语言学期末复习
第一章
（判）Language is only a means of communication.（F）
Language has a form-meaning correspondence.(F)
The function of language is to exchange information.(F)
English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.(F)
Black English is not standard and should be reformed.(F)
The following are some fundamental views about language.
判）Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.(T)
Language operates by rules.(T)
All languages have three major components: a sound system语音系统, a system of lexicogrammar词汇语法 and a system of semantics语意学.(T)
Everyone speaks a dialect.(T)
Language slowly changes.(T)
Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons行话.(T) Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.(T) Writing is derivative 来源的of speech.(T)
Language is a means of verbal communication.
分析）P3)it is instrumental in that communication by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.
Design features of language
The features that define our human languages can be called design features.
(1)Arbitrariness任意性分析，以下三点
瑞士Saussure（现代语言学之父）: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning . (定义)
(1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme词素and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic拟声的 words:
The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.
2）Arbitrariness at the syntactic句法的level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.（判）
By syntax that sentences are constructed to the grammar of arrangement
3）Arbitrariness and convention. Conventionality 规约性
T he link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
Conventionality , as learners of English we are often told “this is an idiom”—meaning it is conventional to say things this way and you cannot change the expression any other way even if you think it does not look or sound logical.
(2)Duality 双重性定义/单
By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level
(3)Creativity 创造性定义/填
Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness递归性. (4)Displacement 移位性定义
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.单
Functions of language
For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.
In his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:
speaker, addressee, context, message, code元语言解码, contact.
Six key elements of communication,namely:
referential (to convey message and information),
Poetic诗学 (to indulge in language for its own sake),
emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),
conative意动(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic寒暄(to establish communion with others)
Metalingual funcation (to clear up intentions and meanings).
Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational概念功能, interpersonal 人际功能and textual 语篇功能functions.填(1)Informative function最重要
For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language.判
The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.
(2)Interpersonal function
By far the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.
(3)Performative function施为功能
The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of
children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. For example, sui sui ping an
(4)Emotive function
Expressive function
(5)Phatic communion 寒暄功能书上的例句选择
(6)Recreational function 娱乐功能
the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, s uch as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.
(7)Metalingual function 源语言填空
Our language can be used to talk about itself.
What is Linguistics?
The scientific study of human language
Main branches of linguistics 定义/填空/大题
Phonetics 语音学
Phonology 音系学
Morphology 形态学
Syntax 句法学
Semantics 语义学
Pragmatics 语用学
Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.
We can approach it on various levels.
At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy 解剖学and physiology生理学. We can study organs such as tongue and larynx and their functions in the production of speech.
At another level, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the domain of articulatory phonetics发音语言学.
We can also investigate the properties of the sound waves —acoustic phonetics声学语言学.
As speech is intended to be heard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave —auditory phonetics听觉语言学.
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.
A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.
Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Morphemes serve different purposes.
Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学单
Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition.
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.
Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述
Synchronic vs. diachronic
A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.
Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. The structure of Shakespeare English
Langue & parole 区别
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.
Competence and performance
This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965).
A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.
Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations
第二章
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.定义Three main areas:
Articulatory phonetics: studies the production of speech sounds;
Acoustic phonetics: studies the physical properties of speech sounds;
Auditory phonetics: studies the perception of speech sounds.
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language.单Speech Organs 发音器官定义/填空
=Vocal organs: parts of human body involved in the production of speech
Vocal tract, oral cavity口腔, nasal cavity鼻腔
Vocal folds 声带
apart: voiceless sounds [p, s, t]
Close together: voiced sounds [b, z, d]
Totally closed：glottal stop 声门塞音
The IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标表格
The idea was first proposed by the Danish grammarian Jespersen in 1886.
The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.
The latest version was revised in 2005.
Consonants and Vowels
Consonants: produced by a closure接近 in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.
Vowels: produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through mouth or nose.
Distinction between C and V: Obstruction of airstream气流是否受阻单/填空
The Sounds of English
RP vs GA
Teaching of English as a foreign language, it is referred to as received pronunciation(RP)
In the USA, the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers is often referred to as general American(GA)
Consonants:
[p] voiceless bilabial stop
[b] voiced bilabial stop
[s] voiceless alveolar fricative
[z] voiced alveolar fricative
P36 The description of vowels:
The height of tongue raising （high, mid, low）
The position of the highest part of tongue (front, central, back)
The length or tenseness of the vowel(tense, lax)
Lip-rounding (rounded & unrounded)
Vowels
[i?] high front tense unrounded vowel
[?] high back lax rounded vowel
[?] mid central lax unrounded vowel
[?] low back lax rounded vowel
[e] mid front lax unrounded vowel
Coarticulation 协同发音定义P37
When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process Coarticulation
Broad transcription
Narrow transcription
Allophones 音位变体P40
Peak /speak
A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
P45
Elsewhere condition 剩余条件规则定义
The more specific rule applies first. 较为特殊的规则应用在先
Distinctive features
The idea of Distinctive features was first developed by Roman Jacobson Suprasegmentals 超音段
Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are stress, tone and intonation.
The syllable structure 音节理解P47
A syllable must have a nucleus核心节 or peak节峰, which is often the task of a vowel
第三章
Morpheme and morphology定义
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.
The systematic study of morpheme is a breach of linguistics called morphology, which investigates the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.
Types of morphemes
Root affix stem(P53)
Inflectional affix and derivational affix简答P54
less productive grammatical function e.g. toys, walks, John?s
more productive form new words
e.g. receive, reception, receptionist
do not change the word class of the word
might change the word class
depend on other factors within a phrase or a sentence
depend on the meaning we want to express
in most cases suffixes
prefixes/suffixes
Word
1)Stability
2)Relative uninterruptibility相对联系
3)A minimun free form
Classification of words
1)variable and invariable words可变化和非变化词
2)Grammatical words and lexical words语法词和词汇词
Grammatical/Function words:
功能词
conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.
Lexical/Content words:
实义词
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
3) Closed-class words and open-class words封闭类词和开放类词
Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added
e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.
Open-class words: New members can be added; membership is infinite or unlimited
e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
4)Word class
Word formation(1) 看PPT
Word formation(2): lexical change
Invention 发明法
Blending 混成法举例/定义
Blending is a process in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.
smog烟雾(smoke+fog); boatel水上旅馆(boat+hotel); brunch早午餐(breakfast+lunch); telecast
Abbreviation 缩写词(clipping 截断法)
A new word is created by the following methods
Cutting the final part: fanatic(fan), advertisement(ad)
Cutting the initial part: aeroplane(plane), omnibus(bus)
Cutting both the initial part and final parts accordingly: influenza(flu), refrigerator(fridge)
Acronym 首字母缩略词
Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.
Eg: CIA, EEC, WTO, UNESCO
This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology, and other special fields.
Eg: AIDS, SARS, Radar, VAT
Backformation 逆构词法定义
An abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Analogical creation 类推构词
Class shift 词类转换
Borrowing 借词PPT
Greek: electricity, atom
French: entail, mortgage
Spanish: macho, grandee
Latin: adjacent, inferior
German: quartz, plunder
第四章
Syntax 句法学 P17
Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.
或者Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Syntactic relations 句法关系单P73单
Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: positional relations 位置关系 relations of substitutability 替代关系 relations of co-occurrence 同现关系
Positional relation 位置关系
Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
Relation of substitutability可替换性关系
Grammatical construction语法结构P75
Immediate constituents直接成分
Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit.
IC analysis 直接成分分析法
Tree diagram要求会画树形图P77
Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions向心结构和离心结构单
Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types
Exocentric ：the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, the connective (be + complement) construction.
Predicate 谓语
除主语之外的其他所有成分，谓语通常表达主语的动作，过程和状态Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.
Category 范畴单
Number 数
Gender 性
Case 格
Agreement 一致关系单
This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,
Recursiveness 递归性
Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.
Recursiveness also includes several phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining 连接and embedding嵌入, hypotactic and paratactic.判
第五章
Semantics 语义学
The subject concerning the study of meaning 研究意义的学科
Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
Meanings of “meaning”
Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning
Seven types of meaning:
Conceptual meaning概念意义
Associative meaning 联想意义
Connotative meaning内含意义
Social meaning社会意义
Affective meaning情感意义
Reflected meaning反射意义
Collocative meaning搭配意义
Thematic meaning主位意义
The referential theory 指称论
The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.
Words → Meaning: Words …name? or …refer to? things -- Platonic
And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept(概念）.
Sense relations PPT单
Synonymy同义词
buy/purchase
world/ universe
brotherly/ fraternal
Antonymy 反义词
1.Gradable antonyms 等级反义词
hot Vs. cold
2. Complementary antonyms 互补反义词
male Vs. female
3.Converse antonymy 反向反义词
teacher Vs. pupil
Hyponymy 上下意义关系
PPT后的选择题
1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?C
A. Language is a system.
B. Language is symbolic.
C. Animals also have languages.
D. Language is arbitrary.
2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ___D___.
A. Chomsky
B. Halliday
C. Firth
D. Saussure
3. Which function is the major role of language?A
A. Informative
B. Interpersonal
C. Performative
D. Emotive
4. Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of linguistics?D
A. Syntax
B. Pragmatics
C. Phonetics
D. Anthropology
5. What are the dual structures of language?B
A. Sounds and letters
B. Sounds and meaning
C. Letters and meaning
D. Sounds and symbols
6. Productivity is one of the _____ features of languages.B
A. distinctive
B. design
C. Suprasegmental
D. pragmatic
7. The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn?t it?” is _B____.
A. informative
B. phatic
C. performative
D. recreational
8. Once the notion of __B__ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.
A. meaning
B. context
C. form
D. content
9. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?D
A. Metalingual function
B. Interpersonal function
C. Emotive function
D. Cultural transmission
10. _A___ investigates the interrelation of language and mind.
A. Psycholinguistics
B. Sociolinguistics
C. Anthropological linguistics
D. Computational linguistics
11. The following about language are wrong EXCEPT _A____. (大外，11年)
A. Language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural context.
B. Language has a form-sound correspondence.
C. Language is a means of communication.
D. Language is not related to any of the individuals who use it.
12. Verbal dueling, the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, is mainly to do with the _B___ function of language. (武汉大学11)
A. performative
B. interpersonal
C. informative
D. recreational
13. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of _B__. (天外11)
A. arbitrariness
B. creativity
C. duality
D. displacement
14. _A___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. (天外11)
A. Langue
B. Competence
C. Communicative competence
D. Linguistic potential
15. _B___ has been widely accepted as the father of modern linguistics. (天外12)
A. Chomsky
B. Saussure
C. Bloomfield
D. Halliday
1. Which of the following is the most important function of languge?C
A. Interpersonal function
B. Performative function
C. Informative function
D. Recreational function
2. _C__ function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.
A. Performative
B. Interpersonal
C. Phatic
D. Metalingual
3. _C__ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
A. Competence
B. Performance
C. Eloquence
D. Action
4. _B___ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.
A. Psycholinguistics
B. Sociolinguistics
C. Anthropological linguistics
D. Computational linguistics
5. The sentence “Close your textbook and listen to me carefully!” performs a(n) _D___ function.
A. Interrogative
B. informative
C. Performative
D. directive
6. C___ is defined as the study of the relationship between language and mind.
A. Semantics
B. Pragmatics
C. Cognitive linguistics
D. Sociolinguistics
7. A___ refers to the learning and development of a language.
A. Language acquisition
B. Language comprehension
C. Language production
D. Language instruction
8. Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “ Highway closed” on a highway serves __B__.
A. An expressive function
B. an informative function
C. A performative function
D. a persuasive function
9. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?D
A. Arbitrariness
B. Displacement
C. Duality
D. Diachronicity
10. The distinction between parole and langue was made by___D__.
A. Halliday
B. Chomsky
C. Bloomfield
D. Saussure
1.All syllables contain a __A___. （北二外）
A. nucleus
B. coda
C. onset
2.A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language is ___C__. （北二外）
A. allophone
B. phone
C. phoneme
3.__D___ is one of the suprasegmental features.
A. stop
B. voicing
C. deletion
D. tone（东南）
4.Which of the following consonants does not exist in English? （东南）A
A. dental stop
B. bilabial stop
C. alveolar stop
D. velar stop
5.Of the following sound combinations, only _A___ is permissible.
A. kibl
B. bkil
C. ilkb
D. ilbk
6.Which pair of words is NOT a minimal pair?B
A. cat/bat
B. put/but
C. jig/pig
D. sit/bit
7.If two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are __B__ of the same phoneme.
A. symbols
B. allophones
C. phones
D. signs
8.Where are the vocal cords?D
A. in the mouth
B. in the nasal cavity
C. above the tongue
D. inside the larynx
9._B___ studies the sound systems in a certain language.
A. Phonetics
B. Phonology
C. Semantics
D. Syntax
10.Distinctive features are used to describe _D___.
A. phones
B. phonology
C. allophones
D. phonemes
11.In the production of consonants at least __B__ articulator(s) are involved.
A. one
B. two
C. three
D. four
12.Voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal folds are B____.
A. closed
B. apart
C. totally closed
D. completely open
13.__C__ involve more than one manners of articulation.
A. Stops
B. Fricatives
C. Affricates
D. Laterals
14.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in _B___.
A. the place of articulation
B. the obstruction of airstreams
C. the position of the tongue
D. the shape of the lips
1. __C__ are bound morphemes because they can not be used as separate words.
A. Roots
B. Stems
C. Affixes
D. Compounds
2. __C__ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.
A. Root
B. Allomorph
C. Morpheme
D. Word
3. The English word “untouchable” is composed of _B___ morphemes.
A. four
B. three
C. two
D. five
4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?B
A. pencil box
B. unreasonable
C. deadline
D. upstairs
5. When the suffix _A__ is added to a verb, it changes this verb into an adjective.
A. less
B. ness
C. fully
D. er
6. The “s” in drums is _D__.
A. a free morpheme
B. a stem
C. a root
D. an inflectional affix
7. The word “bodyguard” is a __A___.
A. compound word
B. complex word
C. derivational word
D. free morpheme
8. Which of the following words is a derivational one?C
A. blackboard
B. sings
C. astonishment
D. boys
1. Atom is a word of __B__ origin.
A. Latin
B. Greek
C. Arabic
D. Spanish
2. English has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages EXCEPT _B___.
A. French
B. Korean
C. Latin
D. Greek
3. Which of the following words is built by abbreviation?B
A. smog
B. fridge
C. motel
D. edit
4. The word “hamburger” is of __C_ origin.
A. American
B. Italian
C. German
D. French
5. The word “smog” is formed through __B_.
A. derivation
B. blending
C. clipping
D. backformation
6. WTO is _B____.
A. an abbreviation
B. an acronym
C. a blending word
D. a backformation word
7. Of the following word formation processes, _D__ is the most productive.
A. clipping
B. blending
C. initialism
D. derivation
8. Motel is a(n) __C___.
A. abbreviation
B. coinage
C. blending
D. acronym
1. The relation between the determiner “this” and the noun “man” in the phrase “this man” is __B__.
A. government
B. concord
C. binding
D. paradigmatic
2. Which of the following phrases is exocentric?D
A. women and men
B. on the table
C. a clever boy
D. an ugly man
3. __C__are the defining properties of units like nouns(number, gender, case, etc)and verbs(tense, aspect, voice, etc).
A. Parts of speech
B. word classes
C. categories
D. functions of words
4. _D___ is NOT a grammatical category of English verbs.
A. tense
B. aspect
C. voice
D. gender
5. _D___ is NOT a grammatical category of English pronouns.
A. gender
B. number
C. case
D. voice
6. Expressions like“Tom”or “He” can both be filled in the blank of the sentence “__D__ is smiling”. So Tom and He have ____ relation.
A. syntagmatic
B. paradigmatic
C. systematic
D. governing
7. The phrase “the three small Chinese children”is _A___ construction.
A. endocentric
B. exocentric
C. hierarchical
D. linear
1. “Big” and “small” are a pair of _B___ opposites.
A. complementary
B. gradable
C. complete
D. converse
2. __A__ examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
A. Semantics
B. Syntax
C. Pragmatics
D. Morphology
3. Leech divided meanings into _D___ types.
A. 4
B. 5
C. 6
D. 7
4. The relation between “food” and “bread” is called __D__.
A. synonymy
B. polysemy
C. homonymy
D. hyponymy
5. “Buy” and “sell” form a pair of _A___.
A. converse antonyms
B. gradable antonyms
C. complementary antonyms
D. marked antonyms
6. _D___ is a pair of complementary antonyms.
A. wild and tame
B. nimble and lame
C. cold and warm
D. alive and dead
7. __D__ is NOT included in Leech?s associative meaning.
A. connotative meaning
B. social meaning
C. collocative meaning
D. conceptual meaning
8. The words “male” and “female” are __B__ antonyms.
A. gradable
B. complementary
C. converse
D. complete
语言学概论期末考试范围
语言学概论期末复习 1. diachronic linguistics Linguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present. 2. arbitrariness Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages. 3. langue According to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by. 4. competence Chomsky defines competence as the abstract ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person's competence. 5. morpheme The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme' is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning. 6. Morphology Morphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed 7. Semantic triangle According to Ogden and Richard's semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds. 8. Lingua franca Lingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers. 9. componential analysis Componential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. 10. Cooperative Principle Cooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the
语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
语言学复习资料 精整版
1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。 3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。 4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。 5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。 6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。 7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。 8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。 9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。 10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。 11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。 12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。 13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。 14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。 15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。 16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。 17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。 18、复合词：复合词由两个或两个以上的词根复合构成。例：汉语中的“火车”、“心疼”，英语中的“black-board(黑板)”、“rail-way(铁路)”。 19、重叠词：是由相同的词根相叠构成。如：看看、试试、多多等。 20、语法：语法是音义结合的各结构单位之间的组织规则的汇集，它包括词的构词、构形的规则和组词成句的规则。 21、词组：词组是实词与实词的有机组合。词组在句子中具有相当于词的作用，但它是比词大的语法单位。 22、语法范畴：是把同一性质的语法意义进一步综合概括所形成的语法意义的类别，如词形范畴与词类范畴等。 23、语法手段：对语法形式再概括所得出的类别就是语法手段，也叫语法方式，一般包括内部屈折法、附加法、重叠法、异根法、重音法、词序、虚词、语调、冠词、前置词和后置词、助动词等。 24、直接成分分析法：指从句法结构的外部形式，特别是隐形形式入手，对句子的直接组成成分进行分析的方法。由于句子的直接成分与句子的层次性一致，所以也叫层次分析法。 25、意音文字：一部分字符是义符，一部分字符是音符的文字是意音文字。 26、字符：字符也就是文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
英语语言学词汇汇总
现代语言学术语总结 A abbreviation缩写法 acculturation语言文化移入 acoustic phonetics声学语言学 acronym词首字母缩略词 address term称谓语 addresser发话人 addressee受话人 adjacency毗邻 Adjacency Condition毗邻条件 Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数 Affix词缀 Affixation加词缀法 Affricate塞擦音 Afroasiatic非亚语系 agreement rule一致关系规则 allophone音位变体 alveolar齿龈音 alveolus齿龈 angular gyrus角形脑回 antonymy反义现象 antonym反以词 apocope词尾音脱落 aphasia失语症 aphasic失语症患者 applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性 argument论元 articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项 aspiration送气 assimilation同化 approximation近似化 auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系 B Babbling咿呀学语 back-formation逆向构词法 back vowel后元音 Behaviorism行为主义 Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学
《语言学概论》期末试卷-语言学概论期末考试
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( A)(本题 2.0 分) A、音位 B、音素 C、音节 D、音渡 5.( 单选题 ) 汉语普通话中的“我”和助词“的”单念时发音分别为[uo]和[te],而在实际语流中 ,“我的”发音是 [uo de],这是语流音变中的( A)(本题 2.0 分) A、顺同化现象 B、逆同化现象 C、弱化现象 D、异化现象 6.( 单选题 ) 语音的本质属性是 (C )(本题 2.0 分) A、物理属性 B、生理属性 C、社会属性 D、心理属性 7. ( 单选题) 英语“ students”中的“ -s”是 ( C)(本题 2.0 分)
A、虚词语素 B、词根语素 C、构形语素 D、构词语素 8. ( 单选题) 从词的构造方式看, 下列各项中属于复合词的是( D)(本题 2.0 分) A、木头 B、念头 C、苦头 D、山头 9.( 单选题 ) 划分词类的最本质的标准是 (A )(本题 2.0 分) A、分布标准 B、意义标准 C、形态标准 D、逻辑标准 10.( 单选题 ) 下面词组中 ,结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是( D)(本题 2.0 分) A、年轻漂亮/朴素大方 B、我们大家/首都北京
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.docx
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
(完整版)语言学组合与聚合总结
一、组合关系和和聚合关系的提出 组合关系和聚合关系是索绪尔提出来的现代语言学结构主义的一个重要原理。 组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。例如"学习外语"，"学习"与"外语"组合，形成述宾关系。 聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。例如"学习外语"，其中"学习"可以用"研究"替换。 语言的组合关系说明了语言结构的规则，语言的聚合关系说明了替换规则。 二、语音的组合与聚合关系 语音中的每一个音素（音位），它总是处在相邻的音素之间。通过音素组合关系的研究，建立起来音位。 例如：北京话有几个与[a]发音比较接近的元音，从音质角度看，它们是不同的音，它们分别为[a]、[ɑ]、[A]、[ε]。[a]只出现在i和n 的前面，如bai 、ai、ban、an等；[ɑ]只出现在u和ng的前面，如gao、yang、ao、gang等；[A]只出现在音节的最后，如jia、hua、ba 等；。根据这些组合规律我们就可以把它们归纳成为一个音位[a]。汉语拼音方案就是按音位设计的。
聚合关系是出现在一定组合中相同位置上的各语言成分所具有的类聚会同的关系。聚合关系是在对立互补原则的基础上建立的，我们把能够出现在一个音节开头的那个辅音归成一类，那就是声母。声母之间是聚合关系。如有的辅音只出现在i和ü前面，像j、q、x，我们把这三个辅音看作是一个小的类聚，它们在发音上有共同的特点称为舌面音。其他如舌尖前音、舌尖中音、舌尖后音、双唇音、舌根音等类聚。现代汉语中的辅音大部分有双向的聚合。我们可以看下面的z c s 、zh ch sh、j q x。 从可以看到，横向的三个辅音也分别是一种聚合，第一行是舌尖前音的聚合，第二行是舌尖后音的聚合，第三行是舌面音的聚合；同样纵向的三个音也是一种聚合，第一列的三个音是不送气塞擦音的聚合，第二列是送气塞擦音的聚合，第三列是擦音的聚合。 三、词（语素）的组合关系和聚合关系 语素是语言中最小的音义结合体，或者说是最小的语言单位。在语言中，语素不可再分，因为切分语素得到的是音素。语素和语素可组合成词语。 语素的组合和聚合不像语音那样有严整的规律。语素的组合有许多制约的因素。语素组合比较有规律的是一些虚语素，即词缀。如现代汉语中的“阿”总是和表人的语素组合在一起，构成“阿公、阿婆阿Q、阿姨”等。与此类似的还有，例如：子——矮子、才子、担子、胆子、桌子。
语言学概论期末考试题
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英语语言学期末考试试卷 第一部分选择题 I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%) 1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view 2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary 3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________. A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue C. but the details of language have to be learnt.
语言学期末复习资料整理版
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period
语言学心得
语义研究历史分期中的语文学时期 专业：英美文学学号：20140601012 姓名：任雪娇 自1897年法国学者Michael Breal(布雷尔，1832-1915)发表的《语义学探索》以来，语义学作为语言学的一门独立学科宣告成立。此后，哲学家、逻辑学家、社会学家、语言学家们就开始注意语义研究。那么，首先，什么是语义学呢？语义学又叫词义学，它是以词的内容为研究对象的学科，它的任务是研究词义的性质，词义的发展、演变以及词语词义之间的种种关系，并揭示词义的一般规律。 而我今天将要对语言学时期中的一个时期——传统语言学时期，也就是语文学时期的发展与演变做一个简要的梳理。 （一）语文学时期的四个阶段 在欧洲大陆，语文学时期指的是整个18世纪以前的语言研究。同时，在这一时期，语言学家及哲学家们对文学作品尤其是古希腊--罗马时代的文学作品也进行学术研究，这包括以文学文献为基础的文化研究。从历史上看，“语文学时期”是一个生机勃勃的历史时期，它包括一下几个阶段：古希腊罗马时期、中世纪、文艺复兴时期、现代时期的前夕。 古希腊罗马时期 首先，我们都知道欧洲语言学始于希腊。而古希腊罗马时期的语文学主要是在哲学框架内进行的，因此对语言的本质问题、词源问题、修辞问题以及语音、语法等问题都进行了认真的探讨和研究。在这一时期出现了多种语言学流派，例如：斯多葛学派、亚历山大学派等等。中世纪时期 语法是中世纪学术语言的基础，也是七艺（语法、雄辩术、修辞学、音乐、几何、算术、天文）之一。对于语言学历史来说，中世纪的后半期，也就是我们称为“经院哲学时期”具有很重要的意义。经院哲学非常重视语言学研究，进行了大量的研究工作。在它兴盛时期的研究成果很多，比如说思辨语法（思辨语法是语言学理论发展的一个明确而特殊的阶段，它受到当时基督信仰的加强，同时又反过来加强了基督信仰，它把人类知识所有的分支和学科都统一在它的体系里，是理性的主张与宗教的信仰可以在这一体系内和谐一致。） 文艺复兴时期 文艺复兴运动可以看作是一场发源于14世纪的意大利，然后向外扩展，特别是在欧洲向北扩展的运动。文艺复兴时期学术方面最重要的部分--从意大利开始的对古拉丁语和古希腊语的研究得到了恢复。文艺复兴时期的语法家中，最著名的是彼得罗·拉穆斯，他被称为现代结构主义的先驱。他积极提倡用人文主义方法教授古典语言，主张通过文学作品，而不是通过经院哲学的亚里士多德学说进行教学。 现代时期前夕 到18世纪，欧洲语言学发生了巨大的变化，语言起源问题在那时已不是“哪种语言最古老”或者“上帝用什么语言跟亚当说话”而是对语言最终发展为现代如此有力和灵活的交际系统所处的条件，以及所经过的发展阶段，进行带有更多人类学性质探讨。这一时期出现的威廉·冯·洪堡特就是至今也很著名的语言学家，他认为语言能力具有普遍性，还认为没种语言都是历史的产物，但作为思维和工具的模式，有些语言则比别的语言发达的多。 经验主义 语言学研究方法的不同源自哲学领域的思想纷争。理性主义和经验主义是哲学领域的量大思潮，多个世纪以来一直深深地影响着语言学研究方法。经验主义认为经验来自感官对外间事物的感觉，其带有唯物主义倾向，同时，经验主义也包含着神学唯心主义的因素。著名语言学家曾说过“面对语言的多样性和复杂性，经验主义学派强调各种语言的特殊变化，根据日
《语言学概论》期末B卷 答案解析
丽水学院 —学年第一学期期终考试试卷答案（B卷）课程语言学概论使用班级 班级：学号：姓名： 一、填空题（本大题共14空格，每空格1分，共14分） 1．在中国，早期的语言研究主要是围绕着汉字的字义、字音、字形进行的，产生了训诂学、音韵学、文字学三个分支，统称为“小学”。 2．被尊称为“19世纪的亚里土多德”的德国哲学家和数学家弗雷格于1892年提出预设的概念，他的理论被公认为人工智能的理论基础。 3．每个元音的音质是由舌位前后、舌位高低、圆唇与否3个方面的因素决定的。 4.语言的变异可以分为地域变异、社会变异和功能变异等3类。 5．言语行为理论的创始人是英国道德哲学家奥斯汀，他认为，语句有命题意义和施为意义两层意义。 二、判断是非题：对的写“√”，错的写“×”（本大题共10小题，每小题1分，共10分） （√）1．语言是一种符号系统。 （√）2．肺是人类发音的动力站，声带是发音体。 （×）3．元音发音时，声带不一定振动，辅音发音时，声带一定要振动。（√）4．超音质音位又叫“超音段音位”或“非音质音位”。 （×）5．在现代汉语普通话中，[b]和[p]是两个音位。 （√）6．福建“沙县县”简称为“沙县”体现了语言的经济机制。
（×）7．词序和虚词是俄语最重要的语法手段。 （√）8．语法手段中的“零形式”也表示语法意义。 （√）9．就其实质而言，语法规则表现的就是组合关系或聚合关系。（×）10．湖南江永的“女书”体现了语言的性别变异。 三、选择题（本大题共10小题，每小题1分，共10分） （②）1．语言符号的符号是： ①声音②文字③它所代表的事物④发音器官（④）2．我国青海五屯话是一种： ①皮钦语②洋泾浜③新美拉尼西亚语④克里奥尔语（③）3．合作原则理论的最早提出者是： ①奥斯汀②利奇③格赖斯④莫里斯（④）4．英语的man→men采用的语法手段是： ①异根式②重音③词缀④内部屈折（③）5．关于元音和辅音的区别，正确的描述是： ①元音发音时间短暂，辅音发音时间较长。 ②辅音发音响亮，元音发音不响亮。 ③发辅音气流受阻，发元音气流不受阻。 ④发元音和辅音发音器官的各个部位均衡紧张。 （④）6．俄语、汉语、日语3种语言所属的语法结构类型按次序是：①粘着语-屈折语-孤立语②屈折语-粘着语-孤立语 ③孤立语-屈折语-粘着语④屈折语-孤立语-粘着语（③）7．与“春光明媚”结构相同的组合是： ①阳光的温暖②马上开始
语言学纲要 期末复习资料(题库)
语言学概论试题(1) 一、填空１５% 1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。 2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。 3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。 4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。 5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。 6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。 7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。 8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。 9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。 10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。 二、选择题１０% 1 、中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是（D ） Ａ、文字学Ｂ、语音学Ｃ、词汇学Ｄ、语法学 2、汉语属于（B ） Ａ、屈折语Ｂ、词根语Ｃ、多式综合语Ｄ、粘着语 3、一种语言中数量最少的是（B ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、音位Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音节 4、文字的前身是（C ） Ａ、结绳记事Ｂ、手势Ｃ、图画记事Ｄ、实物记事 5、派生词中包含（B ） Ａ、词尾Ｂ、词根Ｃ、虚词Ｄ、根词 6、语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是（C ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、义素Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音位 7、汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是（C ） Ａ、主语位置Ｂ、谓语位置Ｃ、状语位置Ｄ、定语位置 8、以下各种语言变体中，属于社会方言的是 （D ） Ａ、土话Ｂ、客家话Ｃ、客套话Ｄ、黑话 9、下列语素中属于自由语素的是（C ） Ａ、初Ｂ、视Ｃ、人Ｄ、民 10、在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（D ） Ａ、转换关系Ｂ、组合关系Ｃ、层级关系Ｄ、聚合关系 三、名词解释２０% 1、专语语言学: 以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。 2、组合关系: 指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。 3、语流音变:语流中的某些音由于相互影响而发生临时性的变化，这种变化就叫语流音变。 4、语义场: 由具有某些共同义素的一群词类聚而成的场。 5、语法范畴: 把同一性质的语法意义综合和概括所形成的语法意义的类别 四、试以国际音标标出下列各词的读音１０% 1、优秀 2、维持 3、宏观 4、精神 5、离开 五、用义素分析法分析下列各组词9％ 瞻仰[+用眼+往一定方向+崇敬地] 1、｛
语言学总结
In chapter seven,I learn about the relationship between language and culture 、London School、Linguists in North Americian、Malinowski Guinea 、SAPIR-WHOF HYPOTHES and sociolinguistics. At the first,I learn the relationshp between language and culture.(1)Language is an essential and importantpart of a given culture ;the impact of culture upon a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable.(2)Culture is a wider syatem that completely includes language as a subsystem.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(3)Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.(4)Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture in part form.(5)Culture affects language. Secondly,,I understand how language relates culture.At the beginning of the eighteenth century,they think that language is either comparative and historical or structural and formalized in https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2411398278.html,ter, at the start of the 20th century ,the study of language was developed in England and North America.In the 1920s ,a school of ANTHROPOLOTICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS came into being in England.The meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a given context,for example “wood’’.Malinowski created the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUA TION,and J.R.Firth developed the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION. M.A.K Halliday further developed this theory,who is the founder of systemic-functional linguistics. Tirdly,I learn a very influential and controversial theory about the relationships between language and culture .Benjamin Lee Whorf is famous in hypothesis concerning language,thought,and culture.His famous theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES was developed with the help of his experience and his study of Hopi ,an American Indian language.What this hypothesis suggests is this :Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different language may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Due to the theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES,two important points came into the world.one is LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM,and the other is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM means that language may determine our thinking patterns,and LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY means that similarity between languages is https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2411398278.html,ter,,Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed,a strong version and a weak version.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes ,emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak
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