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Central nervous system repair and stem cells

Central nervous system repair and stem cells
Central nervous system repair and stem cells

Central nervous system repair and stem cells

Rahul Jandial a,b,c,?,1,Ilyas Singec a,c,1,Vincent J.Duenas a,c ,

Allen L.Ho a,c ,Michael L.Levy d ,Evan Y .Snyder a,c

a

Burnham Institute for Medical Research,Stem Cell &Regeneration Program,10901North Torrey Pines Road,La Jolla,CA,92037,USA b University of California San Diego,Department of Surgery,Division of Neurosurgery,200West Harbor Drive,

San Diego,CA,USA

c University of California San Diego,Division of Biological Sciences,San Diego,CA,USA

d Children's Hospital San Diego,San Diego,California,USA

Abstract.Stem cells provide us with a future alternative to more traditional pharmacology for treatment of a wide range of pathology that occurs within the central nervous system (CNS).The ability to not only,minimize neuronal and glial degeneration and loss,but also to repair and regenerate the diseases nervous system is currently the investigational horizon for regenerative medicine.For this,neural stem cells (NSCs)that can be derived either from the CNS itself or from pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESCs),are promising candidates.Their ability to ameliorate disease symptoms and to improve functional recovery has been demonstrated in various animal models of traumatic and ischemic CNS injury and neurodegeneration involving neuronal and glial cells.Further,the possibility of recruiting endogenous stem cells to compliment stem cell transplantation is providing additional promise to the future of stem cell mediated regenerative medicine.?2007Published by Elsevier B.V .

Keywords:Neural repair;Stem cell;Neural stem cell;Functional recovery;Neural regeneration;Stroke;Spinal cord injury;Parkinson's disease;Stem cell therapeutics

1.Introduction

The myriad neurological pathology that can affect the human central nervous system along with the limited self-repair capacity of the CNS,call for new therapeutic strategies.International Congress Series 1302(2007)154–

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2a6414447.html,

?Corresponding author.Burnham Institute for Medical Research,Stem Cell &Regeneration Program,10901North Torrey Pines Road,La Jolla,CA,92037,USA.Tel.:+18586463158or +16176865361;fax:+18587136273.

E-mail address:rjandial@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2a6414447.html, (R.Jandial).

1These authors contributed to this work equally.

0531-5131/?2007Published by Elsevier B.V .

doi:10.1016/j.ics.2007.02.062

Our increasing knowledge about the fundamental biology and therapeutic potential of various stem cell types opened a new chapter in regenerative medicine.The initial work on rodent stem cells over the two last decades is now being successfully continued with stem cells of human origin and from different developmental stages.We have learned about key genes and cellular mechanisms that maintain the stem cells status or lead to differentiated progeny.We have also learned about the multiple roles of stem cells during development,disease,and aging.It is now well-established that stem cells are not only a valuable tool for cell replacement but are equipped with important additional properties that may be harnessed for cell protection,detoxification,and gene therapy.

Stem cell biology is being recognized as a continuum of development and developmental processes are tightly regulated,both temporally and spatially.Better understanding of these developmental events is considered to be a key strategy for the successful use of stem cells (endogenous and grafted)for CNS repair and functional recovery.For instance,the generation of functional neurons and glial cells during brain development requires a concerted coordination of cell proliferation,migration,cell-type specification,and synaptic integration all of which are also crucial for successful stem cell therapy [5].

2.Stem cell prototypes

Stem cells give rise to organs and maintain tissue integrity and homeostasis in the adult organism.There are different types of stem cells,including embryonic and somatic (fetal or adult derived)from which new cells can be derived.To fulfill the criteria of a stem cell,as opposed to a “progenitor ”cell,a single clonal cell must have the following functional properties:(1)should be able to generate the cell types from the organ it was derived from,and (2)possess “self-renewal ”,i.e.,the ability to produce daughter cells with identical properties.The ability to populate a developing or injured region with appropriate cell types upon transplantation is another important stem cell feature that is well-established with hematopoetic stem cells and awaits standardization in other organ systems including the brain.In the following we will introduce two prototypical stem cells,the embryonic stem cell (ESC)and neural stem cells (NSC),and discuss their potentials for neural repair [7].

2.1.Embryonic stem cells

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs)have been derived from the inner cell mass of blastocysts of different species including human.They can be totipotent (be able to generate all cells types in an organism except the placenta),pluripotent (the ability to yield mature cell types from all different germ layers),or multipotent (be able to give rise to all cells within an organ).Work performed with mouse ESCs has provided proof-of-principle that pluripotent cell lines can be harnessed for developmental biological studies as well as for new therapeutics.Since significant species differences exist between mouse and human ESCs regarding signalling pathways and molecular regulation of pluripotency,it is pivotal to fully characterize and define the molecular mechanisms in human ESCs.Currently,our understanding of human ESCs cells is increasing and knowledge is being accumulated on improved cell culture conditions,long-term propagation,controlled differentiation,and transplantation into animal models of human disease [12].

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The list of various cell types differentiated from human ESCs(e.g.neurons, cardiomyocytes,hepatocytes)is continuously increasing.Pluripotent ESCs can be stepwise differentiated in the culture dish by recapitulating aspects of in vivo development and the use of relevant epigenetic factors.Importantly,the acquisition of a particular developmental stage of a cell is best characterized by considering morphological,immunophenotypic,and functional criteria.The unlimited access to specific functional human cells is expected to play not only an important role in therapeutic cell replacement but also for disease modelling and drug screening.

2.2.Neural stem cells

In contrast to pluripotent ESCs,somatic stem cells are believed to be multipotent thereby capable of generating the major cell types limited to the tissue of origin.Typically,the NSC is capable of producing neurons,astrocytes,and oligodendrocytes.Somatic/tissue-specific stem cells are the building blocks of organs during development and survive in specialized microenvironments(“stem cell niche”)contributing to new cells throughout life.NSCs are(1) multipotent(the ability to yield mature cells in all3fundamental neural lineages throughout the nervous system:neurons;astrocytes;and oligodendrocytes),have the(2)ability to populate a developing region and/or repopulate an ablated or degenerated region of the CNS with appropriate cell types,and(3)undergo“self-renewal”,i.e.,the ability to produce daughter cells with identical properties.Neural stem cells have so far been identified in vitro.No study has been able to demonstrate the existence of multipotent NSCs in vivo.NSCs are highly abundant during embryogenesis,with a sharp decline shortly after birth.In the adult nervous system,NSCs are confined to the subgranular zone(SGZ)in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone(SVZ)lining the lateral ventricles[1,4].The newly born neurons in hippocampus have been suggested to improve memory and play a role in mood behavior such as stress and depression.Neuroblasts born in the SVZ migrate along the rostral migratory stream(RMS)to the olfactory bulbs where they differentiate into periglomelular and granule neurons.Isolation of cells from brain regions such as amygdala, substantia nigra,and cortex,have included cells with stem cell-characteristics in vitro. Morphologically,NSCs share properties with both astrocytes and radial glia.The main characteristic is a long process that extends radially.Although no definitive marker have been suggested for neural stem cells,a substantial amount of work shows that they are positive for nestin,an intermediary filament protein,and glial fibrillary acidic protein(GFAP),used traditionally to identify astrocytes[8].

NSCs or progenitor cells with a more restricted developmental potential,can be generated from hESCs or directly isolated from the developing CNS as well as from neurogenic regions of the adult brain.Historically,the first established NSC lines exploited knowledge accumulated on tumor viruses and immortalization.These cell lines have been invaluable in expanding our experience on basic stem cell biology and neural repair.Some of these multipotent cell lines, such as the C17.2NSC line,are still widely used.However,NSC that have not been genetically modified can also be propagated in vitro for extended periods of time using high concentrations of mitogenic factors such as basis fibroblast growth factor(bFGF)and epidermal growth factor (EGF).Neural stem/progenitor cells have been cultured as monolayers on coated substrates or as free-floating spherical aggregated,termed neurospheres[13].

3.Stem cell repertoire

3.1.Chaperone effects

Initially,stem cells were exclusively considered as tools for cell replacement.However,there is multiple evidence now for robust additional biological properties (“chaperone effects ”)of stem cells that may be exploited therapeutically.Chaperone effects of stem cells include the natural delivery of neurotrophic,cytoprotective,and anti-inflammatory molecules (e.g.GDNF,BDNF,NT-3)in order to rescue dysfunctional cells.This concept of stem cell-based chaperone effects was first demonstrated in the brain of aged and parkinsonian mice and later confirmed and extended to other organ systems and various diseases (e.g.bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells or embryo.

3.2.Environmental cues

Increasingly,the microenvironments within the CNS are providing insight into the molecular milieu regulating stem cell biology.A specialized microenvironment in the neurogenic regions is responsible for the continued self-renewal and differentiation of the stem cell pool.It is also known that the cellular milieu contributes to fate determination and cortical development,specifically through the effects of resident astrocytes in both the subventricular zone (SVZ)and hippocampus.Physical exercise and enriched environment have been shown to promote neurogenesis in the SGZ.The effects from physical activity are partly mediated by IGF-1,VEGF,BDNF and endogenous opioids.The characterization of the stem cell microenvironment will provide the molecular and cellular scaffold upon which stem cell therapy,both endogenous and exogenous,can be built.

3.3.Stem cells as vectors for gene therapy

Brain lesions can be focal and restricted to a certain brain region or widely distributed in the parenchyma.Ideally,both lesion types would be targeted with a specific and efficient delivery of therapeutic molecules and drugs.In fact,efficient delivery is still a major hurdle in gene therapy.The finding that endogenous and grafted NSCs display an extensive migratory potential and tropism toward brain lesions founded the idea that these cells may be used as therapeutic vectors.Proof-of-principle experiments in animal models of lysosomal storage diseases (example for a widely distributed brain lesions)and brain tumors (example for a focal lesion)have shown that genetically modified NSCs are powerful therapeutics to cross-correct hereditary enzymatic deficiencies or to dramatically reduce a tumor mass.Thus,NSCs hold great promise for both cell and gene therapy.

4.Stem cell-base CNS repair

It is manifest that stem cells can be used to replace neuronal,astrocytic,and oligodendroglial cells lost due to various brain diseases.However,it is important to note that a successful use of stem cell is probably dependent on many factors including,nature and degree of injury,disease history and age of the patient,primarily affected cell types,type of stem cell chosen for 157

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158R.Jandial et al./International Congress Series1302(2007)154–163 transplantation,and the site of grafting.A deeper insight into these parameters will be important to tailor patient-specific treatment paradigms in a clinical context[9].

4.1.Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease(PD)is characterized by a progressive deterioration and loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.The consequence of this cell death in the ventral midbrain is a deficient dopamine neurotransmission in the target region,the striatum. Clinically,the PD presents with clinical symptoms such as tremor,rigidity,and bradykinesia. Patients transplanted with fetal mesencephalic grafts in the early1990s have demonstrated that an ectopic transplantation of dopamine producing cells into the striatum can restore motor function and ameliorate clinical symptoms.Because of the limited availability of fetal tissue, stem cells are expected to provide unlimited numbers of transplantable dopamine neurons.

Several studies using rodent and primate models of PD have demonstrated successful integration and functional improvement after grafting of dopaminergic neurons derived from both ESCs and NSCs.In primate models,monkey embryonic stem cells have been transplanted and animals evaluated for behavioral improvements.As with the rodent models functional improvements occur.Furthermore these behavior assessments can be corroborated with functional neuroimaging[15].(Fig.1a)

The considerable progress in stem cell-based treatment of PD in animals still faces many challenges before clinical translation.Human ESCs differentiate to dopaminergic neurons under various protocols,yet the creation of a purified and homogenous population of dopaminergic neurons is challenging and needs improvement.Animal models for future investigation should increasingly include primates in order to refine the mechanics and logistics of transplantation.Patients in whom stem cell therapy will be the most effective with the least side effects should be defined.The effects of post-transplantation training and rehabilitation need to be better understood,it appears that these contribute to improved functional outcome in experimental animal models.The clinical experience with fetal grafts suggests that the patient's disease history is an important parameter and that cell therapy will fail to be the method of choice for every parkinsonian patient,thereby patient selection will be pivotal for clinical improvements after graft placement.Finally,the adverse side-effects such as dyskinesias observed in some patients after transplantation of fetal grafts need careful consideration,and further the safety hESCs needs to be established prior to clinical transplantation[14].

4.2.Stroke

Arterial occlusion within the brain can lead to ischemia and infarction of brain parenchyma. The current treatment of stroke remains limited,and focuses on neuroprotection to limit the expansion of the infarct and to possibly recover the cells within the ischemic penumbra.The use of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in select clinical situations within a critical time window after the stroke event has led to improved clinical outcome.Unfortunately,the time constraints in which this treatment can be offered limits potential application to a very small group of stroke patients.

Hypoxic/ischemic injury can lead to substantial tissue loss and the formation of infarction cavities which would be a major therapeutic obstacle for the survival of newly seeded stem

cells.Our group has demonstrated extensively that damaged brain areas can be repaired by the combined use of stem cells together with polymer scaffolds that can be placed into the infarction cavity [11].(Fig.1b)It has been suggested that stem cells may be uniquely suited for stroke therapy given their inherent cytoprotective,anti-inflammatory,and restorative properties.Noteably,in early studies using other cellular therapies (e.g.human NT-2teratocarcinoma line)have demonstrated some functional improvement in stoke patients.However,the growth of stem cells is better to control than any other immortalized cell line.Stem cell-derived and implanted neurons were shown to survive for N 2years in the human brain.Stem cell use in animal models of cerebral ischemia clearly demonstrates the ability of murine and human NSCs to engraft into the brain and survive,migrate,and specifically differentiate leading to functional outcome.Other studies with murine NSCs have shown the potential of stem cell grafts to promote recovery in ischemic rats,and recovery of sensorimotor deficits after transplantation into the striatum and cortex ipisilateral or contralateral to the stroke.In a clinical setting,cell transplants for stroke patients may be feasible even weeks after the ischemic event,allowing the patient to recover from the acute injury.Furthermore,several weeks may be needed to perform detailed neurophysiological and behavioral testing to allow selection of the candidate patients.In accordance with a timetable that accounts for the most likely clinical scenario with patients,human somatic NSCs have led to functional recovery from stroke with improvement at both cortical and subcortical levels in various murine models of stroke.Embryonic stem cells can be differentiated into NSCs following exposure to retinoic acid in vitro and have also,demonstrated functional recovery in rodents [10]

.

Fig.1.a [15].Function of ES cell-derived neurospheres in MPTP-treated monkeys.Behavioral scores (A)and PET study (B and C)of ES cell-transplanted (n =6)and sham-operated animals (n =4).(B)Mean Ki values from entire putamen.(C)Increased 18F-fluorodopa uptake in the putamen of ES cell-transplanted animals.All values are mean±SD.?p b 0.05.b [11].Implantation of NSC –PGA complexes into a region of cavity formation following extensive HI brain injury and necrosis (A)Brain of an untransplanted (non-Tx)mouse subjected to right HI injury with extensive infarction and cavitation of the ipsilateral right cortex,striatum,thalamus,and hippocampus (arrow).

(B)Contrasting with (A),the brain of a similarly injured mouse implanted with an NSC –PGA complex (PGA+NSCs),into the infarction cavity seven days after the induction of HI (arrow;n =60).At maturity (age-matched to the animal pictured in (A)),the NSC –scaffold complex appears,in this whole mount,to have filled the cavity (arrow)and become incorporated into the infarcted cerebrum.(C,D)Higher magnification of representative coronal sections through that region,in which parenchyma appears to have filled in spaces between the dissolving black polymer fibers (white arrow in (C))and even to support neovascularization by host tissues,as seen in (D).A blood vessel is indicated by the closed black arrow in (D);open arrow in (D)points to degrading black polymer fiber.159

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160R.Jandial et al./International Congress Series1302(2007)154–163 Although,regenerative cell therapy for stroke appears very promising,the use of stem cells is in its infancy.Clearly,the mechanisms that led to beneficial effects after stem cell transplantation need to be better understood.For instance,it is important to define whether the reported improvements are primarily the result of reconstitution of neural circuitry by cell replacement,from the enhancement of intrinsic repair mechanisms(including the recruitment of endogenous stem cells),or even both.Most likely,grafted and endogenous stem cells are effective through a multitude of mechanisms.It is possible that stem cells may be delivered to the injured brain not only by local intracerebral delivery,but also by intravenous or intrathecal routes.

4.3.Spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury(SCI)remains a devastating ailment with little opportunity for treatment.The injury occurs from mechanical forces in the acute setting and is exacerbated by secondary inflammatory damage,both leading to neuronal death and demyelination. Accordingly,potential therapy would vary depending on the time frame after injury,with minimizing inflammation the primary concern early after injury and regeneration the major goal when injury is in its chronic phase.The pathobiology of SCI is highly dependent on the time course in which the injured spinal cord is examined.This directs the transplantation of NSCs or their derivatives(e.g.oligodendrocytes for myelination)to carefully account for and maximize the timing of transplantation with consideration cell survival of grafted cells. Studies have addressed some of these issues demonstrating the importance of both timing of transplantation and the role of growth factors in murine models of SCI treated with NSCs.Injured rats received NSC transplants at different time points that would correspond clinically with subacute and chronic SCI,respectively.The administration of growth factors including EGF,bFGF,and platelet derived growth factor(PDGF)resulted in increased numbers of cells grafted into the injured spinal cord,either by enhanced survival or increased proliferation.To determine if NSCs together with growth factors can lead to neurological improvement,animals were evaluated using three independent behavioral tasks and all three behavior tasks showed significant improvements over control mice,with even some long-term improvements[6].(Fig.2a)Human CNS fetal-derived stem cells have been shown to survive,engraft,differentiate and improve locomotor skills after traumatic SCI in mice.Contusive spinal cord injury of the thoracic cord was treated with injection of human NSCs.Functional recovery was assessed and shown to be improved.Also,selective ablation of grafted cells with diptheria toxin(murine cells are100,000times less sensitive to diptheria toxin than are human cells)was used for the targeted killing of human NSCs. This selective ablation led to reversal of symptomatic and behavioral improvement, providing further support that human NSCs can mediate functional recovery in murine spinal cord injury models.Despite of demonstrating functional recovery in murine models of SCI,with both murine and human NSCs,it remains that for clinical translation more investigation with primate models is critical prior to any human trials.Indeed,spinal cord anatomy is different in the rodent as compared to primates and humans[3].

Neural regeneration is not without pitfalls,as some studies have shown the creation of aberrant axonal sprouting which led to allodynia hypersensitivity.This may be related to excessive astroglial differentiation,highlighting the need for more controlled differentiation in

order to both maximize functional recovery and minimize side effects.Along with increased understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms,the timing and logistics of trans-plantation need to be improved as well as non-invasive cellular imaging

established.Fig.2.a [6].Subacute transplantation of YFP-NPCs resulted in a significant locomotor recovery compared with injured rats in the control group.A,BBB rating scale showed a significant improvement in the locomotor BBB score in transplanted rats at 3weeks after transplantation compared with the plain injured and control groups (n =5for plain injured group and n =8for other groups).B,Using grid-walk analysis,transplanted rats also showed fewer errors in hindlimb placements at 5and 6weeks after transplantation compared with the plain injured and control groups (n =5for plain injured group and n =8for other groups).C,Representative footprints of normal,plain injured,control,and grafted rats (n =5for plain injured group and n =8for other groups)shows improvement in interlimb coordination as well as angle of rotation in the transplanted group compared with the plain injured and control groups.D,E,Footprint analysis revealed that transplantation with adult NPCs significantly improved interlimb coordination and reduced the hindlimb angle of rotation at 5and 6weeks after transplantation.The data show the mean±SEM.?p b 0.05.b [2].A subset of newborn layer V cortical neurons extends axons to the cervical spinal cord.(A)Both newborn and original layer V CSMN were retrogradely labeled by FG (blue).(B)Field expanded in C –F showing a BrdUrd+/NeuN+/FG+triple-labeled adult-born neuron (arrow).(Bar,10μm)(C –E)Individual images show that this BrdUrd+nucleus (C;red)is located within this neuron,which is retrogradely labeled with FG from the cervical spinal cord (D;blue)and expresses NeuN (E;green).(Bar,10ìm.)(F)Overlay showing BrdUrd+/FG+/NeuN+neuron colocalization.(G)Higher-magnification overlay of the same neuron from C –F.(H)A separate example of an adult-born neuron with a projection to the spinal https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2a6414447.html,ser-scanning confocal images were combined to produce 3D reconstructions of newborn neurons.Viewing a BrdUrd+/FG+newborn neuron along its x (H ′),y (H ″),and z axes (H)unequivocally demonstrates the colocalization of BrdUrd and FG.(I)Quantification of BrdUrd+/FG+adult-born CSMN extending spinal projections from 12to 56weeks after induction of original CSMN apoptosis.Each point indicates the number of adult-born BrdUrd+/FG+neurons per mm 3in an individual animal;each bar indicates the mean.(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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5.Endogenous stem cell recruitment for CNS repair

The alternative or compliment to stem cell transplantation would be the manipulation of endogenous stem cells for therapeutic purposes.The advantages would include using the patient's own cells,not needing an invasive procedure,and obviating the concern over the immunogenicity of transplanted cells.It appears that adult neurogenesis is restricted to the olfactory bulb and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus,yet it is possible that some NSCs exist along the entire adult neuraxis[5].

Exploiting endogenous NSCs would require successful coordination of cell proliferation, differentiation,migration and integration,and it does appear that some instructive signals remain in the adult CNS.However,most CNS regions are not permissive for neurogenesis under normal in vivo conditions,yet some studies suggest that endogenous NSCs are primed to respond to environmental signals that exist primarily during pathological states.Accordingly, one approach to accentuate endogenous stem cell proliferation is with the administration of growth factors.Intra-ventricular infusion of transforming growth factor alpha(TGFalpha)into rodents with lesions of the substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons has led to functional improvements,putatively through recruitment of endogenous stem cells.Other likely bioactive molecules with potential to evoke a proliferative response,in regions of the brain with multipotent cells,are neurotrophins.Physiologically,neurotrophins are involved in cell cycle regulation,cell survival,and differentiation and are critical during normal development. Growth factor infusion can also promote proliferation of SVZ derived progenitor cells that gave rise to hippocampal CA1pyramidal neurons in rodent stroke models,with improvements in spatial orientation.Whether the neurogenic response creates neurons with long-term viability remains to be shown.Another candidate with efficacy in stroke models is erythropoietin(EPO), which has been shown to induce neurogenesis and functional improvement in rats. Furthermore,endogenous neural precursors can differentiate into new neurons that extend long-distance projections to the spinal cord,in the adult rodent.Targeted apoptosis of corticospinal motor neurons was induced and it was demonstrated that adult-born corticospinal motor neurons were generated extending from the motor cortex to the spinal cord[2](Fig.2b).

The horizon for neural repair includes continued investigation into whether the diseased CNS can be treated with growth and differentiation factors to induce neural repair.As more is learned about the molecular signals and environmental cues,endogenous stem cells may prove to be a compliment or even replacement to transplantation of exogenous stem cells.

6.Other stem cells

The use of embryonic or somatic stem cells for brain repair is currently in the focus of rigorous scientific investigation.Other stem cells have also been suggested as sources for cell therapy.For instance,some groups have found that mesenchymal stem cells(MSCs) can differentiate into astrocytes and neurons in vitro and in vivo,and may have the advantage over ESCs or NSCs by being highly accessible source for the patient's own stem cells.However,there is ongoing controversy about the plasticity and developmental potential of MSCs.Some groups suggested that the findings made with MSCs may be cell culture artifacts rather than being true differentiation into unexpected cell types.Therefore, it is crucial to assay the differentiation of any stem cell into a particular cell type by

combining morphological,immunophenotypic,and functional criteria.Currently,MSCs do not appear as a realistic alternative for the use of ESCs or NSCs for neural repair [5].

7.Conclusion

Stem cell biology represents a strong foundation for neural repair.So far gained experimental evidence suggests that this technology may be applicable to treat patients in the future.Since ESCs can be multiplied indefinitely and have the potential to give rise to a variety of functional human cells,it is conceivable to believe that stem cells will play an important role in disease modelling and drug testing.Moreover,since stem cells mimic aspects of normal development,these cells may be used to study early steps of human development which would not be accessible for experimentation otherwise.

We have highlighted current problems in the rapidly progressing stem cell field which involve safety issues,standardization of the protocols used,development of rigorous assays for characterization,accumulation of experimental data in primate models of human disease.Realistic candidate diseases and patients that may benefit from stem cell therapy need to be defined before any clinical application.Since clinicians and stem cell biologists share a strong common interest to understand and treat human disease,stem cells have the true potential to transform modern medicine.

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(完整word版)微带线带通滤波器的ADS设计

应用ADS设计微带线带通滤波器 1、微带带通微带线的基本知识 微波带通滤波器是应用广泛、结构类型繁多的微波滤波器,但适合微带结构的带通滤波器结构就不是那么多了,这是由于微带线本身的局限性,因为微带结构是个平面电路,中心导带必须制作在一个平面基片上,这样所有的具有串联短截线的滤波器都不能用微带结构来实现;其次在微带结构中短路端不易实现和精确控制,因而所有具有短路短截线和谐振器的滤波器也不太适合于微带结构。 微带线带通滤波器的电路结构的主要形式有5种: 1、电容间隙耦合滤波器 带宽较窄,在微波低端上显得太长,不够紧凑,在2GHz以上有辐射损耗。 2、平行耦合微带线带通滤波器 窄带滤波器,有5%到25%的相对带宽,能够精确设计,常为人们所乐用。但其在微波低端显得过长,结构不够紧凑;在频带较宽时耦合间隙较小,实现比较困难。 3、发夹线带通滤波器 把耦合微带线谐振器折迭成发夹形式而成。这种滤波器由于容易激起表面波,性能不够理想,故常把它与耦合谐振器混合来用,以防止表面波的直接耦合。这种滤波器的精确设计较难。

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滤波器是一种只传输指定频段信号,抑制其它频段信号的电路。 滤波器分为无源滤波器与有源滤波器两种: ①无源滤波器: 由电感L、电容C及电阻R等无源元件组成 ②有源滤波器: 一般由集成运放与RC网络构成,它具有体积小、性能稳定等优点,同时,由于集成运放的增益和输入阻抗都很高,输出阻抗很低,故有源滤波器还兼有放大与缓冲作用。 利用有源滤波器可以突出有用频率的信号,衰减无用频率的信号,抑制干扰和噪声,以达到提高信噪比或选频的目的,因而有源滤波器被广泛应用于通信、测量及控制技术中的小信号处理。 从功能来上有源滤波器分为: 低通滤波器(LPF)、高通滤波器(HPF)、 带通滤波器(BPF)、带阻滤波器(BEF)、 全通滤波器(APF)。 其中前四种滤波器间互有联系,LPF与HPF间互为对偶关系。当LPF的通带截止频率高于HPF的通带截止频率时,将LPF与HPF相串联,就构成了BPF,而LPF与HPF并联,就构成BEF。在实用电子电路中,还可能同时采用几种不同型式的滤波电路。滤波电路的主要性能指标有通带电压放大倍数AVP、通带截止频率fP及阻尼系数Q等。 带通滤波器(BPF) (a)电路图(b)幅频特性 图1 压控电压源二阶带通滤波器 工作原理:这种滤波器的作用是只允许在某一个通频带范围内的信号通过,而比通频带下限频率低和比上限频率高的信号均加以衰减或抑制。典型的带通滤波器可以从二阶低通滤波器中将其中一级改成高通而成。如图1(a)所示。 电路性能参数 通带增益 中心频率 通带宽度 选择性 此电路的优点是改变Rf和R4的比例就可改变频宽而不影响中心频率。 例.要求设计一个有源二阶带通滤波器,指标要求为: 通带中心频率 通带中心频率处的电压放大倍数: 带宽: 设计步骤: 1)选用图2电路。 2)该电路的传输函数: 品质因数: 通带的中心角频率: 通带中心角频率处的电压放大倍数: 取,则:

养殖场建设项目实施计划方案

2017年礼县永赢养殖种植农民专业合作社畜禽健康养殖项目 实施方案 二〇一七年九月

目录 实施方案 (1) 一、项目概况 (3) 二、建设背景与编制依据 (3) 三、工艺技术方案 (5) 四、建设内容 (6) 五、投资概算 (7) 六、资金筹措 (7) 七、实施计划 (7) 八、附件 (8)

2017年礼县永赢养殖种植农民专业合作社畜禽健康养 殖项目实施方案 一、项目概况 1、项目名称:2017年礼县永赢养殖种植农民专业合作社畜禽健康 养殖项目 2、项目承建单位:礼县永赢养殖种植农民专业合作社 3、项目建设法人:张永代 4、项目主管单位:甘肃陇南市礼县畜牧兽医局 5、项目建设地点:陇南市礼县肖良乡坪望村 6、项目建设规模: 扩建砖混和彩钢结构猪舍275㎡,修建排污管道150m,新建集污池140m3。 7、项目投资: 项目总投资: 30 万元,其中财政补助25万,自筹资金 5万元。 8、项目建设期限:2017年9月中旬开始2017年11月中旬结束。 二、建设背景与编制依据 1、项目由来 项目由来:根据农业部、财政部《关于做好2017年中央财政农业生产发展等项目实施工作的通知》(农财发〔2017〕11号)和国务院办公厅《关于加快推进畜禽养殖废弃物资源化利用的意见》(国办发〔2017〕48号),牢固树立“创新、协调、绿色、开放、共享”发展理念,坚持

源头减量、过程控制、末端利用的治理路径,以种养结合、循环利用为主要推广模式,以畜禽养殖大县和规模养殖场为重点,以有机肥和沼气等为主要利用方向,加强畜禽规模养殖场粪污处理利用设施建设,全力推进畜禽养殖废弃物资源化利用,积极贡献提升家禽规模养殖标准化水平,推进全省畜禽养殖废弃物资源化利用工作,降低养殖成本,改善防疫条件,提高生猪生产能力的精神。因此,积极响应国家的号召和要求,走标准化生猪养殖,决定建设该项目。 2、项目的必要性:近年来,虽然生猪养殖逐步向规模化方向发展,但是离标准化生产的要求相差很远,存在圈舍建造、废弃物处理、人流、物流等方面缺乏科学的设计和管理,有的圈舍间距太近,有的没有消毒设施,有的没有粪污处理设施,粪便到处堆积,病死畜乱扔等等,使空气和水流受到严重污染,成为疾病流行的隐患。养殖场随时会成为疾病疫源地,一旦引发动物或人畜共患病,所带来的损失和危害更大。动物疫病不但给国家或地区和人民造成巨大的经济损失,而且还危及人民群众生命安全。因此,在日益严峻的动物疫病防控形势和生猪养殖产生的污染日趋严重的情况下,改善生猪规模养殖场排粪污处理设施等的建设,加快生猪规模养殖标准化生产,提高养殖场的排污处理能力和疾病预防能力十分必要和迫切的。 3、实施方案编制依据 (1)、编制依据: 本项目依据《甘肃省农牧厅关于印发2017年畜禽健康养殖项目实施方案的通知》(甘农牧财发〔2017〕73号)的文件精神编制。 (2)、实施方案编制中所采取的建筑工程的建设标准及规范:

带通滤波器设计步骤

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养牛经验:规模化肉牛养殖场规划建设技术

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青贮池、氨化池、贮粪场、粪污处理设施、装牛台等设施,但生活区、生产区的划分不很明显,牛舍一般为单列式,每栋6-12间,为1-2户所有,1-2间为饲料室和宿舍,其余为牛舍。每间牛舍饲养3-5头,基础牛舍、产犊舍、犊牛培育舍、育成牛舍和育肥牛舍的划分不明显。青贮池和氨化池由各养牛户按饲养规模集资建设,一般二池合一,这样既可节约投资,又可提高设备的利用率。青贮池和氨化池一般位于牛舍的两侧,便于取料。 四、小区牛舍的建筑:肉牛养殖小区牛舍的建筑也与规模化牛场相似,但要求较低,可充分利用当地的材料,以降低建筑成本。在气候温暖的地区,搭建简易棚舍即可,可大量节约投资;在夏天炎热、冬季气候较冷的地区,应建造较坚固的开放式牛舍或半开放式牛舍,这样的牛舍夏天可保证通风良好,冬季用塑料布和草席将牛舍封闭起来,以便于保温。

有源带通滤波器设计

RC 有源带通滤波器的设计 滤波器的功能是让一定频率范围内的信号通过,而将此频率范围之外的信号加以抑制或使其急剧衰 减。当干 扰信号与有用信号不在同一频率范围之内,可使用滤波器有效的抑制干扰。 用LC 网络组成的无源滤波器在低频范围内有体积重量大,价格昂贵和衰减大等缺点,而用集成运放 和RC 网络组成的有源滤波器则比较适用于低频,此外,它还具有一定的增益,且因输入与输出之间有良 好的隔离而便于级联。由于大多数反映生理信息的光电信号具有频率低、幅度小、易受干扰等特点,因而 RC 有源滤波器普遍应用于光电弱信号检测电路中。 一.技术指标 总增益为1 ; 通带频率范围为 300Hz —3000Hz ,通带内允许的最大波动为 -1db —+1db ; 阻带边缘频率范围为 225Hz 和4000Hz 、阻带内最小衰减为 20db ; 二?设计过程 1 .采用低通-高通级联实现带通滤波器; 将带通滤波器的技术指标分成低通滤波器和高通滤波器两个独立的技术指标,分别设计出低通滤波器 和高通 滤波器,再级联即得带通滤波器。 低通滤波器的技术指标为: f PH = 3000Hz A max - 1d B G =1 f SH = 4000Hz A min = 20dB 高通滤波器的技术指标为: f pL = 300Hz A max = 1d B G = 1 f si_ - 225Hz A min - 20dB 2. 选用切比雪夫逼近方式计算阶数 (1).低通滤波器阶数 N >ch 4[J(10 0.1Amin -1)/(10 0.1Ami N 1 _ ■ 1 Ch ( f SH / f PH ) (2).高通滤波器阶数 N 2 ch'[ *. (10 0.1Amin -1)/(100.1Amax -1)] Ch^(f pL /f SL ) 3. 求滤波器的传递函数 1) .根据Ni 查表求出归一化低通滤波器传递函数 H LP (S)二 H LP (S)| S S' 2= --- 2冗PH 2) .根据Na 查表求出归一化高通滤波器传递函数 N 2 H_P (S ',去归一化得 H^s ',去归一化得

养殖场工程施工组织方案设计

目录 一、主要施工方法 (2) 二、拟投入的主要物资计划 (19) 三、拟投入的主要施工机械 (21) 四、劳动力安排计划 (21) 五、确保工程质量的技术组织措施 (25) 六、确保安全生产的技术组织措施 (26) 七、确保工期的技术组织措施 (27) 八、确保文明施工的技术组织措施 (28) 九、施工总进度表或施工网络图 (30) 十、造价控制的技术和管理措施 (30) 十一、施工总平面图 (43) 十二、有必要说明的其他问题.......................... 附表一:拟投入本工程的主要施工设备表 附表二:拟配备本工程的试验和检测仪器设备表 附表三:劳动力计划表 附表四:计划开、竣工日期和施工进度网络图 附表五:施工总平面图

一、主要施工办法 1、施工组织设计编制依据 1.1国家现行的技术标准;施工规及验收标准;工程质量检验评定标准和施工操作规程;国家、省、市颁发的有关规定及相应文件。 1.2 建设部颁发的《建筑工程施工现场管理规定》。 1.3 **省发布的建筑工程文明施工的有关规定。 1.4 本工程招标文件。 1.5 我公司ISO-9001质量管理认证颁布的《质量手册》、《程序文件》、第三层次文件。 2、工程概况 本工程为***养殖场工程,主要包括怀孕舍、中转池、消毒池、降温池、垃圾池、蓄水池、清洗池、料灌基础、发电机房、厕所、伙房宿舍、封闭通道、大门、饲料道路、哺乳舍、洗澡间、公猪站、进猪通道及配套装饰工程等工程。 建设地点为********,资金来源为自筹,本工程实行包工包料、包安全、包文明施工、包质量、包工期的总承包负责制。 3、工程建设任务目标 本工程项目施工的指导思想是:运用科学管理手段,认真执行ISO-9001质量保证体系;运用先进的计算机工程管理软件对本工程进行及时、科学的管理,使本工程创出良好的经济效益和社会效益。 3.1工期目标:自开工之日起135天完工。 3.2 质量目标:确保合格标准。 3.3 安全目标:杜绝重伤与死亡事故发生。

服务器虚拟化技术

一、虚拟化技术的概念 什么叫虚拟化技术?虚拟化是一种方法,本质上讲是指从逻辑角度而不是物理角度来对资源进行配置,是从单一的逻辑角度来看待不同的物理资源的方法。 这个定义首要说明的是,虚拟化是一种逻辑角度出发的资源配置技术,是物理实际的逻辑抽象。比如说,当前只有一台计算机,通过虚拟技术,在用户看来,似乎却是多台,每台都有其各自的CPU、内存、硬盘等物理资源。 对于用户,虚拟化技术实现了软件跟硬件分离,用户不需要考虑后台的具体硬件实现,而只需在虚拟层环境上运行自己的系

统和软件。而这些系统和软件在运行时,也似乎跟后台的物理平台无关。 二、虚拟技术原理与发展 虚拟技术原理 所有的IT设备,不管是PC、服务器还是存储,都有一个共同点:它们被设计用来完成一组特定的指令。这些指令组成一个指令集。对于虚拟技术而言,“虚拟”实际上就是指的虚拟这些指令集。 虚拟机有许多不同的类型,但是它们有一个共同的主题就是模拟一个指令集的概念。每个虚拟机都有一个用户可以访问的指令集。虚拟机把这些虚拟指令“映射”到计算机的实际指令集。硬分区、软分区、逻辑分区、Solaris Container、VMware、Xen、微软Virtual Server2005这些虚拟技术都是运用的这个原理,只是虚拟指令集所处的层次位置不同。 虚拟技术的发展情况 1965年,IBM7044机器,虚拟机开端; 1967年,Djiskstra实现第一个虚拟系统; 2001年,AIX 5L v5.1发布,IBM首次在小型机上实现了逻辑分区。 2002年,AIX 5L v5.2发布,IBM在小型机上实现了动态逻辑分区。

畜禽养殖场规划设计与管理复习题

畜禽养殖场规划设计与管理复习题 1、国家法律规定规模养殖场的选址要求: (1)距离生活饮用水源地、动物屠宰加工场所、动物和动物产品集贸市场500米以上;距离种畜禽场1000米以上;距离动物诊疗场所200米以上;动物饲养场(养殖小区)之间距离不少于500米;(2)距离动物隔离场所、无害化处理场所3000米以上;(3)距离城镇居民区、文化教育科研等人口集中区域及公路、铁路等主要交通干线500米以上。 2、国家法律规定规模养殖场的布局要求: (1)场区周围建有围墙;(2)场区出入口处设置与门同宽,长4米、深0.3米以上的消毒池;(3)生产区与生活办公区分开,并有隔离设施;(4)生产区入口处设置更衣消毒室,各养殖栋舍出入口设置消毒池或者消毒垫;(5)生产区内清洁道、污染道分设;(6)生产区内各养殖栋舍之间距离在5米以上或者有隔离设施。 3、国家法律规定规模养殖场的设施设备要求: (1)场区入口处配置消毒设备;(2) 生产区有良好的采光、通风设施设备;(3) 圈舍地面和墙壁选用适宜材料,以便清洗消毒;(4) 配备疫苗冷冻(冷藏)设备、消毒和诊疗等防疫设备的兽医室,或者有兽医机构为其提供相应服务; (5) 有与生产规模相适应的无害化处理、污水污物处理设施设备;(6) 有相对独立的引入动物隔离舍和患病动物隔离舍。 4、畜禽场规划设计的原则:遵循人类生存和养殖生态环境的和谐共处,养殖业与整个大农业、社会经济发展相互协调的良性循环模式。 5、畜禽规划设计的要素:养殖场生产特点、生产规模、饲养管理方式、生产集约化程度、地势、地形、土质、水源、交通、气候、居民点位置等外部环境。

6、地形要求: ?地形整齐开阔、有足够的面积。 地形整齐,便于合理布局畜牧场建筑和各种设施,有利于充分利用场地;开阔的地形对养殖场通风采光、施工运输和管理提供方便;足够的面积可为畜牧场的发展留有空间。 ?土壤透气性好、透水性好的砂壤土。 畜牧场场地的土壤情况对畜禽影响很大。透气、透水性好的土壤,一般持水力和毛细管作用较差,不潮湿,易干燥。受污染后容易氧化分解而达到净化,场区空气卫生状况较好,,抗压能力较大,且不易冻结,建筑物不易受潮。 ?化学和生物学特性、地方病和疫情情况 受客观条件限制,不宜过分强调土壤种类和物理特性,应着重化学和生物学特性,注意地方病和疫情调查。 7、地势要求: 地势较高、干燥、平坦或有缓坡,坡度在25%以下,背风向阳,北高南低,坐北朝南,偏东南12°- 15°。 8、生物安全要求: 场址的选择必须符合人畜相处的公共卫生和生物安全要求。 场址应选择在城镇居民区常年主导风向的下风向或侧风向处。 选择荒坡闲置地建场,避免人畜争地。 场址周围有广袤的种植区域,可保证较大的粪污及建设配套的排污处理,使有机废弃物经过处理达标后循环利用。 禁止在旅游区、自然保护区、人口密集区、水资源保护区、环境公害污染严重的地区及国家规定的禁养区建场。

服务器虚拟化全面了解

全面了解什么是服务器虚拟化 与过去相比,在服务器虚拟化技术方面,现在最大的不同就是参与者的队伍大大扩充了--从处理器层面的AMD和Intel到操作系统层面的微软的加入,从数量众多的第三方软件厂商的涌现到服务器系统厂商的高调,我们看到一个趋于完整的服务器虚拟化技术生态系统在逐渐形成。 “虚拟化正在从一个小市场向主流市场转变,尤其是在Microsoft进入该市场之后”,当微软宣布了其Virtual Server 2005计划之后,业内有这样的评价。在介绍微软的这个虚拟化项目的时候,几乎所有的媒体都做了这样的描述―与其他服务器虚拟化技术一样,Virtual Server 2005允许用户对服务器进行分区,以使这些服务器能够支持多个操作系统和应用。 在大多数人看来,虚拟化就是分区。实际上,我们认为这是对虚拟化技术的一种误解,所以有必要对这两者的关系进行进一步阐述。 虚拟化等于分区吗? 实际上,虚拟化技术可以通过两个方向来帮助服务器更加合理地分配资源,一种方向就是把一个物理的服务器虚拟成若干个独立的逻辑服务器,这个方向的典型代表就是分区;另一个方向,就是把若干个分散的物理服务器虚拟为一个大的逻辑服务器,这个方向的典型代表就是网格。

关于服务器虚拟化的概念,各个厂商有自己不同的定义,然而其核心思想是一致的,即它是一种方法,能够通过区分资源的优先次序并随时随地能将服务器资源分配给最需要它们的工作负载来简化管理和提高效率,从而减少为单个工作负载峰值而储备的资源。 根据我们目前看到的资料,所谓的这种方法,看上去就是分区。所以,很多人就理所当然地认为虚拟化技术就是分区技术。 实际上,分区与虚拟化技术是互补的,当它们结合使用时能发挥出最高的效率,但是两者之间的确是有区别的。分区能够将物理系统资源划分成多个不同、单独的部分,各部分彼此独立操作。通常,在物理资源与逻辑分区之间存在一一对应关系,以便创建“盒中盒”对等关系。如果没有进行分区,则所有物理部件都精确地各司其职。 最底层的力量 早在2005,英特尔就宣布了其初步完成的Vand erp ool技术外部架构规范(EAS),并称该技术可帮助改进未来虚拟化解决方案。英特尔表示,将在2006年把Vanderpool应用于安腾架构平台,同时还计划在台式机处理器和芯片组产品中采用该技术。 相比之下,AMD在虚拟化技术方面下手更早。Pacifi ca技术规范是AMD计划用于其64位产品中的虚拟化技术,该技术将用于基于x86架构的服务器、台式机和笔记本电脑等系列产品,“我们将进一步加快虚拟技术的开发步伐,增强虚拟化技术实力”,在去年底宣布Pacifica技术规范的时候,AMD副总裁兼计算

带通滤波器电路及参数的确定.

范道中学七年级数学导学提纲课题:幂的乘方 出卷人:施培新审核人:陈益锋 2012-2-22 姓名 _____ 课前参与 (一)预习内容:课本P43—44 (二)知识整理: 1.探索: (1)(2)是幂2的_____次方,其意义是_____个2的连乘积, 可写成:(2)=2×2=2= 2=2。 (2)(a)是幂a的_____次方,其意义是____个a的连乘积, 可写成:(a)=()×()×()= a= a= a; 由此得:(a)是幂a的______次方,其意义是______个a的连乘积, 可写成:(a)=()=a=a。 2.归纳:幂的乘方的法则:__________________________________________; 即写成公式: (a)=a(m、n为正整数)。 3.尝试练习: (1)(10)= (5)(-5)= (2)(10)= (6)(-5)= (3)(b)= (7 [(n-m)] 5 (4)(b)= (8 a·(a)2+ a·(a)3

4.推广:[(a m )n ]p =____________ (m 、n 、p 为正整数。 5.幂的乘方法则的逆用为___________________________。 (三)思考: 通过预习,你认为本节内容主要研究了什么?你还有什么问题需和大家一起探讨?你有没有新的发现和大家一起分享! 课中参与 例题1、计算:(1)(55)3 (2)(53)5 (3)(3x 5 (4)(35 x 例题2、计算:(1)[(a -b )] (2)[(x -y )] 例题3、计算:(1)-(y 4)3 (2)[(-y )4]3 (3)(-y 4)3 例题4、计算:(1)(a )·a (2)(b )·(b ) (3)a ·(a )-a ·(a )2 拓展:1、(1)[(2)] (2)[(-3)] 2、已知3=2,3y =3,求(1)33x ,3 2y 的值。 (2)求3的值. 3、已知:3=a ,3=b ,用含a 、b 的代数式表示3 。 课后参与 课题:幂的乘方 姓名_____ 一、填空: (1)(7)5=_________; (2)[(-22]3=_________; (3) (a ) =________; (4)(-a 5)3=_________; (5)[(a -2)]=________; (6)[(x -y )]=______;

【精品】浅谈三种服务器虚拟化技术的实现

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