year was 1958, but in this case it was a bit negative.It was the year of the chrome plague: chrome bumpers were massive to the point of being blinding in bright sun, and trim strips were added anywhere there was room. It was the year of the Edsel, a word that has become a synonym for bad planning. It was the year Chevy introduced air suspension. The damping from the leafs of the leaf springs rubbing against each other was gone, the shock absorbers (dampers, really) were not stiffened accordingly (probably in deference to Americans’ penchant

Old and new high-performance: famed Duesenberg “J” (origin of the expression,

“It’s a Doozy!”) and Dodge Viper (William Pettit)

for a soft, if unsafe, ride), and the rear end was noted for bobbing around.(Air was soon replaced by coil springs all around, but this had the same problem, and the uncomplimentary name bedspring suspension was ac-quired.) Chevy’s body style lasted only one year. Chevy introduced a bigger optional V-8, which proved less practical and was itself replaced after seven years. (The previous small block , in contrast, lasted into the 90s.) Ford also introduced a new engine that was disturbingly similar to the previous trouble-prone design it replaced; it was eventually refined into Ford’s legendary 427. Ford’s Thunderbird became a four-passen-ger luxury sedan, giving up all pretense of being a sports car.

1960s:

Muscles, Compacts, and Ponies

The sixties were notable for several things, not all good: Beauty may be in the eye of the beholder, but it is close to scientific truth to say that some profoundly ugly cars were made. Cadillac produced the batmobile series whose tailfins were so big and sharp that they were declared a hazard to pedestrians. Some Chrysler products had a fake spare tire cover on the trunk lid that was promptly named the toilet seat .

Enthusiasts cared less about looks—performance had become breath-taking! Performance meant engines—speed in a straight line only, please.In the decade after 1955, available horsepower doubled. To be eligible un-der NASCAR (National Association of Stock Car Racing) rules, a maker had to sell a certain number of cars or engines through a dealer, allegedly for use on the street. The companies quickly learned the advertising value of winning races. Ratings shot from 200 hp to 400 hp and then mysteri-ously stopped while development continued. What had happened was that the insurance companies were declining to insure these rockets, and they weren’t selling, even at cost. At the peak, all of the big three makers had engines actually producing in excess of 600 hp on the test stand!

This was for full-sized cars, as all had been in the 50s. Within each brand in the 60s came sub-lines of different sizes. Known as compacts ,they seemed relatively small, spartan, and underpowered. Except for their styling, compacts weren’t much different from the cars of a decade or two earlier.

In between came a line imaginatively termed intermediates . How-ever, some came to be fitted with engines only slightly smaller and tamer than the NASCAR-oriented engines. These came to be known as muscle cars and are highly prized by collectors today.

1959 Cadillac: dubbed the Batmobile , the fins were later declared a hazard to pedestrians. (Henry Ford Museum)

In 1962 Ford exhibited a two-passenger, mid-engine, V-6, indepen-dent-rear-suspension, sporty show car named the Mustang. It gener-ated much interest, and Ford announced it would produce the Mustang.In 1964 the company did, but it was a four-passenger, front-engine, solid-axle car which used components from Ford’s regular compact, the Fal-con. However, the Mustang was cute and sold well; in fact, the Mustang gave a name to a class known as pony cars. The line was downgraded,but it survived, and pony cars became Ford’s current performance line.

1970s:

Backsliding

The euphoria was shattered by a series of events: First, the govern-ment imposed emission standards. High performance had been achieved partly by feeding the cylinders excess fuel to use 100% of the oxygen,considerably more than theoretically necessary. This improved horse-power, response, and cold operation at the expense of seriously increas-ing hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. These had to go, so mixtures were leaned, and the old bugaboos returned. Unleaded gasoline was mandated—lead fouled the necessary catalytic converters. Octane rat-ings dropped, necessitating lower compression ratios. The method of rating octane was changed, making the numbers look even worse than they were. The converters contained platinum and hence were expen-sive, so dual exhaust disappeared.

Second, a more realistic method of rating horsepower was adopted.Originally engines were tested with everything possible removed—no water pump, generator, air cleaner, or exhaust system. The new system required the engine to be in street configuration. Net output was measured rather than gross; ratings suddenly dropped by about a third.

Lastly, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)oil embargo hit in 1973. Gasoline was scarce, and many companies stopped producing high-test altogether. Also, the government mandated the post-ing of fuel-economy figures on new cars, and buyers paid attention.

All of these factors conspired against the engine, and the seventies were known for poor-performance cars. The suddenness of the change,combined with the de-ratings, made the decade seem worse than it was.There was a general consensus (fortunately incorrect) that high-perfor-

mance was gone for good.

1964 Mustang: resemblance to show car, nearly zero, was close enough.

(Henry Ford Museum)

1980s:

Fight for Survival

By the eighties all American automakers were in trouble, losing bil-lions of dollars per year. The dinosaurs (as George Romney, AMC presi-dent, had referred to them) were having trouble adapting to cosmic changes. They believed (correctly) that by-and-large Americans pre-ferred American cars, but they mis-guessed how much the buyers would put up with before they switched. Japan became the world’s No. 1automaker in 1980, eventually capturing 28% of the U.S. market.Chrysler convinced the government to guarantee a billion-dollar loan to modernize in order to survive.

Throughout the seventies American manufacturers begrudgingly introduced subcompacts. (Smaller cars returned smaller profits.) They also made alliances with foreign manufacturers, sometimes selling a purely foreign car under an American name. As the economy worsened,small cars came to account for the majority of sales.

In 1985, Ford boldly invested heavily in an all-new FWD aerody-namic model—the Taurus. It certainly looked different, eliciting such comments as “a basket of Easter eggs” and “another Edsel.” But Ford stood by it, fixed some problems, and maintained quality. Taurus/Sable became its mainstay.

GM gradually undertook to beat the Japanese at their own game—build a better car for a lower price—and with the help of tariffs, im-port quotas, and changing exchange rates, succeeded to a certain ex-tent. Some parties, both labor and management, clearly would have preferred a law requiring Americans to buy American , but the gov-ernment wasn’t willing to go that far.

1990s:

The Resurgence of the Automobile

With the economy strong once again, the price of gasoline stabilized,and a number of significant technological advances coming on line, de-signing, selling, and driving cars once again became fun. Manufacturers stopped complaining about emission standards and bragged that they could exceed them. Computer-controlled, sequential-port electronic fuel injection (EFI) gave not only lower emissions, but also better perfor-mance. Closed-loop feedback systems measured combustion and exhaust and adjusted the engine parameters for optimal operation, even for sub-optimal components on the input side. Detroit decided that it could af-ford disc brakes and independent suspension for the rear, too, after see-ing them on imports for decades. Virtually everything designed for home

427 Shelby-Ford-AC Cobra: a living legend. There are many more clones than originals.

(Auburn-Cord-Duesenberg Museum)

audio was so miniaturized and rugged that it could be readily adapted for a car. Makers could no longer afford not to have the automatic trans-mission controlled by an electronic computer, rather than ramain me-chanical. Performance began to match that of the old muscle cars, while meeting emission standards, getting reasonable gas mileage, and re-taining all safety and comfort features. In addition, a number of specialty supercars became available—200 mph cars that met federal standards. 2000 and Beyond

Historically, exciting predictions of the future have mostly been wrong. The best bet is the status quo. Breakthroughs are always possible, but one should not count on them, much less schedule them. One manufac-turer speaks of the air being cleaner after its car has passed through; imagine being urged to drive because the air was dirty! (A similar situ-ation does occur with river water intake compared to sewage water out-put in some cities.) We do have some potentially limitless energy sources: the sun, if we can invent a cheap, efficient way of harnessing its radia-tion, preferably directly as electricity; nuclear fusion, which needs a tech-nological breakthrough; and nuclear fission, where the problems are po-litical, not technical. Then we can use electric cars, that is, if we can get a battery breakthrough. Or we can dissociate water into hydrogen and oxygen so we can have a more powerful IC engine whose emissions are harmless, if we can figure out a practical storage system for the gases.

As one wag puts it, “The electric car is the car of the future and has been for 100 years.” The internal combustion engine will probably be around in some form for a while, continually improving. Historically, again, most predicted barriers have since been broken. We have already reached the point where replacing an existing car with a new one is negative progress because the pollution incurred in manufacturing all the necessary materials is more than the old car will emit. Furthermore, the expense could have been directed to something that actually would reduce pollution (the exclusion principle, too often ignored). It appears that the future of the IC automobile may be decided not by engineering, nor even economics, but by politics. Often in the past, lawmakers have tried to set aside the laws of nature, with disastrous results, and it will no doubt happen again.

References:

Autoweek Magazine, various issues.

Automobile Magazine, various issues.

America on Wheels, Coffey and Layden, General Publishing Group.

The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, G.W. Georgano, editor, E.F.Dutton & Co. The History of the Automobile, Marco Ruiz, Gallery Books.

The Automobile, the First Century, Burgess-Wise, Boddy, Laban, Greenwich House. Guy Eavers Museum, Mint Spring, V A (540/337-1126).

Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, MI (313/982-6116).

Walter P. Chrysler Museum, Auburn Hills, MI (888/473-2822).

Auburn-Cord-Duesenberg Museum, Auburn, IN (219/925-1444).Dodge Viper prototype: the production

car was as similar as the law would allow. (Walter P. Chrysler Museum)

Arthur D. Delagrange, Massa-

chusetts Beta ’61, and his wife

Janice, live near Mt. Airy, MD,

which is on the Old National

Pike. He received a B.S. and

M.S. from the Massachusetts

Institute of T echnology in 1962

and a Ph.D. from the Univer-

sity of Maryland in 1974, all in

electrical engineering. He

worked at the Naval Surface

Warfare Center in Silver

Spring, MD, (now closed)

during 1959-94. Since retiring

he has done consulting, both

free-lance and for Advanced

T echnology & Research,

Burtonsville, MD.

Art has authored 68

governmental reports,

22 articles in trade magazines,

and one chapter in The Art and

Science of Analog Design,edited

by Jim Williams (Butterworth-

Heinemann).

He has written articles on the C&O Canal (T HE B ENT, Fall

1999) and on the B&O

Railroad (T HE B ENT, Spring

2000). Art holds nine patents,

and his hobbies include

electronics, audio, music, cars,

water-skiing, and cycling. He

has been interested in cars as

long as he can remember.

汽车发动机的发展史

汽车发动机的发展史发动机，汽车中最重要的部分，可以说没有发动机的存在，就不存在汽车。发动机的发展即是汽车的发展。 发动机作为汽车的心脏，为汽车的行走提供动力和汽车的动力性、经济性、环保性。简单讲发动机就是一个能量转换机构，即将汽油(柴油)的热能，通过在密封气缸内燃烧气体膨胀时，推动活塞做功，转变为机械能，这是发动机最基本原理。发动机所有结构都是为能量转换服务的，虽然发动机伴随着汽车走过了100多年的历史，无论是在设计上、制造上、工艺上还是在性能上、控制上都有很大的提高，其基本原理仍然未变，这是一个富于创造的时代，那些发动机设计者们，不断地将最新科技与发动机融为一体，把发动机变成一个复杂的机电一体化产品，使发动机性能达到近乎完善的程度，各世界著名汽车厂商也将发动机的性能作为竞争亮点。 所以可以说发动机的发展史即是汽车的发展史。 而发动机的发展也经历了无数人的努力，无数人的智慧与汗水。 发动机是汽车的动力源。汽车发动机大多是热能动力装置，简称热力机。热力机是借助工质的状态变化将燃料燃烧产生的热能转变为机械能。 往复活塞式四冲程汽油机是德国人奥托在大气压力式发动机基础上，于1876 年发明并投入使用的。由于采用了进气、压缩、做功和排气四个冲程，发动机的热效率从大气压力式发动机的11%提高到14%，而发动机的质量却降低了70%。 1892 年德国工程师狄塞尔发明了压燃式发动机(即柴油机)，实现了内燃机历史上的第二次重大突破。由于采用高压缩比和膨胀比，热效率比当时其他发动机又提高了1 倍。1956年，德国人汪克尔发明了转子式发动机，使发动机转速有较大幅度的提高。1964年，德国NSU公司首次将转子式发动机安装在轿车上。 1926 年，瑞士人布希提出了废气涡轮增压理论，利用发动机排出的废气能量来驱动压气机，给发动机增压。50 年代后，废气涡轮增压技术开始在车用内燃机上逐渐得到应用，使发动机性能有很大提高，成为内燃机发展史上的第三次重大突破。 1967 年德国博世公司首次推出由电子计算机控制的汽油喷射系统，开创了电控技术在汽车发动机上应用的历史。经过30年的发展，以电子计算机为核心的发动机管理系统(Engine Management System，EMS)已逐渐成为汽车、特别是轿车发动机上的标准配置。由于电控技术的应用，发动机的污染物排放、噪声和燃油消耗大幅度地降低，改善了动力性能，成为内燃机发展史上第四次重大突破。 1971年，第一台热气发动机——斯特林机的公共汽车已开始运行。1972年，日本本田技研工业在市场售出装有复合涡流控制燃烧的发动机的西维克牌轿车，打响了稀薄气体燃烧发动机的第一炮。这种发动机是在普通发动机燃烧室的顶部加上一个槌状体的副燃烧室，先将这处副燃烧室中较浓

火车地发展史(英语)

火车的发展史 很久以前，只有马车，没有火车，人类的生活节奏很慢，所能到达的地方很近，世界的流动性很小。 PART 1 蒸汽时代 18世纪初，随着社会生产力的发展，人们急需一种比马车装得多、跑得快的新型车辆。在这种情况下，英国人瓦特发明了蒸汽机。这种机器比马的力气可大多了，它一问世就引起了人们的注意。 1814年，英国人史蒂芬·孙发明了世界上第一台蒸汽机车，从此开始，人类加快了进入工业时代的脚步，蒸汽机车成为这个时代文化和社会进步的重要标志和关键工具。 1876年7月3日，中国第一条铁路——“淞沪铁路”（窄轨）建成通车，那台英制名曰“先导号”的蒸汽机车（机车总重量1420kg）时速为24—32公里，为我国第一台外国蒸汽机车。 1881年11月8日，建成了中国第一条自办铁路——“唐胥铁路”（唐山至胥各庄）。

第二次世界大战以后,蒸汽机车由于热效率低,已大部分被热效率高的柴油机车和电力机车所代替。1952年，四方机车车辆厂制造出了中国第一台“解放”型蒸汽机车。其后，四方、大连、唐山、大同等机车车辆厂陆续生产了近万台蒸汽机车。蒸汽机车一度成为中国铁路运输的主要牵引动力。1988年12月21日，大同机车厂停止蒸汽机车生产，标志着中国蒸汽机车制造史的结束。随着科学技术的进步，蒸汽机车已被内燃、电力机车、动车组取代。中国制造的蒸汽机车主要有： 解放型 胜利型

FD型 前进型 上游型

PART 2 内燃机时代 “巨龙号”内燃机车 制造年份：1958年火车时速：100公里/小时 中国第一台自己制造的内燃机车是1958年大连机车车辆工厂仿照前苏联T3型电传动内燃机车试制成功的。它就是“巨龙”号电传动内燃机车，后经过改进设计定型，命名为东风型并成批生产。同年，北京二七机车厂试制成功“建设”号电传动内燃机车，戚墅堰机车车辆厂试制成功“先行”号电传动内燃机车，但这两种车都没有批量生产。四方机车车辆工厂也于1958年开始设计，1959年试制成功中国第一台液力传动内燃机车，当时命名为“卫星”号，代号NY1。后经过长期试验和多次改进，定型为东方红型，于1966年成批生产。 “东方红”1型内燃机车 制造年份:1964年设计时速:120公里/小时 东方红1型是四方机车车辆工厂1959年试制，1964年批量生产的干线客运内燃机车，机车按双机联挂设计，也可以单机使用。前73台的机车标称功率是1060kW，最大速度140km/h，车长16550mm，轴式B-B。后36台的机车标称功率增加到1220kW，最大速度降为120km/h，其他不变。东风系列是电传动内燃机车，也是中国内燃机车的主力，保有量占国产内燃机车总数的一半以上。 “东风”是个大家族，有东风、东风2、东风3、东风4系列、东风5系列、东风6、东风7系列、东风8系列、东风9、东风10系列、东风11系列、东风12、东风21米轨。

汽车的发展史

汽车的发展史 摘要： 汽车自上个世纪末诞生以来，已经走过了风风雨雨的一百多年。 从卡尔.本茨造出的第一辆三轮汽车以每小时18公里的速度，跑到现在，竟然诞生了从速度为零到加速到100公里/小时只需要三秒钟多一点的超级跑车。这一百年，汽车发展的速度是如此惊人！同时，汽车工业也造就了多位巨人，他们一手创建了通用、福特、丰田、本田这样一些在各国经济中举足轻重的著名公司。本文回望这段历史，回顾了汽车的起源,论述了汽车的功用、分类及性能要求,对国内外汽车的发展历史及各时期主要车型作了系统介绍,对军用汽车发展趋势作了简要分析，叙述汽车给我们的生活带来的翻天覆地的变化。 关键词军用汽车车辆分类车辆性能 引言 汽车同其它现代高级复杂工具如电子计算机等一样，并非是哪一个人坐在那里发明了的。发明之初的汽车也不是现在之个式样，如果你能见到当时的汽车，你也可能认为这不是汽车呢。汽车的发展也有一个漫长的历程，总的说来，汽车发展史可能分为蒸汽机发明前、蒸汽汽车的问世、大量流水生产汽车开始等三个阶段。人类最初的工作劳动完全是由本身来完成，根本没有什么汽车和发动机，如果说有的话，在未使用牛和马之前使用的是人体的股份这台发动机。奴隶就是一种“生物发动机”。随着人类的进步与发展，人们对自然界的认识越来越深，利用自然、改造自然的能力日益加强，人们不仅使用人力、畜力、而且知道使用水力、风力。 1.汽车的起源 马车和蒸汽机车以及19世纪的三轮汽车都可算作现代汽车的始祖。在铁路诞生以前,陆上道路通常是未铺路面的,因此,中世纪欧洲的骡马商队很普遍。后来,随着道路的改善,出现了宽轮子的四轮货车和公共马车。那时候的陆上运输成本高,而且客货运输安全系数低,陆上交通除受气候条件限制之外,还受水陆交叉、盗劫和战争等问题的影响。到17世纪,这种格局随着公路的改进而开始被打破。

汽车发展史论文

《中外设计史》 ——汽车标志设计作者：彭浩 班级：09设计【2】班 学号：200903084076

2010年6月6日诚信声明 保证论文真实诚信。 没有抄袭和剽窃。

引用他人观点和材料均由著名。 论文提纲 1．汽车标志设计的起源

讲从汽车诞生之初的汽车标志的由来。 2.汽车标志设计的发展 讲，随着时代发展和进步汽车标志设计的发展。 3.现代的汽车标志 讲现代的汽车标志设计更具时代气息和人性设计感，更具美感和代表性。 内容摘要

伴着汽车的产生和发展，资本家们都想创立自己的汽车自己的生产工厂。创立属于自己的汽车，为了著名和打上有自己特色的记号与他人的汽车区别，汽车标志随之诞生。 现代老牌名车，有着悠久历史的知名汽车生产厂家，他们的汽车标志从创立之初伴随着公司的发展和成长，在漫长的发展史中与标志注与了该公司的精神和文化，深入人心。汽车标志的设计并非凭空想象就得出的，它是综合了一个公司的造车理念和发展史以及公司的精神和理想，得出最具代表性让人接受的标志，这才是一个成功的设计，标志不只是一个图标，它代表一个汽车公司的发展、文化、理想、及理念。 汽车之父卡尔本次以其超凡的智慧创造出世界上第一辆汽车这一伟大的交通工具，还于戴姆勒创造了现在顶级的汽车公司奔驰汽车公司。 奔驰的标志三叉星象征征服陆、海、空的愿望，也是奔驰公司发展至今为之奋斗的动力与目标。 关键词：标志、理念、综合、象征核心概念：每一个伟大的汽车标志都是一个伟大的汽车公司的综合体现，理念、发展史、精神等等。 1.汽车标志设计的起源 汽车创造之初，资本家想与汽车赋予自己独特的象征意义来延续自己的汽车公司的发展壮大，也将自己远大的理想

汽车发动机发展史

汽车发动机发展史 汽车整体技术日新月异，而作为汽车的心脏——发动机技术的进步显得更受关注。如今介绍一辆汽车的发动机时：可变气门正时技术，双顶置凸轮轴技术，缸内直喷技术，VCM汽缸管理技术，涡轮增压技术，等等都已经运用的相当广泛；在用料上也是往轻量化的方向发展：全铝发动机目前的应用已经非常广泛；汽车的污染也是不可避免，于是新能源技术，包括柴油机的高压共轨，燃料电池，混合动力，纯电动，生物燃料技术也已经有普及的趋向，但回顾一下发动机的历史或许更能理解这一百多年来汽车技术所发生的巨大变革。 十佳发动机VQ35 汽车技术的迅猛发展从我国的汽车教材也能看出端倪：新技术的发展已经让汽车教材难以跟上步伐！如今大部分汽车教材还是以东风汽车的发动机来作为范例，而东风发动机还是带化油器的老式发动机，与如今全电子化的发动机简直就隔了几个世纪。 回到汽车的起步阶段，那时的汽车被马车嘲笑，污染严重，但起步的意义却非同寻常。 汽油机之前的摸索阶段

18世纪中叶，瓦特发明了蒸气机，此后人们开始设想把蒸汽机装到车子上载人。法国的居纽（N.J.Cugnot）是第一个将蒸汽机装到车子上的人。1770年，居纽制作了一辆三轮蒸汽机车。这辆车全长7.23米，时速为3.5公里,是世界上第一辆蒸汽机车。1771年古诺改进了蒸汽汽车，时速可达9.5千米，牵引4-5吨的货物。 蒸汽机汽车 1858年，定居在法国巴黎的里诺发明了煤气发动机，并于1860年申请了专利。发动机用煤气和空气的混合气体取代往复式蒸汽机的蒸汽，使用电池和感应线圈产生电火花，用电火花将混合气点燃爆发。这种发动机有气缸、活塞、连杆、飞轮等。煤气机是内燃机的初级产品，因为煤气发动机的压缩比为零。 N.J.Cugnot 1867年，德国人奥托（Nicolaus August Otto）受里诺研制煤气发动机的启发，对煤气发动机进行了大量的研究，制作了一台卧式气压煤气发动机，后经过改进，于1878年在法国举办的国际展览会上展出了他制作的样品。由于该发动机工作效率高，引起了参观者极大的兴趣。在长期的研究过程中，奥托提出了内燃机的四冲程理论，为内燃机的发明奠定了理论基础。德国人奥姆勒和卡尔·本茨根据奥托发动机的原理，各自研制出具有现代意义的汽油发动机，为汽车的发展铺平了道路。 1892年，德国工程师狄塞尔根据定压热功循环原理，研制出压燃式柴油机，并取得了制造这种发动机的专利权。

汽车发动机发展史

汽车发动机发展史 1110100C20涂小政发动机，汽车中最重要的部分，可以说没有发动机的存在，就不存在汽车。发动机的发展即是汽车的发展。 发动机作为汽车的心脏，为汽车的行走提供动力和汽车的动力性、经济性、环保性。简单讲发动机就是一个能量转换机构，即将汽油(柴油)的热能，通过在密封气缸内燃烧气体膨胀时，推动活塞做功，转变为机械能，这是发动机最基本原理。发动机所有结构都是为能量转换服务的，虽然发动机伴随着汽车走过了100多年的历史，无论是在设计上、制造上、工艺上还是在性能上、控制上都有很大的提高，其基本原理仍然未变，这是一个富于创造的时代，那些发动机设计者们，不断地将最新科技与发动机融为一体，把发动机变成一个复杂的机电一体化产品，使发动机性能达到近乎完善的程度，各世界著名汽车厂商也将发动机的性能作为竞争亮点。 所以可以说发动机的发展史即是汽车的发展史。 而发动机的发展也经历了无数人的努力，无数人的智慧与汗水。发动机是汽车的动力源。汽车发动机大多是热能动力装置，简称热力机。热力机是借助工质的状态变化将燃料燃烧产生的热能转变为机械能。 惠更斯于1673年设计绘制了方案图，如下图所示。

第一台蒸汽机的的设计于1712年设计完成，如下图所示。

1858年，定居在法国巴黎的里诺发明了煤气发动机，并于1860年申请了专利。发动机用煤气和空气的混合气体取代往复式蒸汽机的蒸汽，使用电池和感应线圈产生电火花，用电火花将混合气点燃爆发。这种发动机有气缸、活塞、连杆、飞轮等。煤气机是内燃机的初级产品，因为煤气发动机的压缩比为零。 1867年，德国人奥托（Nicolaus August Otto）受里诺研制煤气发动机的启发，对煤气发动机进行了大量的研究，制作了一台卧式气压煤气发动机，后经过改进，于1878年在法国举办的国际展览会上展出了他制作的样品。由于该发动机工作效率高，引起了参观者极大的兴趣。在长期的研究过程中，奥托提出了内燃机的四冲程理论，为内燃机的发明奠定了理论基础。德国人奥姆勒和卡尔—本茨根据奥托发动机的原理，各自研制出具有现代意义的汽油发动机，为汽车的发展铺平了道路。 1886年被视为汽车的诞生日，那辆奔驰一直为人所津津乐道。但是其动力单元却实在“寒酸”：第一辆“三轮奔驰”搭载的卧式单缸二冲程汽油发动机，最高时速16KM每小时。这就是第一辆汽车的发动机，那时勇敢卡尔奔驰的夫人驾驶这辆奔驰1号上坡还需要儿子推车，当然沿途不停的熄火，转向也不灵，回娘家100公里的路程硬是走了一整天。 四冲程发动机其实早就由德国人奥托研制出来了。但应用的汽车上不得不提戴姆勒，他由于协助奥托研制四冲程发动机的原因而成为了第一个将四冲程发动机装上汽车的人。显然，从四冲程到二冲程是

汽车发展史简介

第一章世界汽车的发展 国外的汽车引领着世界的汽车潮流，只有认识到不足才能更好地前进。本章将从汽车的诞生，汽车在西方国家的发展以及日本等亲爱车大国的发展介绍汽车工业的进程。 1．1 前汽车时代 人类使用汽车已有4000多年的历史。在漫长的历史岁月中，车辆一直是由人力或畜力驱动，直至18世纪发明了动力机械后，才出现了机动车。 1765年英国的瓦特发明的蒸汽机迅速推广，揭开了工业革命的篇章。1769年法国炮兵工程师尼古拉蒂·古诺把蒸汽机装在一辆木质的三轮车上，制成了最早的机动车。这也是最早的机动交通工具，成为古代交通运输与近代交通运输的分水岭 蒸汽机是外燃机，燃料在汽缸之外燃烧，热效率很低，并且蒸汽车辆庞大笨重，操纵不灵，安全性差。1809年，法国人菲利普·勒本提出了以煤气为燃料的内燃机的工作循环原理。1860埃蒂内·列诺尔制成了煤气机并成批量生产，是内燃机商品化。 1866年德国工程师尼古拉斯·奥托制造出往复活塞四冲程内燃机，并为现代汽车内燃机发展奠定了四冲程工作循环的理论基础。当时热效率大12%-14%，之后人们放弃了热效率只有3%左右的煤气机而使用奥托内燃机。 1．2 汽车登上历史舞台 18世纪真正的汽车诞生了。1885年卡尔·奔驰设计制造了一个单缸四冲程内燃机和一辆三轮汽车，并在1886年获得了专利。1886年德国工程师哥特里布·戴维斯将自制的单缸四冲程内燃机装在一辆改装的马车上，也制成了汽车。奔驰和戴维斯随后共同创办了自己的公司，开始小规模的批量生产内燃机和汽车。他们二人首先把汽车与工业生产联系在一起，并把汽车推向了历史舞台，这

具有划时代意义的功绩。 从那时起，汽车迅速跃升为道路的主角，很快便淘汰了马车。 1．3 西方的汽车发展 汽油内燃机以其功率的不断升高，轻巧等优点脱颖而出，很快成为了汽车的主要动力。随后一大批汽车生产厂在欧洲崛起，标致、欧宝、雪铁龙等品牌先后涌现。汽车的春天到来了。 汽车虽然诞生在欧洲，但在美国依靠自然条件以及宽松的政策，又利用欧洲在当一次世界大战遭受破坏的时机，迅速崛起并超过了欧洲。此后数十年，美国的汽车工业一直遥遥领先，雄踞榜首。 亨利·福特于1903年创立了福特汽车公司。1908年，福特推出了著名的T 型车，并于1913年在汽车行业率先采用流水生产线大批生产，是这种车型产量迅速上升和成本大幅下降，促使汽车这种只是少数人享用的奢侈品变为普及到千家万户的经济实惠的产品。20年间T型车工生产了1500万辆，具有极大地社会影响力，福特亦被称为“汽车大王”。 1908年，威廉·杜兰特以戴维·别克的公司为基础，组建了通用汽车公司，合伙人包括兰森·奥兹、亨利·雷兰德以及后来的路易斯·雪佛兰等先驱者。通用汽车公司还在1925年和1929年先后兼并了英国的沃克斯科尔汽车公司和德国的欧宝公司。1923-1956年，杰出的企业家销阿尔弗雷德·斯隆长期担任通用汽车公司的最高领导，推出了一系列重大改革措施，使该公司迅速上升为世界最大的汽车企业。他提出了“分期付款、动态报废、年度车型更新、闭式车身”等促销措施，对美国汽车产业产生了深远影响。 沃尔特·克劳斯特原是通用汽车公司的高级职员，1920年接任了濒临破产的麦克斯韦尔汽车公司的领导大权，励精图治，使该公司起死回生。1925年，克劳斯勒汽车公司正式成立，合并了道奇、普利茅斯、地索多等汽车公司，发展成美国第三大汽车公司。 大众汽车公司成立于1937年。当时定的德国政府为了使人民都买得起轿车，下达了生产一种大众化轿车并建立工厂的指令，由费迪南德·保时捷博士主持设

世界汽车发展史

世界汽车发展史 ●从轮到车——人类交通的第一次革命 ●自走车辆的探索——人类奔驰的梦想与追求 ●现代汽车的形成与发展——汽车文明与现代工业文明的融合推动了汽车工业与人类社会经济文化的发展 ●现代汽车的发展——和谐、创新与可持续发展成为未来汽车工业发展的主体 马车时代 自从人类发明了车轮并制造出车后，就用驯化了的马、牛拉车。马车是运输、代步和打仗最主要的工具。 由于没有其他合适的动力取代马，马车时代一直延续了约3000～4000年。 第一台实用蒸汽机 1757年，木匠出身的技工詹姆斯·瓦特被英国格拉斯戈大学聘为实验技师，有机会接触纽科门蒸汽机，并对纽科门蒸汽机产生了兴趣。 1769年，瓦特与博尔顿合作，发明了装有冷凝器的蒸汽机。 1774年11月，他俩又合作研制出世界上第一台真正意义上的动力机械——蒸汽机。瓦特发明的高效率蒸汽机一出现立即用到采矿、纺织、冶金、机械加工、运输业，极大地提高了劳动生产率。掀起了18世纪轰轰烈烈的世界第一次工业革命，使人类进入“蒸汽时代”。蒸汽机的诞生，无疑是人类利用动力机械的一大突破。从此，人们靠燃料的燃烧就可以得到源源不断的动力。 蒸汽汽车的盛衰内燃机的诞生 古诺的尝试给后来者以极大的启发和激励，在欧洲各国和美国出现了研究和制造蒸汽汽车的热潮。各种用途的蒸汽汽车相继问世，到了19世纪中叶，出现了一个蒸汽汽车的全盛时期。

内燃机的先驱 蒸汽机的燃料在锅炉中燃烧把水烧开，将蒸汽送进气缸，推动活塞和曲柄连杆机构工作，所以蒸汽机也称为外燃机。它的热量损失大，热效率低，仅10%左右，能源浪费严重。 如果让燃料在气缸里直接燃烧产生的气体膨胀力推动活塞作功，就可大大提高气缸压力和热效率，这就是所谓的内燃机。1862年，法国铁路工程师罗彻斯，发表了等容燃烧的四冲程发动机理论，即进气、压缩、作功、排气，并指出压缩混合气是提高热效率的重要措施。1862年1月16日他的发明获得法国专利，他并没有造出实物来说明他的理论。 内燃机的诞生 奥托内燃机 德国工程师尼古拉斯·奥托，22岁时弃商，开始从事煤气发动机的试验工作。 1866年，奥托研制出具有划时代意义的立式活塞式四冲程奥托内燃机。翌年，此物荣获巴黎博览会金质奖章。 1876年，奥托对四冲程内燃机又作了改进，试制出第一台实用活塞式四冲程内燃机。 1877年8月4日取得专利，并成批投入生产。 戴姆勒的小型内燃机 1881年，戴姆勒辞去道依茨公司的一切职务，同他的同事威廉·迈巴赫合作开办了当时第一家汽车工厂，开始研究一种“轻便快速”发动机的设计方案。 1883年8月15日，戴姆勒和迈巴赫在奥托四冲程发动机的基础上，通过改进开发出了第一台卧式汽油机。 内燃机的诞生 戴姆勒的小型内燃机 他们再接再厉，把发动机的体积尽可能缩小，终于制成了世界上第一台轻便小巧的化油器式、电点火的小型汽油机，转速达到了当时创记录的750r/min。 这也是世界上第一台立式发动机，取名为“立钟”。他们在1885年4月3日取得德国专利。

汽车百年：汽车发展史

汽车百年：汽车发展史

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汽车百年 汽车发展史之一 汽车的问世离不开发明家的苦心专研 汽车自上个世纪末诞生以来,已经走过了一百多年的风风雨雨。从卡尔?本茨造出的第一辆三轮汽车以每小时１8公里的速度，跑到现在,竟然诞生了从速度为零到加速到1０0公里/小时只需要三秒钟多一点的超级跑车。这一百年，汽车发展的速度是如此惊人!同时，汽车工业也造就了多位巨人，他们一手创建了奔驰、宝马、通用、福特、沃尔沃、丰田、本田等这样一些在各国经济中举足轻重的著名公司。让我们一起来回望这段历史,品味其中的辛酸与喜悦,体会汽车给我们带来的种种欢乐与梦想…… 自走车辆的探索是人类奔驰的梦想与追求。汽车同其它现代高级复杂工具如电子计算机等一样，并非是哪一个人坐在那里发明了的。发明之初的汽车也不是现在这个式样，如果你能见到当时的汽车,你也可能认为这不是汽车呢。汽车的发展也有一个漫长的历程,总的说来,汽车发展初期，能分为蒸汽机发明前、蒸汽汽车的问世、大批量流水生产汽车开始等三个阶段。 人类最初的工作劳动完全是由本身来完成，根本没有什么汽车和发动机,在未使用牛和马之前,奴隶就是一种“生物发动机”。随着人类的进步与发展,人们对自然界的认识越来越深，利用自然、改造自然的能力日益加强，人们不仅使用人力、畜力、而且知道使用水力、风力。 在１71２年,纽可门首次发明了不依靠人和动物作功，而是靠机械作功的蒸汽机。这种蒸汽机用于驱动机械,便产生了划时代的第一次工业革命。随着蒸汽驱动的机械即汽车的诞生，人类社会中便拉开了永无休止的汽车发展的序幕。 17６9年,法国人N?J?居纽（Cuｇｎｏt)制造了世界上第一辆蒸汽驱动三轮汽车。到1804的年,脱威迪克(Troｕiｔhick)又设计并制造了一辆蒸汽汽车,这辆汽车还拉着十吨重的货物在铁路上行驶了15．7公里。由于蒸汽汽车本身又笨又重，不符合汽车灵活机动的基本要求，而且乘坐蒸汽汽车又热又脏。为了改进这种发动机，艾提力?雷诺（Ｅtｉence Ｌeｎor)在１8０0年制造了一种与燃料在外部燃烧的蒸汽机(即外燃机)所不同的发动机，让燃料在发动机内部的气缸里直接燃烧，产生的气体膨胀力推动活塞做功,人们后来称这类发动机为内燃机。内燃机大大地提高了气缸压力和热效率，使发动机的更小巧，功率更强。 现代发动机的发明是在使用蒸气机的基础上,仿造蒸气机的结构，在气缸中燃烧照明煤气作为开端的。首先成功制造了煤气机，在煤气机的基础上改进为汽油机，再研制为柴油机。１86６年,德国工程师康特?尼古扎?奥托(CountNｉcｈoｌasＯtｔo)研制出具有划时代意义的立式活塞式四冲程奥托内燃机。该内燃机对进入气缸的空气和汽油混合物先进行压缩，然后点火,这种发动机活塞的四个冲程，把进气、压缩、作功及排气融为一体。为了纪念奥托的发明,人们把这种循环就称为奥托循环。１8７６年,经过对原发动机的改进,又发明了第一台实用活塞式四冲程内燃机，使内燃机的结构更紧凑和简化，从而推动了小型内燃机的实用化。10０多年来，尽管发动机的研制在不断进行着,但奥托创建的内燃机工作原理，一直在现代汽车发动机上沿用至今。不过,奥托的内燃机以煤气为燃料，体积较大,重量约1吨，还不能用在汽车上。 德国工程师卡尔?本茨（ＫａrtBenz)最初在德国的曼海姆经营奥托四冲程煤气机，后来投入到汽油机的研制。1879年,本茨首次试验成功一台二冲程试验性发动机。 1８83年，德国工程师戴姆勒(Ｄaｉmler）和迈巴赫在奥托四冲程发动机的基础上，通过改进开发出了第一台卧式汽油机。紧接着,他们再接再厉，把发动机的体积尽可能缩小，终于在2年

汽车发展史-英文翻译

汽车发展史 译者： 现代汽车的发展是现代发动机发展的缩影。在这里我们从新回顾下这些故事，这既是为了那些想要了解过去我们是如何着手实现私人着陆火箭怎样造成严重交通事故的年轻人，同时也是为了那些追求美好古老日子的老计时员。在那时，汽车在寒冷天气不能启动，在炎热的天气爆炸，在潮湿的天气了不能停止。 起源：1700年 汽车史大致分为三个阶段：19世纪（或更早以前）和20世纪上半世纪、20世纪下半世纪。中断应该发生在第二次世界大战，当时在战争期间普通汽车生产中断，而后来又以战争模式立即恢复生产。 第一部分是短暂的。蒸汽汽车在18世纪后半世纪被示范操作，成为1770年牵引车可利用的第一个实际应用。一些靠蒸汽而不用靠马拉的车辆在1800年开始使用。他们外形非常庞大，很少的道路适应他们。但是，蒸汽大部分被应用在船和机车上，体积大而重，某种意义上对他们是一种优势。 开端：汽车和交通 汽车由它本身驱动的一个主要原因是内燃机（与蒸汽相反，燃烧在汽缸外）的发明。电也是一个很难解决的问题，所需的电池非常昂贵、寿命短、质量重、能力有限。在这个应用中，没有任何东西能比得上内燃机发动机的作用。 现在仍然存在一些争议，但是第一辆汽车普遍认为归功于德国奔驰。1885年，作为一个整体单元，他设计一个四分之三马力、每小时八英里有着十分惊人数量特征的三轮机动车（现在仍然存在）。他包含一个电子点火的四冲程汽油机和差速器。第一个汽车工厂应属于，他在1896年生产了13辆相似的汽车。 到1900年已经有了100多种品牌。早期的汽车大部分是一次制造一辆。有时整辆汽车都由一个制造者负责，且经常按照顾客的具体要求来制造，这使得他们非常昂贵。但是他也是财富的象征。随着数量的增多，开始招人承包，经常出现质量恶劣的情况，尤其是车身外壳。当SansomE.Olds的工厂遭遇火灾时,他几乎把一切都外包给别人,而他只是基本的设计者和组装者.福特早期的有些汽车采用的几乎全是Dodge brothers生产的零件,他从来没有卖过一辆自己的汽车。 二十世纪初期出现了很多汽车开发者，有些人因为那些以他们名字为人所知的汽车变得十分富有。，有些人则倒闭关门，还有一些处于两者之间：如Chevrolet、RansomE.Olds、 Ford、Dodge等。有些人尝试着制造便宜的汽车，以Olds为代表，但是Henry Ford 是超出任何人的想象——他成功了。他做出了改革汽车业的决定（尽管看起来有些偶然因素），同时他也做出了一些错误的

汽车的发展史

汽车的发展史 汽车自上个世纪末诞生以来，已经走过了风风雨雨的一百多年。从卡尔.本茨造出的第一辆三轮汽车以每小时18公里的速度，跑到现在，竟然诞生了从速度为零到加速到100公里/小时只需要三秒钟多一点的超级跑车。这一百年，汽车发展的速度是如此惊人！同时，汽车工业也造就了多位巨人，他们一手创建了通用、福特、丰田、本田这样一些在各国经济中举足轻重的著名公司。让我们一起来回望这段历史，品味其中的辛酸与喜悦，体会汽车给我们带来的种种欢乐与梦想…… 汽车同其它现代高级复杂工具如电子计算机等一样，并非是哪一个人坐在那里发明了的。发明之初的汽车也不是现在之个式样，如果你能见到当时的汽车，你也可能认为这不是汽车呢。汽车的发展也有一个漫长的历程，总的说来，汽车发展史可能分为蒸汽机发明前、蒸汽汽车的问世、大量流水生产汽车开始等三个阶段。 人类最初的工作劳动完全是由本身来完成，根本没有什么汽车和发动机，如果说有的话，在未使用牛和马之前使用的是人体的股份这台发动机。奴隶就是一种“生物发动机”。随着人类的进步与发展，人们对自然界的认识越来越深，利用自然、改造自然的能力日益加强，人们不仅使用人力、畜力、而且知道使用水力、风力。 在1705年，纽可门首次发明了不依靠人和动物来作功而是靠机械来作功的实用化蒸汽机。这种蒸汽机用于驱动机械，便产生了划时代的第一次工业革命。随着蒸汽驱动的机械即汽车的诞生，人类社会中便拉开了永无休止的汽车发展的序幕。 1769年，法国人N.J.居纽(Cugnot)制造了世界上第一辆蒸汽驱动三轮汽车。到1804的年，脱威迪克(Trouithick)又设计并制造了一辆蒸汽汽车，这辆汽车还拉着十吨重的货物在铁路上行驶了15.7公里。 1831年，美国的哥德史沃奇.勒(ColdsworthyGur-ney)将一台蒸汽汽车投入运输，相距15公里格斯特夏和切罗腾哈姆之间便出现了有规律的运输服务，这台运输车走完全程约需45分钟。此后的三年内，伦敦街头也出现了蒸汽驱动公共汽车。当这个笨重的怪物在英国城镇奔跑时，曾引起了很大的骚动。说起来，这种车比现在的筑路用的压道机还重，速度又低，常常撞坏未经铺修的路面，引起各种事故。市民们当时曾呼吁取缔这种汽车。为此英国制订了所谓的“红旗法规”，具有讽剌意味的是，由于这条法规的实施，使得英国后来在制造汽车的起步上大大落后于其它工业国家。 由于蒸汽汽车本身又笨又重，乘坐蒸汽汽车又热又脏，为了改进这种发动机，艾提力.雷诺(EtienceLenor)在1800年制造了一种与燃料在外部燃烧的蒸汽机(即外燃机)所不同的发动机，让燃料在发动机内部燃烧，人们后来称这类发动机为内燃机。

内燃机车发展史及机车的结构原理

内燃机车发展史及机车的结构原理 内燃机车（diesel locomotive）以内燃机作为原动力，通过传动装置驱动车轮的机车。根据机车上内燃机的种类，可分为柴油机车和燃气轮机车。由于燃气轮机车的效率低于柴油机车以及耐高温材料成本高、噪声大等原因，所以其发展落后于柴油机车。在中国，内燃机车的概念习惯上指的是柴油机。 发展 20世纪初，国外开始探索试制内燃机车。1924年，苏联制成一台电力传动内燃机车，并交付铁路便用。同年，德国用柴油机和空压缩机配接，利用柴油机排气余热加热压缩空气代替蒸汽，将蒸汽机车改装成为空气传动内燃机车。1925年，美国将一台220 kW电传动内燃机车投入运用，从事调车作业。30年代，内燃机车进入试用阶段，直流电力传动液力变扭器等广泛采用，并开始在内燃机车上采用液力耦合器和液力变扭器等热力传动装置的元件，但内燃机车仍以调车机车为主。30年代后期，出现了一些由功率为900～1 000 kW单节机车多节连挂的干线客运内燃机车。

第二次世界大战以后，因柴油机的性能和制造技术迅速提高，内燃机车多数配装了废气涡轮增压系统，功率比战前提高约50%，配置直流电力传动装置和液力传动装置的内燃机车的发展加快了，到了20世纪50年代，内燃机车数量急骤增长。60年代期，大功率硅整流器研制成功，并应用于机车制进，出现了交—直流电力传动的2 940 kw内燃机车。在70年代，单柴油机内燃机车功率已达到4 410kW。随着电子技术的发展，联邦德国在1971年试制出1 840 kW的交一直一交电力传动内燃机车，从而为内燃机车和电力机车的技术发展提供了新的途径。内燃机车随后的发展，表现为在提高机车的可靠性、耐久性和经济性，以及防止污染、降低噪声等方面不断取得新的进展。 中国从1958年开始制造内燃机车，先后有东风型等3种型号机车最早投入批量生产。1969年后相继批量生产了东风4等15种新机型，同第一代内燃机车相比较，在功率、结构、柴油机热效率和传动装置效率上，都有显着提高；而且还分别增设了电阻制或液力制动和液力换向、机车各系统保护和故障诊断显示、微机控制的功能；采用了承载式车体、静液压驱动等一系列新技术；机车可靠性和使用寿命方面，性能有很大提高。东风11客运机车的速度达到了160km/h。在生产内燃机车的同时，中国还先后从罗马尼亚、法国、美国、

发动机发展史

发动机发展史 【摘要】：发动机（Engine），又称为引擎，是一种能够把一种形式的能转化为另一种更有用的能的机器，通常是把化学能转化为机械能。（把电能转化为机器能的称谓电动机）有时它既适用于动力发生装置，也可指包括动力装置的整个机器，比如汽油发动机,航空发动机。发动机最早诞生在英国，所以，发动机的概念也源于英语，它的本义是指那种“产生动力的机械装置”。汽车自诞生以来，作为最核心的“心脏”--发动机也在不断的进步，下面就带大家来回顾一下发动机的历史，“知史明鉴”，或许更能理解这一百多年来汽车技术所发生的巨大变革。 Engine, also known as the engine, is a kind of to tell a forms of energy into another more useful to machine, usually the chemical energy into mechanical energy. (the energy into machine can appellations motor) sometimes it applies both to power generator, can also refer to include power device of the whole machine, such as gasoline engine,aeroengine. Engine earliest was born in the United Kingdom, therefore, engine concept also come from English, it's original meaning is that "the mechanical device" producing power. Car since its birth, as the core of "heart" - the engine is also in constant progress. Here is to take you to review the history, "knowing engine Mingjian" history and maybe more can understand this hundred years automotive technical what happened huge transformation. 【关键字】：蒸汽机，冲程发动机，转子发动机，化油器，电喷发动机Steam engine，Stroke engines，The rotor engine，The carburetor，Efi engine 发动机是汽车的心脏，为汽车的行走提供动力，汽车的动力性、经济性、环保性。简单讲发动机就是一个能量转换机构，即将燃油的热能，通过在密封汽缸内燃烧气体膨胀时，推动活塞作功，转变为机械能，这是发动机最基本原理。发动机所有结构都是为能量转换服务的，虽然发动机伴随着汽车走过了100多年的历史，无论是在设计上、制造上、工艺上还是在性能上、控制上都有很大的提高，其基本原理仍然未变，这是一个富于创造的时代，那些发动机设计者们，不断地将最新科技与发动机融为一体，把发动机变成一个复杂的机电一体化产品，使发动机性能达到近乎完善的程度，各世界著名汽车厂商也将发动机的性能作为竞争亮点，发动机的发展经历了以下几个阶段： 一、汽油机之前的摸索阶段 18世纪中叶，瓦特发明了蒸气机，此后人们开始设想把蒸汽机装到车子上载人。法国的居纽是第一个将蒸汽机装到车子上的人。1770年，居纽制作了一辆三轮蒸汽机车。这辆车全长米，时速为公里,是世界上第一辆蒸汽机车。1771年古诺改进了蒸汽汽车，时速可达千米，牵引4-5吨的货物。 1858年，定居在法国巴黎的里诺发明了煤气发动机，并于1860年申请了专利。发动机用煤气和空气的混合气体取代往复式蒸汽机的蒸汽，使用电池和感应线圈产生电火花，用电火花将混合气点燃爆发。这种发动机有气缸、活塞、连杆、飞轮等。煤气机是内燃机的初级产品，因为煤气发动机的压缩比为零。 1867年，德国人奥托受里诺研制煤气发动机的启发，对煤气发动机进行了大量的研究，制作了一台卧式气压煤气发动机，后经过改进，于1878年在法国举办的国际展览会上展出了他制作的样品。由于该发动机工作效率高，引起了参

汽车发动机的发展历程

汽车发动机的发展历程 【摘要】发动机是汽车的“心脏”。汽车的发展与发动机的进步有着直接的联系发动机是汽车的动力源。汽车发动机大多是热能动力装置，简称热力机。热力机是借助工质的状态变化将燃料燃烧产生的热能转变为机械能发动机用煤气和空气的混合气体取代往复式蒸汽机的蒸汽，使用电池和感应线圈产生电火花，用电火花将混合气点燃爆发。这种发动机有气缸、活塞、连杆、飞轮等。 【关键词】发动机；外燃机；内燃机；历史；趋势；汽油发动机；柴油发动机

第一章：汽车发动机的历史及其发展 1.1汽油发动机的历史及其发展 18世纪中叶，瓦特发明了蒸气机，此后人们开始设想把蒸汽机装到车子上载人。法国的居纽（N.J.Cugnot）是第一个将蒸汽机装到车子上的人。1770年，居纽制作了一辆三轮蒸汽机车。这辆车全长7.23米，时速为3.5公里,是世界上第一辆蒸汽机车。 1858年，定居在法国巴黎的里诺发明了煤气发动机，并于1860年申请了专利。发动机用煤气和空气的混合气体取代往复式蒸汽机的蒸汽，使用电池和感应线圈产生电火花，用电火花将混合气点燃爆发。这种发动机有气缸、活塞、连杆、飞轮等。煤气机是内燃机的初级产品，因为煤气发动机的压缩比为零. 1867年，德国人奥托（Nicolaus August Otto）受里诺研制煤气发动机的启发，对煤气发动机进行了大量的研究，制作了一台卧式气压煤气发动机，后经过改进，于1878年在法国举办的国际展览会上展出了他制作的样品。由于该发动机工作效率高，引起了参观者极大的兴趣。在长期的研究过程中，奥托提出了内燃机的四冲程理论，为内燃机的发明奠定了理论基础。德国人奥姆勒和卡尔·本茨根据奥托发动机的原理，各自研制出具有现代意义的汽油发动机，为汽车的发展铺平了道路。 1892年，德国工程师狄塞尔根据定压热功循环原理，研制出压燃式柴油机，并取得了制造这种发动机的专利权。 1957年，德国人汪克尔发明了转子活塞发动机，这是汽油发动机发展的一个重要分支。转子发动机的特点是利用内转子圆外旋轮线和外转子圆内旋轮线相结合的机构，无曲轴连杆和配气机构，可将三角活塞运动直接转换为旋转运动。它的零件数比往复活塞式汽油少40%，质量轻、体积小、转速高、功率大。1958年汪克尔将外转子改为固定转子为行星运动，制成功率为22.79千瓦、转速为5500转/分的新型旋转活塞发动机。该机具有重要的开发价值，因而引起各国的重视。日本东洋公司（马自达公司）买下了转子发动机的样机，并把转子发动机装在汽车上，可以说，转子发动机生在德国，长在日本。

汽车发动机技术发展史

汽车发动机技术发展史 汽车整体技术日新月异，而作为汽车的心脏一一发动机技术的进步显得更受关注。如今介绍一辆汽车的发动机时：可变气门正时技术，双顶置凸轮轴技术，缸内直喷技术，VCMI汽缸管理技术，涡轮增压技术，等 等都已经运用的相当广泛；在用料上也是往轻量化的方向发展：全铝发动机目前的应用已经非常广泛；汽车的污染也是不可避免，于是新能源技术，包括柴油机的高压共轨，燃料电池，混合动力，纯电动，生物燃料技术也已经有普及的趋向，但回顾一下发动机的历史或许更能理解这一百多年来汽车技术所发生的巨大变革。 汽车技术的迅猛发展从我国的汽车教材也能看岀端倪：新技术的发展已经让汽车教材难以跟上步伐！如今大部分汽车教材还是以东风汽车的发动机来作为范例，而东风发动机还是带化油器的老式发动机， 与如今全电子化的发动机简直就隔了几个世纪。 回到汽车的起步阶段，那时的汽车被马车嘲笑，污染严重，但起步的意义却非同寻常。 汽油机之前的摸索阶段 18世纪中叶，瓦特发明了蒸气机，此后人们开始设想把蒸汽机装到车子上载人。法国的居纽 (N.J.Cugnot )是第一个将蒸汽机装到车子上的人。1770年，居纽制作了一辆三轮蒸汽机车。这辆车全长 7.23米，时速为3.5公里,是世界上第一辆蒸汽机车。1771年古诺改进了蒸汽汽车，时速可达9.5千米, 牵引4-5吨的货物。 1858年，定居在法国巴黎的里诺发明了煤气发动机，并于1860年申请了专利。发动机用煤气和空 气的混合气体取代往复式蒸汽机的蒸汽，使用电池和感应线圈产生电火花，用电火花将混合气点燃爆发。这种发动机有气缸、活塞、连杆、飞轮等。煤气机是内燃机的初级产品，因为煤气发动机的压缩比为零。 1867年，德国人奥托(Nicolaus August Otto )受里诺研制煤气发动机的启发，对煤气发动机进 行了大量的研究，制作了一台卧式气压煤气发动机，后经过改进，于1878年在法国举办的国际展览会上展 岀了他制作的样品。由于该发动机工作效率高，引起了参观者极大的兴趣。在长期的研究过程中，奥托提岀了内燃机的四冲程理论，为内燃机的发明奠定了理论基础。德国人奥姆勒和卡尔?本茨根据奥托发动机的原理，各自研制岀具有现代意义的汽油发动机，为汽车的发展铺平了道路。 1892年，德国工程师狄塞尔根据定压热功循环原理，研制岀压燃式柴油机，并取得了制造这种发 动机的专利权

发动机的发展史

发动机是汽车的“心脏”。汽车的发展与发动机的进步有着直接的联系。 18世纪中叶，瓦特发明了蒸气机，此后人们开始设想把蒸汽机装到车子上载人。法国的居纽（N.J.Cugnot）是第一个将蒸汽机装到车子上的人。1770年，居纽制作了一辆三轮蒸汽机车。这辆车全长7.23米，时速为3.5公里,是世界上第一辆蒸汽机车。 1858年，定居在法国巴黎的里诺发明了煤气发动机，并于1860年申请了专利。发动机用煤气和空气的混合气体取代往复式蒸汽机的蒸汽，使用电池和感应线圈产生电火花，用电火花将混合气点燃爆发。这种发动机有气缸、活塞、连杆、飞轮等。煤气机是内燃机的初级产品，因为煤气发动机的压缩比为零。 1867年，德国人奥托（Nicolaus August Otto）受里诺研制煤气发动机的启发，对煤气发动机进行了大量的研究，制作了一台卧式气压煤气发动机，后经过改进，于1878年在法国举办的国际展览会上展出了他制作的样品。由于该发动机工作效率高，引起了参观者极大的兴趣。在长期的研究过程中，奥托提出了内燃机的四冲程理论，为内燃机的发明奠定了理论基础。德国人奥姆勒和卡尔·本茨根据奥托发动机的原理，各自研制出具有现代意义的汽油发动机，为汽车的发展铺平了道路。 1892年，德国工程师狄塞尔根据定压热功循环原理，研制出压燃式柴油机，并取得了制造这种发动机的专利权。 1957年，德国人汪克尔发明了转子活塞发动机，这是汽油发动机发展的一个重要分支。转子发动机的特点是利用内转子圆外旋轮线和外转子圆内旋轮线相结合的机构，无曲轴连杆和配气机构，可将三角活塞运动直接转换为旋转运动。它的零件数比往复活塞式汽油少4 0%，质量轻、体积小、转速高、功率大。1958年汪克尔将外转子改为固定转子为行星运动，制成功率为22.79千瓦、转速为5500转/分的新型旋转活塞发动机。该机具有重要的开发价值，因而引起各国的重视。日本东洋公司（马自达公司）买下了转子发动机的样机，并把转子发动机装在汽车上，可以说，转子发动机生在德国，长在日本。 汽车发动机的发展历史 发动机是汽车的动力源。汽车发动机大多是热能动力装置，简称热力机。热力机是借助工质的状态变化将燃料燃烧产生的热能转变为机械能。