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Understanding adoption and use of BIM as the creation of actor networks

Henrik C.J.Linderoth ?

University of Sk?vde,Sweden

Ume?School of Business,Ume?University,Sweden

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:

Accepted 8September 2009Keywords:

Building and information models BIM 3D-CAD Diffusion Adoption

Actor network theory

There has been a considerable time lag between the emergence of visionary expectations of BIM's (Building Information Models)transformative potential in the architecture,engineering and construction industry,and the deployment of the technology in the industry's daily practice.By viewing adoption and use of BIM as the inter-linkage of actors forming a building and construction project,the aim of the paper is to uncover mechanisms facilitating and constraining the creation of actor networks in which BIM is adopted and used.The aim is pursued by a case study in a major Swedish construction company.It is concluded that the possibility of incremental implementation of BIM applications is well aligned with the character of the industrial context.But the context can also constrain the use of applications requiring more long term thinking.However,because of the disruptive nature of building and construction projects,the challenge is to maintain and re-establish the network in which BIM is used in consecutive projects.When clients and regulating bodies recognize bene ?ts from BIM usage,the main obstacle created by these characteristics of the industry will diminish.

1.Introduction

The ?rst reports of the potential of Building Information Models (BIM,or nD-models)to transform processes in the architecture,engineering and construction (AEC)industry emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s [1].But it took almost one and a half decades before more frequent reports appeared regarding positive outcomes from deployment of BIM in the AEC-industry [2,3].Single project stakeholders have taken advantage of the technology earlier but due to incompatibilities among systems,technical obstacles have pre-vented integrated BIM use in the AEC-industry [4,5].

However,even expected bene ?ts of technological innovations do not guarantee their transfer and diffusion [6].Original expectations about outcomes of BIM deployment might be re-de ?ned and re-interpreted instead.From the comprehensive research in the ?eld of information systems it is well known that the introduction of new information and communication technologies (ICT)into an organiza-tional context often implies a drift away from original intentions and goals,no matter who de ?nes them [7,8].This drift can be seen as an outcome of the interaction between a not wholly disambiguated technology [7]and a multilayered context [9],where learning and knowledge development have a signi ?cant impact on the technology's adoption and use [10,11].The multilayered context in which the ICT's adoption and use is situated is shaped by for example norms,actors'frames of references,industry characteristics,rules and regulation and

company culture.These factors all shape the further deployment of the technology [12,13].Moreover the deployment of technology will be shaped by features of the ICT [14,15].That is,deployment will be affected by technology designers'assumptions about the context for use and future users'roles,relationships and competencies.Thus,the adoption and use of BIM will be shaped by the interplay between the technology's features and the context in which it would be adopted and used.Accordingly,a central issue is how to frame that adoption and use.By viewing it as the inter-linkage of actors forming a building and construction project,the aim of the paper is to uncover mecha-nisms facilitating and constraining the creation of actor networks in which BIM is used.This objective will be pursued by:1)a study of construction project in a major Swedish construction company;2)interviews with actors involved in development and use of BIM in the studied company;and 3)an analysis of the empirical data by the application of an actor network perspective.

2.BIM in a network perspective

In recent studies of BIM deployment in practice a number of bene ?ts and challenges have been identi ?ed.For example Manning and Messner [16]have identi ?ed six bene ?ts of using BIM in the early conceptual stage:1)Rapid visualization;2)better decision support upstream in the project development process;3)rapid and accurate updating of changes;4)reduction of man-hours required to establish reliable space programs;5)increased communication across the total project development team (users,designers,capital allocation decision makers,contracting entities,and contractors);6)increased

Automation in Construction 19(2010)66–72

?University of Sk?vde,School of Technology and Society,P.O.Box 408,SE-54128Sk?vde,Sweden.Tel.:+46500448721;fax:+46500416325.

E-mail address:henrik.linderoth@his.se

10.1016/j.autcon.2009.09.003

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Automation in Construction

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con?dence in completeness of scope.Bene?ts of outcomes from early conceptual stages are reported by Kaner et al.[17]who report that use of BIM has implied a clear improvement in engineering design quality, in terms of error free drawings and a steady improvement in labour productivity.In the production process bene?ts are reported for construction managers by Leicht and Messner[18]who concluded that one of the areas where BIM was found to add value was the planning and the transparency of the process.Khanzode et al.[19] report BIM-induced positive outcomes in the production process such as for example,signi?cantly less rework and zero con?icts in the?eld installation systems.However,Jongeling et al.[20]claim that quantitative data from BIM is not taken advantage of and suggest further research aimed at formalizing the contents in4D models to enable comparative quantitative analyses of construction planning alternatives.Nevertheless,in order to reach bene?ts by using BIM, Dehlin and Olofsson[21]argue that a shift in focus is needed—from cost/bene?ts for individual stakeholders to costs/bene?ts for the project—which can give momentum to optimize the use of new ICT-tools in the AEC-sector.All project stakeholders seem to gain bene?ts from the use of BIM,but Olofsson et al.[3]argue that the client is the greatest bene?ciary,implying that BIM should be evaluated on the project level and costs and bene?ts should be shared among all stakeholders.Hence,the bene?ts reported from the adoption and use of BIM into practice are clear evidence that visions of bene?ts with nD-based BIM technologies are becoming realized.Even so,how can the process of adoption and use of BIM be framed and are there some contextual characteristics that make the process even more challenging?

It is well known that the number and variety of design and construction stakeholders involved in building and construction projects can make effective and ef?cient collaboration dif?cult[22]. Accordingly,a characteristic of the AEC industry is the disruptive nature of the networks that constitute building and construction projects.This is a contextual element that causes challenges both for the transfer of knowledge among projects and to the permanent organization[23,24],as well as for the transfer and diffusion of ICT [15,25].With regard to BIM,this implies that bene?ts from technology usage are achieved in temporary coalitions of actors forming the building and construction project.Therefore,the challenge for the permanent organizations involved in a project is to transfer and routinize bene?ts achieved in one project network with a constella-tion of actors to a consecutive project network with another constellation of actors(see Fig.1).

Thus the issue is how the temporary coalitions of actors using BIM can be framed and conceptualized in order to enhance the understanding of current challenges of adoption and use of BIM in building and construction projects.

2.1.The creation of actor networks

In the literature focusing on adoption and diffusion of innovations [26],there is a basic assumption that there should be a?t between the characteristics of an innovation and an appreciation of these characteristics among potential adopters.This view has been criticized for neglecting the role of actors when innovations diffuse [6].Thus instead of viewing the diffusion of innovation as a phenomenon originating from a centre giving the innovation enough energy to diffuse,the transfer and spread of innovations is claimed to occur in networks of actors linked to each other[27:267]:“The spread in time and space of anything—claims,orders, artifacts,goods—is in the hands of people;each of these people may act in many different ways,letting the token drop,or modifying it,or de?ecting it,or betraying it,or adding to it,or appropriating it.”

Thus,it is not a given that actors,in a network where the innovation would diffuse,use the innovation in intended ways,or even adopt it.In order to understand what happens when a network is established,the process can be regarded as one of translation—that is,a process where spokespersons for an idea translate it so that it addresses the interests of other actors indispensable for mobilizing the network[28].The spokespersons try to make their idea,using BIM,into an obligatory passage point for indispensable actors,which would allow them to recognize that they will reap bene?ts from their use of a new technology [28:205ff].That is,actors in a network where BIM should be adopted and used should be convinced of bene?ts from BIM usage.This implies that the idea,or vision for a new technology,has to be broad enough to be interpreted by a diversity of actors as the solution to a range of problems [29].Moreover,when analysing the networks in which technology is adopted and used,not only social actors are to be taken into consideration according to the de?nition of an actor network[30:93]:“…the actor–network is reducible neither to an actor nor a network.Like networks it is composed of a series of hetero-geneous elements,animate and inanimate,that have been linked to one another for a certain period of time…the entities it is composed of,whether natural or social,could at any moment rede?ne their identity and mutual relationships in some new way and bring new elements into the network.”

This de?nition of an actor network as an analytical perspective when adoption and use of BIM in the AEC-industry would be analyzed is useful for at least three reasons.First,each time a project is terminated and a new one is started up,a new coalition of actors with new experiences will shape roles and relationships in the network. Second,in order to facilitate the adoption and use of BIM in the ever changing networks,the challenge is to create a contained network of relationships where room for individual manoeuver will have been limited for the entities concerned[28:214ff],i.e.not using BIM would not be an option.This network of tightly linked relationships is also an expression of a black box,de?ned as a situation where many elements are brought together and act as one[6:131],or where things put in the black box become transparent,or taken for granted,for

example, Fig.1.The challenge of adoption and use of BIM in a project based context.

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using BIM each and every time a new building and construction project is initiated.Third,the heterogeneity of actors in a network implies for example that the contract and the technology have to be included in the analysis of diffusion and adoption of BIM.

2.2.The role of technology

When an actor network is analyzed,technology and other artifacts are regarded as actors shaping roles and relationships in the network. Latour[31]is arguing that artifacts can take human form and shape human action by replacing humans.The consequences of outcomes of technology deployment can be seen as a combination of actors' interpretations of a technology and patterns of action,or programs of actions,inscribed in technological artifacts.Programs of action originate from technology designers'assumptions about the potential user and the context for use.The inscribed programs of action delegate roles and competencies to the components of a socio-technical network,including human and non-human entities of the system[31,32].However,the concept of inscription does not advocate technological determinism,while actors in the setting where the artifacts are introduced are already following their own programs of action[33].Instead,technologies like ICT consist of a wide range of inscribed programs of action in different dimensions and with a varying?exibility,for example regarding the kind of tasks for which the technology is used to solve problems and how it is used[34].Thus, BIM can be considered as a technology consisting of a vast amount of programs of actions inscribed.There is a choice about whether or not to follow these inscribed actions.For example,if BIM is mainly used as a means for visualization in order to coordinate?eld installations certain procedures need to be followed.But at the same time actors do not need to use it as a tool for planning the production process,or take advantage of quantitative data from BIM.

Thus,against the background of the actor network perspective,a few more speci?c questions can be raised.First,why are actors enrolled in a network where BIM would be used?Second,if actors are enrolled,how are their roles and relationships re-de?ned by the use of BIM?Third,how well is BIM aligned with the context in which it would be used?

3.Data collection and case description

The main purpose of the collection of the empirical material has been twofold.First a deeper understanding of the context in which BIM would be adopted and used was wanted because the context is a crucially important contributor to any interaction between it and the ICT.In other words,understanding the outcomes of that interaction depends on understanding the context[35].Second,the current status of adoption and use of BIM in the organization under study was wanted.In order to meet these objectives a case study in a major Swedish building and construction company was conducted.Accord-ing to Yin[36:9]qualitative case studies are appropriate when:“…a‘how’or‘why’question is being asked about a contemporary set of events over which the investigator has little or no control.”

Accordingly,the“how issue”in this paper is:“how the adoption and use of BIM can be framed”.Furthermore,because the adoption and use of BIM is studied in a company in a speci?c industry,the case study approach is appropriate because it allows for obtaining rich insights that contribute to an enhanced understanding of context-bound phenomena in a?eld[36–38].Moreover,the chosen methodological approach also implies that more than a straight account of the respondents'answers to questions,or observations made,would be needed in order to elicit deeper knowledge about the dynamics of the process.The interpretive approach taken in this study is expected to enable an organizational member and/or a researcher to see his or her world with new eyes[39].Therefore the results should be organized in a manner that is based on the researcher's interpretations supported by the theoretical concepts presented, which in this paper means that the organization of the analysis is guided by the concepts perspective in Section2.That is,the themes focused in the analysis are:enrolment of actors;BIM's shaping of roles and relationships;and the alignment of BIM and the context of a building and construction project.Interpretive case studies are also a recommended method when the researcher is seeking to understand an emerging process of organizational transformation through ICT, and they have previously been shown to give compelling and transferable results[12,40–42].Case study research is moreover a research strategy that is strengthened by the possibility of combining data collection methods which focus on understanding the dynamics present within a single setting[37].In line with recommendations from Yin[36]and Eisenhardt[37]the empirical material was therefore collected from a variety of sources,including semi-structured interviews,participant observations,meeting participa-tion,and document analysis.With regard to this study,the various data sources have been used for different purposes.Seventeen semi-structured interviews were conducted with actors on different hierarchical levels within both the permanent and temporary (project)parts of the organization.Interviewees are for example, the CEO of the company,the head of a regional unit,the head of a business district,site managers,ICT managers,design managers using BIM in their projects and managers responsible for the development and integration of BIM in the company.Interviews varied in length from1to2h.The main goals of the interviews were to gain knowledge of how different actors view the industry;the scope of ICT use;facilitators and obstacles for use;the company's work on development and implementation of BIM;and the actual use of BIM in projects.At issue has been whether interviews with open-ended, semi-structured questions could allow the interpretive-oriented researcher to understand the mechanisms that govern actors'action in a certain context,something that is stressed by Coffey and Atkinson [43:80]:

“...the analysis of narratives can provide a critical way of examining not only key actors and events but also cultural conventions and social norms.”

The collection of empirical material by participant observation in a partnering project has mainly been used to gain further knowledge of the project context where operations are organized and BIM would be adopted and used.The empirical material necessitated attending45 meetings,encompassing a total of80h in a partnering project.The meetings were:

?production meetings at the main contractor's production site involving the site manager,deputy site managers,foremen,and representatives of construction workers;

?project/design meetings with representatives of the main contrac-tor,the subcontractors and their consultants,and the client representatives;

?meetings of the quality group with responsibility for internal quality audits;

?internal“check meetings”by the main contractor including the site manager,deputy site managers,purchaser,cost accountant,design manager,planning manager.

Additional data was collected by following a deputy site manager during one day at the construction site,as well as from the project's document database,and minutes from all internal meetings in order to deepen the knowledge of the context of a building and construction project.

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The partnering project studied,worth approximately€50million over a period of two years,is a re-building and expansion of a public multi-activity arena.The existing building contained indoor swim-ming pools and an arena for indoor sports such as basketball and handball.The expanded arena will contain an adventure pool,new swimming pool,a gym,and a bowling ground.

The company in which the study was accomplished is a branch of one of the leading construction and property development corpora-tions in the Nordic region.The Group had sales of€5billion in2008, with approximately20,000employees;in the same year the company itself had sales of€2.5billion,with approximately8000employees. The company builds everything from schools,hospitals,sports facilities and housing,to roads,bridges,railways and power plants.

4.Mobilizing the actor network

In this section,the results from the case study will be analyzed by using the conceptual framework presented in Section2,in order to enhance the knowledge on diffusion and adoption of BIM.The?rst issue is why actors using BIM are enrolled in the network constituting the building and construction project.Secondly is the issue of the rede?nition of roles and relationships caused by BIM in the network analyzed.Finally the contextual in?uences on the use of BIM as cooperative tool in projects is analyzed.

4.1.Enrolment of indispensable actors to the network

Incompatibilities among systems used by actors involved in projects have been one main obstacle for a wider adoption and use of BIM as a cooperative tool in building and construction projects.This condition is emphasized in the literature[25]and interviews conducted with managers working on BIM development and implementation in the company under study.However,following the emergence of NavisWorks,a mediator that can interlink earlier isolated networks has become available.But these networks per se will not be interlinked.That is,NavisWorks has only created the conditions for cooperation in the network constituted by the building and construction project.Examples of such isolated networks,from the perspective of the building and construction project,are single sub-contractors for whom the use of3D models has already become an obligatory passage point if actors in these networks are to remain competitive.For example,a ventilation consultant in the project studied stated that he draws everything in3D,and about90%of components needed are available in3D and supplied by material suppliers.Furthermore,he also stated that the material suppliers have realized that they do not have a future in the industry if they cannot deliver components in3D for computerized models.He concluded that the use of3D technologies in a project is an issue of clients'and contractors'possibilities for using the technology.However,not all sub-contractors see possibilities for using BIM in their?rms.One sub-contractor claimed that his?rm was too small to afford an investment in BIM and said that many projects in which they are involved are also too small to take advantage of it.Despite the problem that some actors might have lacking resources for enrolling in the network,are there some incentives for cooperation if an actor wants to facilitate the creation of a cooperative network?

It can be argued that actors previously working with BIM,for example different sub-contractors,are not in a position of suf?cient power to enable them to be the driving force for an integrated use of BIM in building and construction projects.Instead,as a manager working on BIM development and implementation argues,it is the client,the main contractor,or regulatory authorities who must demand that actors involved in a project use BIM.For example,the company studied is sometimes in such a position.The company recently decided that BIM should be used in all projects under own management.This makes BIM an obligatory passage point for all actors who want to participate in the design stages of a project.This decision can furthermore be claimed to align with the main contractors striving for a reduction in production costs,which according to the CEO is one of the most important strategic goals for the coming four to?ve years.When interviews are conducted with actors involved in projects using BIM,coordination of?eld installa-tions and the costs saved by avoiding clashes is the?rst argument when the advantages of BIM are discussed.The deployment of BIM has triggered knowledge development that is obvious when managers involved in the design stage are interviewed.In the?rst project where BIM was mandatory in the company's projects,the visualization of ?eld installations in order to avoid clashes was the most appreciated bene?t,whereas in later projects,managers also witness advantages in the production stage.

4.2.Rede?nition of roles and relationships in the actor network

As in the case of adoption and use of other technologies,the implementation of BIM will imply a rede?nition of roles and relationships among actors involved in a project(see Fig.2).This means that programs of actions inscribed in BIM will delegate new roles and competencies to the actors in the network,such as for example,an increased need for collaboration.Actors in the network can also start to rede?ne each others'roles and relationships when they interact via BIM.

The manager responsible for development of BIM usage in the company stated that the process becomes much more transparent and consultants can no longer hide behind their drawings.This is a well known problem in the design stage.For some consultant groups it may be bene?cial to withhold information until others have presented their solution.For the single consultant,this behaviour can render time savings,that is,the?nal solutions can be made at once.On the other hand,for the project itself this behaviour can be counter productive[44].However,with BIM it becomes immediately visible if an actor not has performed what s/he is supposed to perform.The increased transparency of the process also requires more collabora-tion among actors involved and design managers need to think in a different way when they control the progress of the work,for example when?led installations are reviewed.A design manager stated that the increased transparency initially caused some problems concerning when he should review the project.Because many consultants start to upload their models before they are accomplished, there can seem to be more problems than there actually are.The manager stated that is important to wait to start the review because consultants can solve many of the initial problems shown in the model internally without waiting and without recourse to the design manager.However,this has been a conscious strategy when the studied company made the decision to make BIM use compulsory in projects under own management.Design managers were taught that they should demand that sub-contractors upload their models before a design meeting,in order to visualize the progress of their work.

Another consequence of the BIM use is that the design manager has to decide what kind of information s/he wants from the model. Should it simply be used for detecting clashes in?eld installations,

or Fig.2.BIM as re-de?ner of actors'roles and relationships.

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should it be used as a more encompassing support in the production process?For example design managers and architects state that a more encompassing use of the model requires that some decisions are made early in the process and that there is a general need for thinking further ahead in the process.This implies that if the model is to be used as a support in production and material requirements planning, and consequently as a support for the purchase and cash?ow planning,the sequence and time-frame for constructing the different parts of the building must be inscribed in the model.A design manager,who is also a site manager,exempli?ed this with two connecting walls,where one is built in an early stage of the project, and another three months later.If it were possible to schedule production and the purchase of materials,the volumes of material needed and when the walls should be built both have to be inscribed in the model.The manager stated that the use of the BIM model gave him a much deeper understanding of the processes from design to production.Beyond the bene?ts of materials requirements planning, there are also bene?ts when the production of different parts of the building is planned together with the construction workers.During planning the model is a very powerful tool for visualization,one which facilitates understanding of the production process.The manager stated that when2D is used,people think that they understand,even when they really do not.

At the time the interviews were conducted,design managers stated that there was still a relatively large degree of freedom regarding how BIM is used in projects where it is compulsory.In interviews with managers involved in BIM usage it is obvious that use has been more comprehensive during the last years.From that of coordination of?eld installations,where production managers have not been so deeply involved,to a more all-encompassing use where technology supports the production process.The shift implies a deeper involvement of production managers.In projects where the design manager and the site manager have been the same person,the bene?ts of using BIM in both the design and production stages have been more obvious because one person has had two roles that need to share information.However,when the roles are occupied by two different persons,which is commonly the case,site managers need to be involved in the early design stages in order to share information about their plans for the production process.Managers on different levels in the company stated that planning in early stages of the project is prescribed by the company's operational system.But in practice,time pressure has implied that the design and production stages have become highly intertwined,which stands in a sharp opposition to a general need for thinking ahead in the construction process when BIM is deployed.However,even if managers state that it is of crucial importance that routines are developed for use of BIM in the design and production stages,these routines will not solve the problems caused by time pressure.Instead clients and managers negotiating with clients have to rethink parts of their roles.They need to shift from demanding a more or less immediate start of the production process,to creating a time slot that makes it possible to take advantages of a more encompassing use of BIM.

4.3.Contextual challenges

When adoption and use of new ICT is analysed it is well known in research that the interplay between the context in which technology is deployed and the technology itself will have a signi?cant impact on the further deployment of the ICT[12].However,when an actor network perspective is adopted,the context is regarded as a larger network of which the project is a part.In the larger network there are always more or less powerful actors who de?ne the roles and relationship of actors in the project,just as the technology de?nes the roles and relationships of other actors.Thus,these de?nitions can either constrain or facilitate the use of BIM in a project in a different way.Accordingly,what are the characteristics of the context and technology under study?

When on-site observations are made at a construction site,two related factors characterizing operations soon emerge:the focus on time and the focus on action.This is however,not surprising since operations are organized by projects with set budgets and timelines regulated by contracts.These conditions have led to the demand for immediate bene?ts,or actions,which are characteristic for the whole project-based part of the industry.Even though a manager respon-sible for company wide process development,stated in an interview that more time should be spent on planning before the production starts,in practice this may not be the case.Instead the focus is on immediate action.The manager illustrates with the following example:a client calls the business area manager to ask why the production not yet has started,because he has not yet seen any excavators at the construction site.The business area manager calls the site manager and asks why they have not yet have started to excavate.The site manager takes action for action's sake,by ordering an excavator to dig a hole,even though the hole may not be correctly excavated.

The focus on time and action is not only a concern for managers on different levels.It is a focus of crucial importance even for the construction workers,as the following episode illustrates:during a weekly Monday morning production meeting,a carpenter suddenly comes into the meeting room,furious because there are no scissor lifts available and the deputy site manager has to arrange for one IMMEDIATELY.The manager calls the local outlet of the machinery and equipment rental?rm and45min later the scissor lift is delivered.After the incident the manager says that he thinks that it is good that people are engaged in their work and always want the process to move forward.However,when directly after the delivery we discover that there is another scissor lift on the?oor below where one was needed,he adds that people sometimes ought to spend some extra minutes and communicate with each other in order to?nd out if the missing equipment is available nearby,instead of demanding immediate action in order to solve a problem.An incident such as this, leading to certain behaviours,arguably has its origin in prevailing wage structures.In the Swedish construction sector,piece wages predominate,with the consequence that all occurrences and activities not included in the piecework can be regarded as real or potential threats to the achievement of higher wages.

Thus,the focus on time and the focus on action can be claimed to have led to demands for immediate bene?ts from new technologies that could be adopted and used in the actor networks constituting building and construction projects.It can be claimed that BIM has the characteristics necessary in order to be accepted in such a context.The main feature of the technology is that its potential applications can be implemented incrementally,which is a desirable feature in contexts where demands for showing immediate bene?ts are high.For example,the use of the technology for detecting clashes in?eld installations is one area where immediate bene?ts can be shown. Detecting clashes in the design stage,instead of in the production stage,leads to signi?cant cost savings for the main contractor.In the project under study,detecting clashes in?eld installations was the intended use of a rather basic3D model that became available half a year after the project started.But some learning also occurred because after a while the design managers realized that the model could also be used when installations need to be planned in con?ned spaces.

However,when it comes to applications concerning scheduling and material requirements planning,bene?ts are not immediate.Instead,as claimed in the previous section,demands for immediate action in the production process can be directly counterproductive.That is,the need for thinking ahead in the production process when BIM is used for planning and scheduling stands in sharp contrast to demands for immediate action.In this situation,it can be claimed that actors introducing the technology need to convince site managers and other

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actors such as the client,of the potential bene?ts from an extended use of BIM.

Finally,because of the disruptive nature of networks constituting building and construction projects,the issue is how are networks of BIM use re-established in consecutive projects?For some of the actors in the network,BIM has already become an obligatory passage point but the challenge is to make it into an obligatory one for all actors concerned in a building and construction project,and in consecutive projects.From observations in the case studied it can be claimed that on some occasions it is a responsibility of top management in a line organization to take a decision about making BIM into an obligatory passage point in their projects.However,actor/s who are in a suf?ciently powerful position to demand the compulsory use of BIM in a project depend on the contract that regulates the project.For example,managers interviewed claimed that in projects regulated by partnering contracts actors have to rethink their roles and relation-ships in terms of collaboration.Their assumption is that in projects regulated by partnering contracts,the adoption and use of BIM will be facilitated by a collaborative climate reinforced by the contractual relations.Also,in projects regulated by a design and build contract, the contractor has enough power to require the compulsory use of BIM,whereas in a project regulated design–bid–build contract,the building and construction company does not have this power. However,regardless of the contractual form regulating a project, the client is always in the ultimate position to require compulsory use of BIM.

5.Concluding discussion

By viewing the adoption and use of3D-based BIM as the creation of actor networks it is possible to map the actors needed and their motives for being enrolled in a network in which BIM is used.The analysis of networks and actors'roles and relationships in those networks provides us with important knowledge about actors' potential motives for accepting or not accepting their assigned roles in the network.In this sense,the actor network approach can also be applied on the framework developed by Succar[45]in which three interrelated and reinforcing?elds(each of them encompassing a wide array of actors)are identi?ed in order to frame BIM implementation. Moreover the analysis of actors'roles and relationships in a network provides us with important knowledge about the need for re-thinking roles and relationships and creating new routines connected with the implementation of BIM in construction projects.One such aspect is the feature of the technology that supports and demands cooperation among actors involved.This feature is also emphasized by Rowlinson et al.[46]who argue for the need for a cultural change in the industry in order to take advantage of BIM implementation.Moreover,by adopting an actor network perspective,it has also been possible to inquire how the technology de?nes roles and relationships among actors in the network,and to what degree these de?nitions are aligned with characteristics of the network where BIM would be adopted and used.It can be concluded that the possibility of incremental implementation of BIM applications—for example the application of reviewing?eld installations—is well aligned with the demand for showing immediate bene?ts,which is one characteristic of building and construction projects.But on the other hand, applications requiring a more long term perspective in the production process,such as planning and scheduling of production and material requirements and purchases,are constrained by short term require-ments of immediate actions that characterize the industry.

Based on the analysis it can be stated that some actors already have a long experience of working with BIM,implying that it would be relatively unproblematic to enrol these actors into the network. However,what is more problematic is that actors who have the capabilities to use BIM might not be in a suf?ciently powerful position to demand a compulsory use of it in a project.Instead it is for example the main contractor or the client who has the power to demand such compulsory use.In this paper it has been shown that reducing costs in a building and construction project is one incentive for large building and construction companies to use their power and demand that actors employ BIM in a project.But local sub-contractors'lack of readiness to use BIM can be a problem.That is,do local sub-contractors have the?nancial resources to invest in BIM?However,as stated by Olofsson et al.[3]the greatest bene?ciary of BIM is the client, and the client ultimately also has the power to demand its use. However,more research is needed in order to inquire into clients' knowledge of the potential bene?ts of BIM and their readiness to demand its use in building and construction projects.Even if the client has not yet recognized the bene?ts of BIM,the contractual form by which the project is regulated can facilitate or constrain its use.For example it can be supposed that actors in a project regulated by a partnering contract are more willing to cooperate,than in projects where the contract facilitates opportunistic behaviour among actors.

However,the disruptive nature of networks constituting building and construction projects creates the greatest challenge to maintain-ing and re-establishing the BIM network in consecutive projects.This challenge cannot be solved by the project organization itself,because the organization dissolves when the project is terminated and in the consecutive project a network composed of new actors will be established.Thus,from the perspective of the building and construc-tion company,the decision about whether BIM should be used or not needs to taken in the line organization and that decision needs to be of a strategic character(see also[47]).That is,the kind of projects in which BIM should be used is important,in projects under own management,in projects above a certain size etc.However,it should be noted that this is only possible where the contract affords the contractor the opportunity to demand compulsory use of BIM.When clients and regulative authorities start to demand use of BIM in building and construction projects,the issue of whether or not to use it is resolved.The challenge then will be to promote a more encompassing use of BIM,beyond solely detecting clashes in?eld installations.

Acknowledgement

This research project is funded by the Swedish research fund for environment,agricultural sciences and spatial planning(Formas). References

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初中语文古文赏析曹操《短歌行》赏析(林庚)

教育资料《短歌行》《短歌行》赏析(林庚) 曹操这一首《短歌行》是建安时代杰出的名作，它代表着人生的两面，一方面是人生的忧患，一方面是人生的欢乐。而所谓两面也就是人生的全面。整个的人生中自然含有一个生活的态度，这就具体地表现在成为《楚辞》与《诗经》传统的产儿。它一方面不失为《楚辞》中永恒的追求，一方面不失为一个平实的生活表现，因而也就为建安诗坛铺平了道路。这首诗从“对酒当歌，人生几何”到“但为君故，沉吟至今”，充分表现着《楚辞》里的哀怨。一方面是人生的无常，一方面是永恒的渴望。而“呦呦鹿鸣”以下四句却是尽情的欢乐。你不晓得何以由哀怨这一端忽然会走到欢乐那一端去，转折得天衣无缝，仿佛本来就该是这么一回事似的。这才是真正的人生的感受。这一段如是，下一段也如是。“明明如月，何时可掇?忧从中来，不可断绝。越陌度阡，枉用相存。契阔谈宴，心念旧恩。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞。绕树三匝，何枝可依。”缠绵的情调，把你又带回更深的哀怨中去。但“山不厌高，海不厌深”，终于走入“周公吐哺，天下归心”的结论。上下两段是一个章法，但是你并不觉得重复，你只觉得卷在悲哀与欢乐的旋涡中，不知道什么时候悲哀没有了，变成欢乐，也不知道什么时候欢乐没有了，又变成悲哀，这岂不是一个整个的人生吗?把整个的人生表现在一个刹那的感觉上，又都归于一个最实在的生活上。“我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙”，不正是当时的情景吗?“周公吐哺，天下归心”，不正是当时的信心吗? “青青子衿”到“鼓瑟吹笙”两段连贯之妙，古今无二。《诗经》中现成的句法一变而有了《楚辞》的精神，全在“沉吟至今”的点窜，那是“青青子衿”的更深的解释，《诗经》与《楚辞》因此才有了更深的默契，从《楚辞》又回到《诗经》，这样与《鹿鸣》之诗乃打成一片，这是一个完满的行程，也便是人生旅程的意义。“月明星稀”何以会变成“山不厌高，海不厌深”?几乎更不可解。莫非由于“明月出天山”，“海上生明月”吗?古辞说：“枯桑知天风，海水知天寒”，枯桑何以知天风，因为它高；海水何以知天寒，因为它深。唐人诗“一叶落知天下秋”，我们对于宇宙万有正应该有一个“知”字。然则既然是山，岂可不高?既然是海，岂可不深呢?“并刀如水，吴盐胜雪”，既是刀，就应该雪亮；既是盐，就应该雪白，那么就不必问山与海了。山海之情，成为漫漫旅程的归宿，这不但是乌鹊南飞，且成为人生的思慕。山既尽其高，海既尽其深。人在其中乃有一颗赤子的心。孟子主尽性，因此养成他浩然之气。天下所以归心，我们乃不觉得是一个夸张。 .

The way常见用法

The way 的用法 Ⅰ常见用法： 1)the way+ that 2)the way + in which（最为正式的用法） 3)the way + 省略（最为自然的用法）举例：I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. Ⅱ习惯用法：在当代美国英语中，the way用作为副词的对格，“the way+ 从句”实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰整个句子。 1)The way =as I am talking to you just the way I’d talk to my own child. He did not do it the way his friends did. Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are—all we have to do is to clean and peel them. 2）The way= according to the way/ judging from the way The way you answer the question, you are an excellent student. The way most people look at you, you’d think trash man is a monster. 3）The way =how/ how much No one can imagine the way he missed her. 4）The way =because

The use of force

孩子。 Does your throat hurt you? Added the mother to the child. 女孩的表情没有任何变化，而她的目光却一直没有从我的脸上移开。 But the little girl’s expression didn’t change nor did she move her eyes from my face. 你看过她的嗓子了吗？ Have you looked? 我想看，孩子的母亲说，但看不见。 I tried to, said the mother but II couldn’t see. 这个月碰巧她上学的那个学校已经有好几例白喉病。虽然到目前为止没有人说出这件事，但很显然，我们心里都想到了。 As it happens we had been having a number of cases of diphtheria in the school to which this child went during that month and we were all, quite apparently, thinking of that, though no one had as yet spoken of the thing. 好了，我说，我们先看看嗓子吧。 Well, I said, suppose we take a look at the throat first. 我以医生特有的职业方式微笑着，叫着孩子的名字。我说，来吧，玛蒂尔达，张开嘴，让我看一下你的嗓子。 I smiled in my best professional manner and asking for the child’s first name I said, come on, Mathilda, open your mouth and let’s take a look at your throat.没有任何反应。 Nothing doing. 哦，来吧，我劝道，张大你的嘴，让我看看。看，我说着把两只手伸开，我的手里没有东西，张大嘴，让我看看。 Aw, come on, I coaxed, just open your mouth wide and let me take a look. Look, I said opening both hands wide, I haven’t anything in my hands. Just open up and let me see.

高中语文文言文曹操《短歌行(对酒当歌)》原文、翻译、赏析

曹操《短歌行【对酒当歌】》原文、翻译、赏析译文原文面对美酒应该高歌，人生短促日月如梭。对酒当歌，人生几何？好比晨露转瞬即逝，失去的时日实在太多！譬如朝露，去日苦多。席上歌声激昂慷慨，忧郁长久填满心窝。慨当以慷，忧思难忘。靠什么来排解忧闷？唯有狂饮方可解脱。何以解忧？唯有杜康。那穿着青领（周代学士的服装）的学子哟，你们令我朝夕思慕。青青子衿，悠悠我心。正是因为你们的缘故，我一直低唱着《子衿》歌。但为君故，沉吟至今。阳光下鹿群呦呦欢鸣，悠然自得啃食在绿坡。呦呦鹿鸣，食野之苹。一旦四方贤才光临舍下，我将奏瑟吹笙宴请宾客。我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。当空悬挂的皓月哟，你运转着，永不停止；明明如月，何时可掇？我久蓄于怀的忧愤哟，突然喷涌而出汇成长河。忧从中来，不可断绝。远方宾客踏着田间小路，一个个屈驾前来探望我。越陌度阡，枉用相存。彼此久别重逢谈心宴饮，争着将往日的情谊诉说。契阔谈讌，心念旧恩。明月升起，星星闪烁，一群寻巢乌鹊向南飞去。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞。绕树飞了三周却没敛绕树三匝，何枝

翅，哪里才有它们栖身之所？可依？高山不辞土石才见巍峨，大海不弃涓流才见壮阔。（比喻用人要“唯才是举”，多多益善。）山不厌高，水不厌深。只有像周公那样礼待贤才（周公见到贤才，吐出口中正在咀嚼的食物，马上接待。《史记》载周公自谓： “一沐三握发，一饭三吐哺，犹恐失天下之贤。”），才能使天下人心都归向我。周公吐哺，天赏析曹操是汉末杰出的政治家、军事家和文学家，他雅好诗章，好作乐府歌辞，今存诗22首，全是乐府诗。曹操的乐府诗多描写他本人的政治主张和统一天下的雄心壮志。如他的《短歌行》，充分表达了诗人求贤若渴以及统一天下的壮志。《短歌行》是政治性很强的诗作，主要是为曹操当时所实行的政治路线和政策策略服务的，但是作者将政治内容和意义完全熔铸在浓郁的抒情意境之中，全诗充分发挥了诗歌创作的特长，准确而巧妙地运用了比兴手法，寓理于情，以情感人。诗歌无论在思想内容还是在艺术上都取得了极高的成就，语言质朴，立意深远，气势充沛。这首带有建安时代"志深比长""梗概多气"的时代特色的《短歌行》，读后不觉思接千载，荡气回肠，受到强烈的感染。对酒当歌，人生几何？譬如朝露，去日苦多。慨当以慷，幽思难忘。何以解忧，唯有杜康。青青子衿，悠悠我心。但为君故，沈吟至今。呦呦鹿鸣，食野之苹。我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。明明如月，何时可掇？忧从中来，不可断绝。越陌度阡，枉用相存。契阔谈，心念旧恩。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞，绕树三匝，何枝可依？山不厌高，海不厌深，周公吐哺，天下归心。《短歌行》是汉乐府的旧题，属于《相和歌?平调曲》。这就是说它本来是一个乐曲的名称，这种乐曲怎么唱法，现在当然是不知道了。但乐府《相和歌?平调曲》中除了《短歌行》还有《长歌行》，唐代吴兢《乐府古题要解》引证古诗“长歌正激烈”，魏文帝曹丕《燕歌行》“短歌微吟不能长”和晋代傅玄《艳歌行》“咄来长歌续短歌”等句，认为“长歌”、“短

外国文学名著鉴赏期末论文

外国文学名著鉴赏期末论文院—系：数学学院科目：外国文学名著鉴赏（期末论文）班级： 08级数学与应用数学A班姓名：沈铁学号： 200805050149 上课时段：周五晚十、十一节课

奋斗了，才有出路 ——读《鲁宾逊漂游记》有感小说《鲁宾逊漂游记》一直深受人们的喜爱。读完这篇小说，使我对人生应该有自己的一个奋斗历程而受益匪浅。当一个人已经处于绝境的时候，还能够满怀信心的去面对和挑战生活，实在是一种可贵的精神。他使我认识到，人无论何时何地，不管遇到多大的困难，都不能被困难所吓倒，我们要勇敢的面对困难，克服困难，始终保持一种积极向上、乐观的心态去面对。在当今社会只有努力去奋斗，才会有自己的出路！其实现在的很多人都是那些遇到困难就退缩，不敢勇敢的去面对它。不仅如此，现在很多人都是独生子女，很多家长视子女为掌上明珠，不要说是冒险了，就连小小的家务活也不让孩子做，天天总是说：“我的小宝贝啊，你读好书就行了，其它的爸爸妈妈做就可以了。”读书固然重要，但生活中的小事也不能忽略。想一想，在荒无人烟的孤岛上，如果你连家务活都不会做，你能在那里生存吗？读完这部著作后，我不禁反问自己：“如果我像书中的鲁宾逊那样在大海遭到风暴，我能向他那样与风暴搏斗，最后逃离荒岛得救吗？恐怕我早已经被大海所淹没；如果我漂流到孤岛，能活几天？我又能干些什么？我会劈柴吗？会打猎做饭吗？我连洗洗自己的衣服还笨手笨脚的。”我们应该学习鲁宾逊这种不怕困难的精神，无论何时何地都有坚持地活下去，哪怕只有一线希望也要坚持到底，决不能放弃！我们要像鲁宾

逊那样有志气、有毅力、爱劳动，凭自己的双手创造财富，创造奇迹，取得最后的胜利。这样的例子在我们的生活中屡见不鲜。《史记》的作者司马迁含冤入狱，可它依然在狱中完成《史记》一书，他之所以能完成此书，靠的也是他心中那顽强的毅力，永不放弃的不断努力的精神。著名作家爱迪生从小就生活在一个贫困的家庭中，可是他从小就表现出了科学方面的天赋。长大后爱迪生着力于电灯的发明与研究，他经过了九百多次的失败，可它依然没有放弃，不断努力，最后终于在第一千次实验中取得了成功。鲁宾逊在岛上生活了二十八年，他面对了各种各样的困难和挫折，克服了许多常人无法想象的困难，自己动手，丰衣足食，以惊人的毅力，顽强的活了下来。他自从大船失事后，找了一些木材，在岛上盖了一间房屋，为防止野兽，还在房子周围打了木桩，来到荒岛，面对着的首要的就是吃的问题，船上的东西吃完以后，鲁宾逊开始打猎，有时可能会饿肚子，一是他决定播种，几年后他终于可以吃到自己的劳动成果，其实学习也是这样，也有这样一个循序渐进的过程，现在的社会，竞争无处不在，我们要懂得只有付出才会有收获，要勇于付出，在战胜困难的同时不断取得好成绩。要知道只有付出，才会有收获。鲁宾逊在失败后总结教训，终于成果；磨粮食没有石磨，他就用木头代替；没有筛子，就用围巾。鲁宾逊在荒岛上解决了自己的生存难题，面对人生挫折，鲁宾逊的所作所为充分显示了他坚毅的性格和顽强的精神。同样我们在学习上也可以做一些创新，养成一种创新精神，把鲁宾逊在荒岛，不畏艰险，不怕失败挫折，艰苦奋斗的精

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聚合诸侯捍卫中原，匡正天下功业千秋。号令诸侯以匡周室，主要靠的不是武力。行为磊落不欺诈，美德流传于身后。孔子赞美齐桓公，也称赞管仲。百姓深受恩惠，天子赐肉与桓公，命其无拜来接受。桓公称小白不敢，天子威严就在咫尺前。晋文公继承来称霸，亲身尊奉周天王。周天子赏赐丰厚，仪式隆重。接受玉器和美酒，弓矢武士三百名。晋文公声望镇诸侯，从其风者受尊重。威名八方全传遍，名声仅次于齐桓公。佯称周王巡狩，招其天子到河阳，因此大众议论纷纷。赏析《短歌行》 (“周西伯昌”)主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心迹，当他翦灭群凶之际，功高震主之时，正所谓“君子终日乾乾，夕惕若厉”者，但东吴孙权却瞅准时机竟上表大说天命而称臣，意在促曹操代汉而使其失去“挟天子以令诸侯”之号召，故曹操机敏地认识到“ 是儿欲据吾著炉上郁!”故曹操运筹谋略而赋此《短歌行 ·周西伯昌》。西伯姬昌在纣朝三分天下有其二的大好形势下，犹能奉事殷纣，故孔子盛称 “周之德，其可谓至德也已矣。 ”但纣王亲信崇侯虎仍不免在纣王前还要谗毁文王，并拘系于羑里。曹操举此史实，意在表明自己正在克心效法先圣西伯姬昌，并肯定他的所作所为，谨慎惕惧，向来无愧于献帝之所赏。并大谈西伯姬昌、齐桓公、晋文公皆曾受命“专使征伐”。而当今天下时势与当年的西伯、齐桓、晋文之际颇相类似，天子如命他“专使征伐”以讨不臣，乃英明之举。但他亦效西伯之德，重齐桓之功，戒晋文之诈。然故作谦恭之辞耳，又谁知岂无更讨封赏之意乎 ?不然建安十八年(公元 213 年)五月献帝下诏曰《册魏公九锡文》，其文曰“朕闻先王并建明德，胙之以土，分之以民，崇其宠章，备其礼物，所以藩卫王室、左右厥世也。其在周成，管、蔡不静，惩难念功，乃使邵康公赐齐太公履，东至于海，西至于河，南至于穆陵，北至于无棣，五侯九伯，实得征之。世祚太师，以表东海。爰及襄王，亦有楚人不供王职，又命晋文登为侯伯，锡以二辂、虎贲、斧钺、禾巨鬯、弓矢，大启南阳，世作盟主。故周室之不坏，系二国是赖。”又“今以冀州之河东、河内、魏郡、赵国、中山、常山，巨鹿、安平、甘陵、平原凡十郡，封君为魏公。锡君玄土，苴以白茅，爰契尔龟。”又“加君九锡，其敬听朕命。” 观汉献帝下诏《册魏公九锡文》全篇，尽叙其功，以为其功高于伊、周，而其奖却低于齐、晋，故赐爵赐土，又加九锡，奖励空前。但曹操被奖愈高，心内愈忧。故曹操在曾早在五十六岁写的《让县自明本志令》中谓“或者人见孤强盛，又性不信天命之事，恐私心相评，言有不逊之志，妄相忖度，每用耿耿。

2008年浙师大《外国文学名著鉴赏》期末考试答案

（一）文学常识一、古希腊罗马 1．（1）宙斯(罗马神话称为朱庇特)，希腊神话中最高的天神，掌管雷电云雨，是人和神的主宰。（2）阿波罗，希腊神话中宙斯的儿子，主管光明、青春、音乐、诗歌等，常以手持弓箭的少年形象出现。（3）雅典那，希腊神话中的智慧女神，雅典城邦的保护神。（4）潘多拉，希腊神话中的第一个女人，貌美性诈。私自打开了宙斯送她的一只盒子，里面装的疾病、疯狂、罪恶、嫉妒等祸患，一齐飞出，只有希望留在盒底，人间因此充满灾难。“潘多拉的盒子”成为“祸灾的来源”的同义语。（5）普罗米修斯，希腊神话中造福人间的神。盗取天火带到人间，并传授给人类多种手艺，触怒宙斯，被锁在高加索山崖，受神鹰啄食，是一个反抗强暴、不惜为人类牺牲一切的英雄。（6）斯芬克司，希腊神话中的狮身女怪。常叫过路行人猜谜，猜不出即将行人杀害；后因谜底被俄底浦斯道破，即自杀。后常喻“谜”一样的人物。与埃及狮身人面像同名。 2．荷马，古希腊盲诗人。主要作品有《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，被称为荷马史诗。《伊利亚特》叙述十年特洛伊战争。《奥德赛》写特洛伊战争结束后，希腊英雄奥德赛历险回乡的故事。马克思称赞它“显示出永久的魅力”。 3．埃斯库罗斯，古希腊悲剧之父，代表作《被缚的普罗米修斯》。6．阿里斯托芬，古希腊“喜剧之父”代表作《阿卡奈人》。 4．索福克勒斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《俄狄浦斯王》。5．欧里庇得斯，古希腊重要悲剧作家，代表作《美狄亚》。二、中世纪文学但丁，意大利人，伟大诗人，文艺复兴的先驱。恩格斯称他是“中世纪的最后一位诗人，同时又是新时代的最初一位诗人”。主要作品有叙事长诗《神曲》，由地狱、炼狱、天堂三部分组成。《神曲》以幻想形式，写但丁迷路，被人导引神游三界。在地狱中见到贪官污吏等受着惩罚，在净界中见到贪色贪财等较轻罪人，在天堂里见到殉道者等高贵的灵魂。三、文艺复兴时期 1．薄迦丘意大利人短篇小说家，著有《十日谈》拉伯雷，法国人，著《巨人传》塞万提斯，西班牙人,著《堂?吉诃德》。 2．莎士比亚，16-17世纪文艺复兴时期英国伟大的剧作家和诗人，主要作品有四大悲剧——《哈姆雷特》、《奥赛罗》《麦克白》、《李尔王》，另有悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》等，喜剧有《威尼斯商人》《第十二夜》《皆大欢喜》等，历史剧有《理查二世》、《亨利四世》等。马克思称之为“人类最伟大的戏剧天才”。四、17世纪古典主义 9．笛福，17-18世纪英国著名小说家，被誉为“英国和欧洲小说之父”，主要作品《鲁滨逊漂流记》，是英国第一部现实主义长篇小说。10．弥尔顿，17世纪英国诗人，代表作：长诗《失乐园》，《失乐园》，表现了资产阶级清教徒的革命理想和英雄气概。 25．拉伯雷，16世纪法国作家，代表作：长篇小说《巨人传》。 26．莫里哀，法国17世纪古典主义文学最重要的作家，法国古典主义喜剧的创建者，主要作品为《伪君子》《悭吝人》（主人公叫阿巴公）等喜剧。五、18世纪启蒙运动 1）歌德，德国文学最高成就的代表者。主要作品有书信体小说《少年维特之烦恼》，诗剧《浮士德》。 11．斯威夫特，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《格列佛游记》，以荒诞的情节讽刺了英国现实。 12．亨利·菲尔丁，18世纪英国作家，代表作：《汤姆·琼斯》。六、19世纪浪漫主义（1拜伦， 19世纪初期英国伟大的浪漫主义诗人，代表作为诗体小说《唐璜》通过青年贵族唐璜的种种经历，抨击欧洲反动的封建势力。《恰尔德。哈洛尔游记》（2雨果，伟大作家，欧洲19世纪浪漫主义文学最卓越的代表。主要作品有长篇小说《巴黎圣母院》、《悲惨世界》、《笑面人》、《九三年》等。《悲惨世界》写的是失业短工冉阿让因偷吃一片面包被抓进监狱，后改名换姓，当上企业主和市长，但终不能摆脱迫害的故事。《巴黎圣母院》弃儿伽西莫多，在一个偶然的场合被副主教克洛德.孚罗洛收养为义子，长大后有让他当上了巴黎圣母院的敲钟人。他虽然十分丑陋而且有多种残疾，心灵却异常高尚纯洁。长年流浪街头的波希米亚姑娘拉.爱斯梅拉达，能歌善舞，天真貌美而心地淳厚。青年贫诗人尔比埃尔.甘果瓦偶然同她相遇，并在一个更偶然的场合成了她名义上的丈夫。很有名望的副教主本来一向专心于"圣职"，忽然有一天欣赏到波希米亚姑娘的歌舞，忧千方百计要把她据为己有，对她进行了种种威胁甚至陷害，同时还为此不惜玩弄卑鄙手段，去欺骗利用他的义子伽西莫多和学生甘果瓦。眼看无论如何也实现不了占有爱斯梅拉达的罪恶企图，最后竟亲手把那可爱的少女送上了绞刑架。另一方面，伽西莫多私下也爱慕着波希米亚姑娘。她遭到陷害，被伽西莫多巧计救出，在圣母院一间密室里避难，敲钟人用十分纯朴和真诚的感情去安慰她，保护她。当她再次处于危急中时，敲钟人为了援助她，表现出非凡的英勇和机智。而当他无意中发现自己的"义父"和"恩人"远望着高挂在绞刑架上的波希米亚姑娘而发出恶魔般的狞笑时，伽西莫多立即对那个伪善者下了最后的判决，亲手把克洛德.孚罗洛从高耸入云的钟塔上推下，使他摔的粉身碎骨。（3司汤达，批判现实主义作家。代表作《红与黑》，写的是不满封建制度的平民青年于连，千方百计向上爬，最终被送上断头台的故事。“红”是将军服色，指“入军界”的道路；“黑”是主教服色，指当神父、主教的道路。 14．雪莱，19世纪积极浪漫主义诗人，欧洲文学史上最早歌颂空想社会主义的诗人之一，主要作品为诗剧《解放了的普罗米修斯》，抒情诗《西风颂》等。 15．托马斯·哈代，19世纪英国作家，代表作：长篇小说《德伯家的苔丝》。 16．萨克雷，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《名利场》 17．盖斯凯尔夫人，19世纪英国作家，代表作：《玛丽·巴顿》。 18．夏洛蒂?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，代表作：长篇小说《简?爱》19艾米丽?勃朗特，19世纪英国女作家，夏洛蒂?勃朗特之妹，代表作：长篇小说《呼啸山庄》。 20．狄更斯，19世纪英国批判现实主义文学的重要代表，主要作品为长篇小说《大卫?科波菲尔》、《艰难时世》《双城记》《雾都孤儿》。21．柯南道尔，19世纪英国著名侦探小说家，代表作品侦探小说集《福尔摩斯探案》是世界上最著名的侦探小说。七、19世纪现实主义 1、巴尔扎克，19世纪上半叶法国和欧洲批判现实主义文学的杰出代表。主要作品有《人间喜剧》，包括《高老头》、《欧也妮·葛朗台》、《贝姨》、《邦斯舅舅》等。《人间喜剧》是世界文学中规模最宏伟的创作之一，也是人类思维劳动最辉煌的成果之一。马克思称其“提供了一部法国社会特别是巴黎上流社会的卓越的现实主义历史”。

(完整版)the的用法

定冠词the的用法：定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way...

The use of force

The use of force 大意: Mathilda had been ill for three days. Her mother had given her some medicine, but it didn’t do any good. So they had to ask the doctor to come. There had been a number of cases of diphtheria in Mathilda School and two of them had been dead. When the doctor arrived at Olson’s home, he wanted to examine Mathilda throat first. But no matter how he coaxed, She wouldn’t open her mouth. So the doctor had to get the tongue depressor into her mouth. But Mathilda reduced it to splinters. In orde r to protect Mathilda herself and other children, the doctor had to make sure whether she had diphtheria or not, so that he could treat her in time. Letting Mathilda‘s father hold her wrists he tried his best to open her mouth and found she really had diphtheria. This story made us can think such a question that something in life can’t only depend on self-willingness. Under some circumstances, certain force seems necessary. 对医生的评价:After the doctor arrived at the girl’s home, he wanted to see her throat. As there had been a number of cases of diphtheria in the school to which the girl went during that month, the doctor also thought that of the girl. So he smiled to the girl and asked her to open her mouth and let him have a look at her throat. No matter how the doctor coaxed, the girl shut her mouth firmly. Thinking that the girl might have diphtheria and possibly die of it, the doctor decided to use force to open her mouth. He had seen at least two children lying dead in bed of neglect in such cases. He felt that he must get a diagnosis now. So he grasped the girl’s head with his left hand and tried to get the wooden tongue depressor between her teeth. But when the doctor got the wooden spatula behind her last teeth. She gripped the blade between her molars and reduced it to splinters. In the final unreasoning assault the doctor outer powered the girl. He forced the heavy silver spoon back of her teeth and down her throat till she gagged. Her both tonsils were covered with membrane. From that the doctor had done, I thought he was a responsible person. In order to save the lives of the patients, especially those children who did not know how to co-operate with the doctor, he had to take some measure. Otherwise a good or suitable time of treatment would be missed. The doctor appears to be compassionate and keen to human behavior, characteristic of a good doctor, though he is also undeniably blunt and slightly prejudiced. 思想: Though there are reasons often justifiable, what compels the use of force against others isn't simply altruism alone. The overall theme of the story revolves around power and submission and the doctor's unnerved feeling following the forceful encounter. 作者如何写的: The story is narrated in first person by a doctor, who is answering a house visit to see a sick girl. Williams uses interior monologue as a "stream-of-consciousness" tool reflects the narrator's experience of dialogue and gives insight into the character and his appraisal of the situations he encounters. The story is written without the use of quotation marks, and the dialogue is not distinguished from the narrator's comments. The story is rendered from the subjective point of view of the doctor, and explores his subdued enjoyment of forcefully subduing the stubborn child in an attempt to acquire the throat sample.

外国名著赏析论文

题目：浅析从简爱到女性的尊严和爱学院工商学院专业新闻学3 学号姓名闫万里学科外国文学名着赏析 [摘要] 十九世纪中期，英国伟大的女性存在主义先驱，着名作家夏洛蒂勃朗特创作出了她的代表作--《简爱》，当时轰动了整个文坛,它是一部具有浓厚浪漫主义色彩的现实主义小说，被认为是作者"诗意的生平"的写照。它在问世后的一百多年里，它始终保持着历史不败的艺术感染力。直到现在它的影响还继续存在。在作品的序幕、发展、高潮和结尾中，女主人公的叛逆、自由、平等、自尊、纯洁的个性都是各个重点章节的主旨，而这些主旨则在女主人公的爱情观中被展露的淋漓尽致，它们如同乌云上方的星汉，灼灼闪耀着光芒，照亮着后来的女性者们追求爱情的道路。? [关键词] 自尊个性独特新女性主义自由独立平等《简爱》是一部带有自转色彩的长篇小说，它阐释了这样一个主题：人的价值=尊严+爱。从小就成长在一个充满暴力的环境中的简爱，经历了同龄人没有的遭遇。她要面对的是舅妈的毫无人性的虐待，表兄的凶暴专横和表姐的傲慢冷漠，尽管她尽力想“竭力赢得别人的好感”，但是事实告诉她这都是白费力气的，因此她发出了“不公平啊！--不公平！”的近乎绝望的呼喊。不公平的生长环境，使得简爱从小就向往平等、自由和爱，这些愿望在她后来的成长过程中表现无疑，

譬如在她的爱情观中的种种体现。? 1.桑菲尔德府? 谭波儿小姐因为出嫁，离开了洛伍德学校，同时也离开了简爱，这使简爱感觉到了“一种稳定的感觉，一切使我觉得洛伍德学校有点像我家的联想，全都随着她消失了”，她意识到：真正的世界是广阔的，一个充满希望和忧虑、激动和兴奋的变化纷呈的天地，正等待着敢于闯入、甘冒风险寻求人生真谛的人们。意识形态的转变促使着简爱走向更广阔的社会，接受社会的挑战，尽管她才只有十八岁。于是，简爱来到了桑菲尔德府，当了一名在当时地位不高的家庭教师。?桑菲尔德府使简爱感受到“这儿有想象中的完美无缺的家庭安乐气氛”，事实证明了她的预感的正确性，。从和简爱相见、相识到相爱的过程当中，简爱的那种叛逆精神、自强自尊的品质深深地征服了罗切斯特，而罗切斯特的优雅风度和渊博知识同样也征服了简爱。最初开始，简爱一直以为罗切斯特会娶高贵漂亮的英格拉姆为妻，她在和罗切斯特谈到婚姻时，曾经义正言辞的对罗切斯特说：“你以为因为我穷，低微，不美，矮小，就没有灵魂了吗？你想错了！我跟你一样有灵魂—也同样有一颗心！我现在不是凭着肉体凡胎跟你说话，而是我的心灵在和你的心灵说话，就好像我们都已经离开人世，两人平等地站在上帝面前—因为我们本来就是平等的。”这充分表现出简爱的叛逆，她这种维护妇女独立人格、主张婚姻独立自主以及男女平等的主张可以看成是他对整个人类社会自由平等的向往追求，罗切斯特正是爱上了她这样的独特个性，同时他也同样重复道：我们本来就是平等的。罗切斯特自始自终爱的是简爱的心灵—有着意志的力量，美德和纯洁的心灵，正是基于如此，简爱才真正的爱着罗切斯特。因为爱情是来不得半点虚假的，一方为另一方付出了真情的爱，假如得到对方的是虚情假意，那么这份爱

“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法

“tｈｅwａｙ+从句”结构的意义及用法首先让我们来看下面这个句子: Ｒead the foｌloｗｉnｇpassagｅａnd talkａbout ｉt wi ｔh your classmaｔes．Try tｏｔeｌl whaｔyｏu thiｎk ｏf Tom aｎd ｏｆｔhe ｗay the chiｌｄrenｔrｅated ｈim. 在这个句子中，ｔhe waｙ是先行词,后面是省略了关系副词that或in whｉch的定语从句。下面我们将叙述“the ｗaｙ+从句”结构的用法。 1.tｈe wａy之后，引导定语从句的关系词是tｈat而不是hoｗ,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典＞＞中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：Ｔhｉs is ｔｈeｗayｈowｉtｈａppened. This is the way how he ａlwａｙs treats me. 2．在正式语体中,thaｔ可被in which所代替;在非正式语体中，ｔhat则往往省略。由此我们得到theｗay后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) tｈe ｗaｙ＋ｔhａt-从句２）the way +ｉn whiｃh－从句3) the ｗay +从句例如：Ｔｈe way(in whiｃh ，thａt) ｔhｅｓｅｃomｒade ｓloｏｋａｔｐrobｌems is wrong．这些同志看问题的方法

不对。Ｔｈｅｗａy(that ,ｉn ｗhiｃh)yoｕ’ｒe doinｇit is comple ｔeｌy crａzy.你这么个干法,简直发疯。 Wｅａdmiｒｅd him for thｅｗay ｉｎｗhｉch he fａｃeｓdiｆficultieｓ． Waｌlａｃe ａｎd Ｄarwiｎｇreed ｏn the way ｉｎwhi ｃh ｄｉfｆｅrｅnt forms ｏf life had ｂegｕn.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 Thｉs is ｔｈe ｗaｙ（tｈａｔ) hｅdｉd it. I lｉkeｄｔhe waｙ(ｔhat) ｓｈeｏｒganized ｔhe ｍeetｉng． 3.theｗay(tｈat)有时可以与hｏw(作“如何”解）通用。例如： That’s tｈe ｗaｙ(tｈaｔ) shｅspoke. = Tｈat’s how shｅspoke.

短歌行赏析介绍

短歌行赏析介绍说道曹操，大家一定就联想到三国那些烽火狼烟岁月吧。但是曹操其实也是一位文学大家，今天就来分享《短歌行》赏析。《短歌行》短歌行》是汉乐府旧题，属于《相和歌辞·平调曲》。这就是说它本来是一个乐曲名称。最初古辞已经失传。乐府里收集同名诗有 24 首，最早是曹操这首。这种乐曲怎么唱法，现在当然是不知道。但乐府《相和歌·平调曲》中除《短歌行》还有《长歌行》，唐代吴兢《乐府古题要解》引证古诗 “长歌正激烈”，魏文帝曹丕《燕歌行》 “短歌微吟不能长”和晋代傅玄《艳歌行》 “咄来长歌续短歌”等句，认为“长歌”、 “短歌”是指“歌声有长短”。我们现在也就只能根据这一点点材料来理解《短歌行》音乐特点。《短歌行》这个乐曲，原来当然也有相应歌辞，就是“乐府古辞”，但这古辞已经失传。现在所能见到最早《短歌行》就是曹操所作拟乐府《短歌行》。所谓“拟乐府”就是运用乐府旧曲来补作新词，曹操传世《短歌行》共有两首，这里要介绍是其中第一首。这首《短歌行》主题非常明确，就是作者希望有大量人才来为自己所用。曹操在其政治活动中，为扩大他在庶族地主中统治基础，打击反动世袭豪强势力，曾大力强调“唯才是举”，为此而先后发布“求贤令”、“举士令”、“求逸才令”等;而《短歌行》实际上就是一曲“求贤歌”、又正因为运用诗歌形式，含有丰富抒情成分，所以就能起到独特感染作用，有力地宣传他所坚持主张，配合他所颁发政令。《短歌行》原来有“六解”(即六个乐段)，按照诗意分为四节来读。 “对酒当歌，人生几何?譬如朝露，去日苦多。慨当以慷，忧思难忘。何以解忧，唯有杜康。” 在这八句中，作者强调他非常发愁，愁得不得。那么愁是什么呢?原来他是苦于得不到众多“贤才”来同他合作，一道抓紧时间建功立业。试想连曹操这样位高权重人居然在那里为“求贤”而发愁，那该有多大宣传作用。假如庶族地主中真有“贤才”话，看这些话就不能不大受感动和鼓舞。他们正苦于找不到出路