国际经济学克鲁格曼_教材答案

Problems and Answers to Chapter 2

Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canada’s is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australia’s. Why should this be the case?

加拿大和澳大利亚都是英语国家，两国的人口规模也相当（加拿大多60%），但是相对各自的GDP而言，加拿大的贸易额是澳大利亚的两倍，为什么如此？

A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume of

trade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Considering

the distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher than that of

Canada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to the

USA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy,

making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky.

GDP 不是解释两国贸易量的唯一重要因素，距离也是至关重要的因素之一。

考虑到距离，澳大利亚的进出口运输成本相对更高，因此减少了贸易吸引力。

因为加拿大与美国相邻，而澳大利亚不与任何一个大经济体相邻，这使得加拿

大更加开放，而澳大利亚更加自给自足。

Q2:Mexico and Brazil have very different trading patterns. Mexico trades mainly

with the United States, Brazil trades about equally with the United States and with the

European Union; Mexico does much more trade relative to its GDP. Explain these

differences using the gravity model.

墨西哥和巴西各自的贸易模式不同。墨西哥主要与美国贸易，巴西与美国和

欧盟的贸易量大致相当。墨西哥的贸易量相对其GDP而言很大。用引力模型

解释这种现象。

A2:Mexico is close to the United States, but is very far from the European Union, so

Mexico’s value of trade with the United States is large. Brazil is far from both the

United States and European Union, thus, Brazil’s volume of trade with the United

States and with the European Union is generally equivalent. Mexico’s volume of trade

is larger than Brazil’s, for two reasons: one is that Mexico is adjacent to the United

States which is a large economy; the other is that Mexico is one of the members of

NAFTA. Brazil is far from any large economy, and the size of the economy for the

countries which have signed free trade agreements with Brazil is relatively small.

墨西哥与美国毗邻，但是距离欧盟很远，因此它与美国的贸易量很大。巴西

离美国和欧盟都很远，因此巴西与美国和欧盟的贸易量大致相当。墨西哥贸易

量比巴西大，其原因一方面由于墨西哥离大经济体美国近，另一方面由于它是

北美贸易协定的成员国之一。巴西远离任何一个大经济体，与它签订自由贸易

协定的国家经济规模都比较小。

Q3:Equation (2.1) says that trade between any two countries is proportional to the

product of their GDPs. Does this mean that the GDP of every country in the world

were to increase by 50%, world trade would increase by 125%? Analyze the question

using the simple example shown in Table 2-2.

方程(2.1) 表明两个国家之间的贸易和它们的GDP乘积成正比。这是否意味着如果每个国家的GDP增加50%, 世界的贸易量就增加125%？分析这个问题用表格2-2

的简单例子。

A3:Yes. If both countries’GDP increase by 50%, other things equal, multiplying the

right hand side of equation (2.1) by (1+50%)*(1+50%)=225% and multiplying the left

hand side of equation (2.1) by 1+125%=225%, therefore, the volume of trade will increase 125%. Using Table 2-2, if four countries’GDP all increase 50%, the volume of trade will increase 125% correspondingly, so the first line of the table will become: —1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 Country A’s GDP increases to 4*(1+50%) =6 > (3.6+0.9+0.9= 5.4). According to the assumption, the results are reasonable because the results mean that part of country A’s income is consumed on imports and part of country A’s income is consumed on domestic products, although the portion consumed domestically is smaller than that of imports.

是的。如果两个国家的GDP均增加50%，其他条件不变，方程(2.1) 的右边乘以(1+50%)*(1+50%)=225%, 方程式的左边乘以1+125%=225%，所以，世界的贸易量就增加125%。结合表格2-2，如果四个国家的GDP都增加50%倍，贸易量也增加125%，则表格第一行的数据应为：—1.6*225%=3.6 0.4*225% =0.9 0.4*225% =0.9 A国的GDP增加到4*(1+50%)=6 > (3.6+0.9+0.9= 5.4)。根据假设，这个结果是合理的因为这意味着A国的支出一部分从国外进口一部分收入用于消费本国的产品，虽然用于本国消费的部分少于对其他国家的进口。

Q4: Over the past few decades, East Asian economies have increased their share of

world GDP. Similarly, intra-East Asian trade --- that is, trade among East Asian

nations --- has grown as a share of world trade. More than that, East Asian countries

3 do an increasing share of their trade with each other. Explain why, using the gravity

model.

在过去的几十年中，东亚国家增加了它们在世界GDP中的份额。同样，不

仅东亚国家整体的贸易在世界贸易中的份额增加了，而且东亚国家内相互间的

贸易也增加了。应用引力模型解释这一现象。

A4:

In the past, East Asian countries are all small economies, meaning that their size

of economies is small and they are unable to import a lot of goods. As these East

Asian countries become richer, the demand increases and they can import more than

before. Considering that East Asian countries have been rich countries, they become

trading partners with each other; however, they mainly imported goods from rich

countries. Based on gravity model, even if the distance between South Korea and

Taiwan is small, the volume of the two countries is very small due to their small size

of economies. But now, because their GDP have increased, the volume of trade

between the two countries increased correspondingly.

之前，东亚国家都是小经济体，这说明它们的市场规模很小，不能大量进口。随着它们越来越富裕，消费需求增加，它们也就能更多地进口了。这样，之前它们主要向富国出口，现在它们自己成为了富国，互相也就成为了贸易对象。根据引力模型，当韩国和台湾GDP 规模很小时，意味着尽管两国的距离很近，但是两国之间的贸易量很小。现在它们GDP增加了，它们之间的贸易量也随之增大了。

Q5:A century ago, most French imports came from relatively distant locations: North

America, Latin America, and Asia. Today, most French imports come from other

European countries. How does this fit with the changing types of goods that make up

world trade?

一个世纪以前，法国的进口产品来自相对遥远的地区：北美、拉丁美洲，和

亚洲。今天，法国绝大部分进口产品来自其他欧洲国家。这种变化是如何迎合

不断变化的世界贸易产品结构的？

A5:A century ago, each country ’s trading products are determined by the country ’

s climate and geography. The climate and natural resources endowments in French are

very similar to that of other European countries; therefore, French can only import

different products, such as, cotton, rubber, and etc, from other western hemisphere

(North America, Latin America) and Asia. However, after industrial revolution,

manufacturing trade increased dramatically. With the development of transportation

and communicate technology, French ’s trade volume with other European countries

increases correspondingly, as the gravity model predicted directly.

一个世纪以前，各国贸易产品是由气候和地理条件决定的。法国的气候和自

然资源禀赋和欧洲其他国家很相似，这样法国只能从西半球其他国家、亚洲进

口像棉花、橡胶这样的产品，从欧洲其他国家进口产品很少。工业革命之后，

制造品贸易增长，并且随着交通和通讯的改进继续扩张，因此法国转向与欧洲

其他经济体大量开展贸易是自然而然的，这就是引力模型的一个直接预测。

Chapter 3

1．Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana production it is 2. a ．Graph out the production possibilities frontier:

b ．What is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas?

5.1 Lb

La a a c ．In the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be?

In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions are

determined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earnings in a competitive

economy, only when Lb La b a /a a /P P =will both goods be produced. So 1.5 /P P b a =

在没有贸易时，因为劳方是唯一的生产要素，并且供应决定取决于个体尝试最大化他们的在竞争经济的收入，只有当两件物品将被生产。 因此

2．Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with a

labor force of 800. Foreign ’s unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1.

a ．Graph Foreign ’s production possibilities frontier:

b ．

3．Now suppose world relative demand takes the following form: Demand for apples/demand for bananas = price of bananas/price of apples.

a ．Graph the relative demand curve along with the relative supply curve:

a b b a /P P /D D =

∵When the market achieves its equilibrium, we have 1b a )(D D -**=++=b

a b b a a P P Q Q Q Q ∴RD is a hyperbola x

y 1=

b ．What is the equilibrium relative price of apples?

The equilibrium relative price of apples is determined by the intersection of the RD and RS

curves.

RD: y

x 1= RS: 5]5,5.1[5

.1],5.0(5.0)5.0,0[=∈=??

???+∞∈=∈y y y x x x

∴25

.0==y x

∴2/=b P a P e e c ．Describe the pattern of trade.

∵b a b e a e b a P P P P P P ///>>**

∴In this two-country world, Home will specialize in the apple production, export apples and import bananas. Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples.

d ．

Show that both Home and Foreign gain from trade.

International trade allows Home and Foreign to consume anywhere within the colored

lines, which lie outside the countries ’ production possibility frontiers. And the indirect method, specializing in producing only one production then trade with other country, is a more efficient method than direct production. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. So both Home and Foreign gain from trade.

国际贸易允许本国和外国任何地方在分界线之内消耗，在一国生产可能性边境之外

说谎。 并且间接方法，专门研究导致一生产比直接生产然后只换与其他国家，是一个高效率的方法。 在没有贸易时，首页可能由前面二个苹果获取三个香蕉，并且外国可能由一前面五个香蕉获取。 贸易允许每个国家为一个苹果换二个香蕉。 首页只能由前面二个苹果然后获取四个香蕉，当外国时能由前面二个香蕉获取一个苹果。 因此首页和从贸易的外国获取。

4．Suppose that instead of 1200 workers, Home had 2400. Find the equilibrium relative price. What can you say about the efficiency of world production and the division of the gains from trade between Home and Foreign in this case? RD: y

x 1= RS: 5]5,5.1[5

.1],1(1)1,0[=∈=??

???+∞∈=∈y y y x x x

∴5.132==

y x ∴5.1/=b P a P e e

In this case, Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import

apples. But Home will produce bananas and apples at the same time. And the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home remains the same. So Home neither gains nor

loses but Foreign gains from trade.

在这种情况下，外国将专门研究香蕉生产，出口香蕉和进口苹果。但是本国同时将生产香蕉和苹果。并且香蕉的机会成本根据苹果的本国的依然是同样。因此本国不获取也不丢失，而是从贸易的外国获取。

5．Suppose that Home has 2400 workers, but they are only half as production in both industries as we have been assuming, Construct the world relative supply curve and determine the equilibrium relative price. How do the gains from trade compare with those in the case described in problem 4?

In this case, the labor is doubled while the productivity of labor is halved, so the ＂effective labor＂remains the same. So the answer is similar to that in 3. And both Home and Foreign can gain from trade. But Foreign gains lesser compare with that in the case 4.

6．”Korean workers earn only $2.50 an hour; if we allow Korea to export as much as it likes to the United States, our workers will be forced down to the same level. Y ou can’t import a $5 shirt without importing the $2.50 wage that goes with it.” Discuss.

In fact, relative wage rate is determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. Korea’s low wage reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. Actually, trade with a less productive, low wage country can raise the welfare and standard of living of countries with high productivity, such as United States. So this pauper labor argument is wrong.

实际上，相对工资率取决于比较生产力和对物品的相对需求。Korea’s低工资反射事实韩国比多数产业的美国较不有生产力的。实际上，与一个较不有生产力，低工资国家的贸易可能培养国家福利和生活水平有高生产力的，例如美国。因此这个叫花子劳方论据是错误的。

7．Japanese labor productivity is roughly the same as that of the United States in the manufacturing sector (higher in some industries, lower in others), while the United States, is still considerably more productive in the service sector. But most services are non-traded. Some analysts have argued that this poses a problem for the United States, because our comparative advantage lies in things we cannot sell on world markets. What is wrong with this argument?

The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the

industries and the relative wages across industries. So there are four aspects should be taken into account before we reach conclusion: both the industries and service sectors of Japan and U.S., not just the two service sectors. So this statement does not bade on the reasonable logic. 所有产业的竞争优势取决于产业的相对生产力和横跨产业的亲戚薪水。因此，在我们得出结论之前，有四个方面应该考虑到：产业和日本和美国，不仅二个服务部门的服务部门。

不因此这个声明在合理的逻辑出了价。

8．Anyone who has visited Japan knows it is an incredibly expensive place; although Japanese workers earn about the same as their U.S. counterparts, the purchasing power of their incomes is about one-third less. Extend your discussing from question 7 to explain this observation. (Hint: Think about wages and the implied prices of non-trade goods.) The relative higher purchasing power of U.S. is sustained and maintained by its considerably higher productivity in services. Because most of those services are non-traded, Japanese could not benefit from those lower service costs. And U.S. does not have to face a lower international price of services. So the purchasing power of Japanese is just one-third of their U.S. counterparts.

美国的相对更高的购买力由它的在服务的相当地更高的生产力承受并且维护。由于大多那些服务non-traded，日语不可能受益于那些更低的服务费用。并且美国不必须面对服务的一个更低的国际价格。因此日语的购买力是他们的美国相对物的三分之一。9．How does the fact that many goods are non-traded affect the extent of possible gains from trade?

Actually the gains from trade depended on the proportion of non-traded goods. The gains will increase as the proportion of non-traded goods decrease.

10．We have focused on the case of trade involving only two countries. Suppose that there are many countries capable of producing two goods, and that each country has only one factor of production, labor. What could we say about the pattern of production and in this case? (Hint: Try constructing the world relative supply curve.)

Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.

Chapter 4

1. In 1986, the price of oil on world markets dropped sharply. Since the United States is an

oil-importing country, this was widely regarded as good for the U.S. economy. Yet in Texas and Louisiana 1986 was a year of economic decline. Why?

It can deduce that Texas and Louisiana are oil-producing states of United States. So when the price of oil on world markets declined, the real wage of this industry fell in terms of other goods. This might be the reason of economic decline in these two states in 1986.

2。An economy can produce good 1 using labor and capital and good 2 using labor and land. The total supply of labor is 100 units. Given the supply of capital, the outputs of the two

goods depends on labor input as follows:

To analyze the economy ’s production possibility frontier, consider how the output mix changes as labor is shifted between the two sectors.

a. Graph the production functions for good 1 and good 2.

),()

,(22221111L K Q Q L K Q Q ==

b.

Production Function for Good 1010203040506070

8090

1000102030405060708090100Labor Input for Good 1Output Production Function for Good 20102030405060708090

100

0102030405060708090100

Labor Input for Good 2

Output

The PPF is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good. The total labor

supply is fixed. So as L 1 rises, MPL 1 falls; correspondingly, as L 2 falls, MPL 2 rises. So PP gets steeper as we move down it to the right.

2. The marginal product of labor curves corresponding to the production functions in

problem2 are as follows:

a. Suppose that the price of good 2 relative to that of good 1 is 2. Determine graphically the wage rate and the allocation of labor between the two sectors.

With the assumption that labor is freely mobile between sectors, it will move from the low-wage sector to the high-wage sector until wages are equalized. So in equilibrium, the wage rate is equal to the value of labor ’s marginal product.

假设劳方自由地是在区段之间的机动性，它从低工资的区段将移动向high-wage 区段，直到薪水被调平。 因此在平衡，工资率与labor’s 边际产品的价值是相等的。

2/122211=?=?P P P MPL P MPL

The abscissa of point of intersection illustrated above should be between (20, 30). Since we only have to find out the approximate answer, linear function could be employed.

The labor allocation between the sectors is approximately L1=27 and L2=73. The wage rate is approximately 0.98.

被说明的交点横坐标以上应该之间(20，30)。因为我们必须只发现近似答复，线性函数可能被使用。在区段之间的The辛苦分派是大约L1=27和L2=73。工资率是大约0.98。

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2012626795.html,ing the graph drawn for problem 2, determine the output of each sector. Then

confirm graphically that the slop of the production possibility frontier at that point equals the relative price.

The relative price is P2/P1=2 and we have got the approximate labor allocation, so we can employ the linear function again to calculate the approximate output of each sector: Q1=44 and Q2=90.

相对价格是P2/P1=2，并且我们有近似辛苦分派，因此我们可以再使用线性函数计算每个区段近似产品：Q1=44和Q2=90。

c.

Suppose that the relative price of good 2 falls to 1. Repeat (a) and (b).

The relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (Ｌ1=62, L 2=38). This also leads to an output adjustment, that is, production of good 2 falls to 68 units and production of good 1 rises to 76 units. And the wage rate is approximately equal to 0.74.

在导致的价格的相对衰落的好2将被再分配的劳方： 劳方被画出于生产好2并且输入好1的生产(Ｌ1=62， L2=38)。 这也导致输出调整，即，好2个秋天到68个单位的生产和生产好1上升到76个单位。 并且工资率是大约相等到0.74。

d. Calculate the effects of the price change on the income of the specific factors in

sectors 1 and 2.

With the relative price change from P 2/P 1=2 to P 2/P 1=1, the price of good 2 has fallen by 50 percent, while the price of good 1 has stayed the same. Wages have fallen too, but by less than the fall in P 2 (wages fell approximately 25 percent). Thus, the real wage relative

1

to P 2 actually rises while real wage relative to P 1 falls. Hence, to determine the welfare consequence for workers, the information about their consumption shares of good 1 and good 2 is needed.

相对价格变动，而价格的好1停留了同样，从P2/P1=2到P2/P1=1，价格的好

2由50%下落了。 薪水由较少比在P2的秋天下落了，但是(薪水落大约25%)。 因此，当实际工资相对P1落时，实际工资相对P2实际上上升。 因此，确定工作者的福利救济后果，关于他们的消耗量份额的信息好1和好2是需要的。

3. In the text we examined the impacts of increases in the supply of capital and land. But

what if the mobile factor, labor, increases in supply?

a ． Analyze the qualitative effects of an increase in the supply of labor in the specific

factors model, holding the price of both goods constant.

For an economy producing two goods, X an Y , with labor demands reflected by their marginal revenue product curves, there is an initial wage of w 1 and an initial labor allocation of L x =O x A and L y =O y A. When the supply of labor increases, the right boundary of the diagram illustrated below pushed out to O y ’. The demand for labor in sector Y is pulled rightward with the boundary. The new intersection of the labor demand curves shows that labor expands in both sectors, and therefore output of both X and Y also expand. The relative expansion of output is ambiguous. Wages paid to workers fall.

b ． Graph the effect on the equilibrium for the numerical example in problems 2 and 3,

given a relative price of 1, when the labor force expands from 100 to 140.

With the law of diminishing returns, the new production possibility frontier is more concave and steeper (flatter) at the ends when total labor supply increases.

L 1 increase to 90 from 62 and L 2 increases to 50 from 38. Wages decline from 0.74 to 0.60. This new allocation of labor leads to a new output mix of approximately Q 1=85 and Q 2=77.

1

w 2

w y O y O

Chapter 4

1． In the United States where land is cheap, the ratio of land to labor used in cattle rising is higher than that of land used in wheat growing. But in more crowded countries, where land is expensive and labor is cheap, it is common to raise cows by using less land and more labor than Americans use to grow wheat. Can we still say that raising cattle is land intensive compared with farming wheat? Why or why not?

The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used in production, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries too if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. The comparison between another country and the United States is less relevant for answering the question.

2． Suppose that at current factor prices cloth is produced using 20 hours of labor for each acre of land, and food is produced using only 5 hours of labor per acre of land.

a. Suppose that the economy ’s total resources are 600 hours of labor and 60 acres of land. Using a diagram determine the allocation of resources.

5T F LF /T F LF /QF)(T F / /QF)(LF aT F / aLF 20T C LC /T C LC /QC)(T C / /QC)(LC aT C / aLC =?===?==

We can solve this algebraically since L=LC+LF=600 and T=TC+TF=60. The solution is LC=400, TC=20, LF=200 and TF=40.

b. Now suppose that the labor supply increase first to 800, then 1000, then 1200 hours. Using a diagram like Figure4-6, trace out the changing allocation of resources. t o n ).s p e c i a l i z a (c o m p l e t e 0.LF 0,T F 1200,LC 60,T C :1200L 66.67LF 13.33,T F 933.33,LC 46.67,T C :1000L 133.33LF 26.67,T F 666.67,LC 33.33,T C :800L ===============

c. What would happen if the labor supply were to increase even further?

At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, or there would be unemployment.

3. “The world ’s poorest countries cannot find anything to export. There is no resource that is abundant — certainly not capital or land, and in small poor nations not even labor is Labor Land Cloth

Food 0l 800 0l 1000 0l 1200 Labor Land Cloth

Food

LC LF TC

TF

abundant.” Discuss.

The gains from trade depend on comparative rather than absolute advantage. As to poor countries, what matters is not the absolute abundance of factors, but their relative abundance.

Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.

4.The U.S. labor movement — which mostly represents blue-collar workers rather than

professionals and highly educated workers —has traditionally favored limits on imports form less-affluent countries. Is this a shortsighted policy of a rational one in view of the interests of union members? How does the answer depend on the model of trade?

In the Ricardo’s model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power.

This result does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries.

In the Immobile Factors model labor may gain or lose from trade. Purchasing power in terms of one good will rise, but in terms of the other good it will decline.

The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly discusses distribution by considering the effects of trade on the owners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses from trade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from the Heckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits.

5.There is substantial inequality of wage levels between regions within the United States.

For example, wages of manufacturing workers in equivalent jobs are about 20 percent lower in the Southeast than they are in the Far West. Which of the explanations of failure of factor price equalization might account for this? How is this case different from the divergence of wages between the United States and Mexico (which is geographically closer to both the U.S. Southeast and the Far West than the Southeast and Far West are to each other)?

When we employ factor price equalization, we should pay attention to its conditions: both countries/regions produce both goods; both countries have the same technology of production, and the absence of barriers to trade. Inequality of wage levels between regions within the United States may caused by some or all of these reasons.

Actually, the barriers to trade always exist in the real world due to transportation costs. And the trade between U.S. and Mexico, by contrast, is subject to legal limits; together with cultural differences that inhibit the flow of technology, this may explain why the difference in wage rates is so much larger.

6.Explain why the Leontief paradox and the more recent Bowen, Leamer, and

Sveikauskas results reported in the text contradict the factor-proportions theory.

The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, which has a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods. Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found that the correlation between factor endowment and trade patterns is weak for the world as a whole.

The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries' exports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.

7.In the discussion of empirical results on the Heckscher-Ohlin model, we noted that

recent work suggests that the efficiency of factors of production seems to differ internationally. Explain how this would affect the concept of factor price equalization.

If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adju st for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be more successful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled worker could earn twice what lower skilled workers do and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.

Chapter 6

1.For each of the following examples, explain whether this is a case of external or internal

economies of scale:

a.Most musical wind instruments in the United States are produced by more than a

dozen factories in Elkhart, Indiana.

b.All Hondas sold in the United States are either imported or produced in Marysville,

Ohio.

c.All airframes for Airbus, Europe’s only producer of large aircraft, are assembled in

Toulouse, France.

d.Hartford, Connecticut is the insurance capital of the northeastern United States.

External economies of scale: Cases a and d. The productions of these two industries concentrate in a few locations and successfully reduce each industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets.

Internal economies of scale: Cases b and c. Both of them occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.

2.In perfect competition, firm set price equal to marginal cost. Why isn’t this possible

when there are internal economies of scale?

Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.

3.It is often argued that the existence of increasing returns is a source of conflict between

countries, since each country is better off if it can increase its production in those industries characterized by economies of scale. Evaluate this view in terms of both the monopolistic competition and the external economy models.

Both internal economies of scale (which may lead to monopolistic competition) and external

economies of scale could lead to increasing returns.

By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country rather

than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output.

In the monopolistic competition model, the concentration of labor benefits the host country. The host country can capture some monopoly rents. But the rest of the world may hurt and have to face higher prices on its consumption goods.

In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.

4. Suppose the two countries we considered in the numerical example on pages 132-135

were to integrate their automobile marker with a third country with an annual market for 3.75 million automobiles. Find the number of firms, the output per firm, and the price per automobile in the new integrated market after trade.

15.8n X 1c P c AC 2=?==??→?+=+==n S Fb S n bn X F AC P

However, since you will never see 0.8 firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not

16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.

5. Evaluate the relative importance of economies of scale and comparative advantage in

causing the following:

a. Most of the world ’s aluminum is smelted in Norway or Canada.

b. Half of the world ’s large jet aircraft are assembled in Seattle.

c. Most semiconductors are manufactured in either the United States or Japan.

d. Most Scotch whiskey comes from Scotland.

e. Much of the world ’s best wine comes from France.

a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.

b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a small number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.

c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production, semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.

d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also,

soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.

e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to reproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.

6. There are some shops in Japan that sell Japanese goods imported back from the United

States at a discount over the prices charged by other Japanese shops. How is this possible?

The Japanese producers employ price discrimination across United States and Japanese

markets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets may lead to such profitable chance.

7. Consider a situation similar to that in Figure 6-9, in which two countries that can

produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves. In this case, however, suppose that the two countries have the same costs, so that their supply curves are identical.

a. What would you expect to be the pattern of international specialization and trade?

What would determine who produces the good?

Suppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world. b. What are the benefits of international trade in this case? Do they accrue only to the

country that gets the industry?

Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when external

economies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.

8. It is fairly common for an industrial cluster to break up and for production to move to

locations with lower wages when the technology of the industry is no longer rapidly improving —when it is no longer essential to have the absolutely most modern machinery, when the need for highly skilled workers has declined, and when being at the cutting edge of innovation conveys only a small advantage. Explain this tendency of industrial clusters to break up in terms of the theory of external economies. Q P,C

D AC AC External Economics and Specialization

External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the “cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this process slows, manufacturing becomes more normal and standard and there is less advantage brought by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that low-wage locations will be chosen.

CHAPTER7

1. The marginal product of labor in Home is 10 and in Foreign is 18. Wages are higher in Foreign, so workers migrate there to the point where the marginal product in both Home and Foreign is equated. This occurs when there are 7 workers in each country, and the marginal product of labor in each country is 14.

2. There is no incentive to migrate when there is factor price equalization. This occurs when both countries produce both goods and when there are no barriers to trade (the problem assumes technology is the same in the two countries). A tariff by country A increases the relative price of the protected good in that country and lowers its relative price in the country B. If the protected good uses labor relatively intensively, the demand for labor in country A rises, as does the return to labor, and the return to labor in the country B falls. These results follow from the Stolper-Samuelson theory, which states that an increase in the price of a good raises the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase. These international wage differentials induce migration from country B to country A.

3. The analysis of intertemporal trade follows directly the analysis of trade of two goods. Substitute "future consumption" and "present consumption" for "cloth" and "food." The relevant relative price is the cost of future consumption compared to present consumption, which is the inverse of the real interest rate. Countries in which present consumption is relatively cheap (which have low real interest rates) will "export" present consumption (i.e. lend) to countries in which present consumption is relatively dear (which have high real interest rates). The equilibrium real interest rate after borrowing and lending occur lies between that found in each country before borrowing and lending take place. Gains from borrowing and lending are analogous to gains from trade--there is greater efficiency in the production of goods intertemporally.

4. Foregoing current consumption allows one to obtain future consumption. There will be a bias towards future consumption if the amount of future consumption which can be obtained by foregoing current consumption is high. In terms of the analysis presented in this chapter, there is a bias towards future consumption if the real interest rate in the economy is higher in the absence of international borrowing or lending than the world real interest rate.

a. The large inflows of immigrants means that the marginal product of capital will rise as more workers enter the country. The real interest rate will be high, and there will be a bias towards future consumption.

b. The marginal product of capital is low and thus there is a bias towards current consumption.

c. The direction of the bias depends upon the comparison of the increase in the price of oil and the world real interest rate. Leaving the oil in the ground provides a return of the increase in the price of oil whereas the world real interest rate may be higher or lower than this increase.

d. Foregoing current consumption allows exploitation of resources, and higher future consumption. Thus, there is a bias towards future consumption.

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)笔记和课后习题详解 第2章~第4章【圣才出品】

第1篇国际贸易理论 第2章世界贸易概览 2.1复习笔记 1．经济规模与进出口总额之间的关系 （1）规模问题：引力模型 现实证明一国的经济规模与其进出口总额息息相关。把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型（gravity model）来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。引力模型方程式如下： 其中， T是i国与j国的贸易额，A为常量，i Y是i国的国内生产总值，j Y是j国的国 ij 内生产总值， D是两国的距离。引力模型方程式表明：其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的 ij 贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。 （2）引力模型的内在逻辑 引力模型之所以能较好地拟合两国之间的实际贸易现状，其原因在于：大的经济体收入高，因而大量进口产品；大的经济体能生产更多品种的系列产品，因而更能满足其他国家的需求，进而大量出口产品。在两国贸易中，任一方的经济规模越大，则双方的贸易量就越大。 （3）引力模型的应用：寻找反例 当两国之间的贸易量与依照引力模型计算得出的结果相差较大时，就需要从其他因素进行分析，如文化的亲和性、地理位置、运输成本等因素。事实上，这也是引力模型的重要用

途之一，即有助于明确国际贸易中的异常现象。 （4）贸易障碍：距离、壁垒和疆界 距离、壁垒和疆界对国际贸易有负面作用，会使得两国之间的贸易额大大小于根据引力模型所计算出的结果。另外，在各国GDP和距离给定的情况下，有效贸易协定（trade agreement）比无效的贸易协定更能显著增加成员国的贸易量，这也是美国与其邻国的贸易量明显大于其和相同大小的欧盟的贸易量的原因之一。 2．正在演变的世界贸易模式 （1）世界变小了吗？ 人们认为，现代化的运输和通讯可以超越空间距离的束缚，世界因此成了小“村落”。事实的确如此。但是，有时候政治的力量可以超过技术进步的作用，两次世界大战、20世纪30年代的大萧条及战后全世界范围内的贸易保护主义等都严重制约着国际贸易的发展，使得国际贸易大幅萎缩，并且用了几十年才得以恢复。 （2）交易内容 从全世界范围来看，工业制成品是主要的交换产品，所占比重最大。矿产品特别是现代世界不可或缺的石油依旧是世界贸易的主要部分。引人注目的是发展中国家已经从初级产品出口国转变为主要的制成品出口国。另外，服务贸易在国际贸易中凸显重要，并且其重要性越来越突出。 （3）服务外包 随着现代信息技术的发展和应用，一种新的贸易形式——服务外包（service outsourcing）随之出现。服务外包也称之为离岸服务，是一种新兴的国际贸易现象，使得曾经必须在一国国内实现的服务现在可以在国外实现。 （4）旧规则依然可行吗？

《国际经济学》课程标准

《国际经济学》课程标准 第一部分前言 课程代码：H0201114 课程名称：国际经济学 标准学时：56 课程类型：理论课 《国际经济学》以经济学的一般理论为基础，研究国际经济活动和国际经济关系，是一般经济理论在国际经济活动范围中的应用与延伸，是经济学体系的有机组成部分。主要研究对象有国际贸易理论与政策、国际收支理论、汇率理论、要素的国际流动、国际投资理论、开放的宏观经济均衡等。它是国家教育部财经类和管理类专业的核心课程之一，与其关系较大的学科和课程有国际贸易、国际金融等。 本课程标准在教学大纲的基础上制订，具体反映了本课程每一章节的知识点和能力要求，贯彻了教学互动教学法，体现出能力与知识并重，学以致用的教学理念。 一、课程的性质与作用 《国际经济学》以国际经济关系为研究对象，它主要探讨各国之间商品、服务的交换和国际间资本、劳动力的流动的动因和影响，以及各种国际交易活动所引起的国际收支问题。在内容体系上，国际经济学包括微观部分和宏观部分，这两大部分在名称上通常又分别被称为国际贸易理论和国际金融理论。 通过本课程的教学，使学生对国际经济学的整体体系有一个明确的把握，并做到理论与实践相结合，提高学生的理论基础和应用能力，培养学生综合分析问题、解决问题的能力。特别是对那些日后将从事对外经济活动的学生，希望通过本课程的教学，能不同程度地提高他们的实际工作能力，为我国对外开放的进一步发展服务。 国际经济学的基本内容包括：国际贸易理论与政策、国际收支理论、汇率理论、要素的国际流动、国际投资理论、开发那个的宏观经济均衡、国际经济一体化与国际经济秩序。

二、课程基本理念 1. 理论联系实际 本课程在教学过程中既注重扎实的理论基础，又强调理论紧密联系实际，这是《国际经济学》课程一贯坚持的教学理念和特色。《国际经济学》不拘泥于国际贸易、国际金融的纯理论分析，而且一直关注国际经济的新现象、新问题，积极探讨国际经济发展的规律和解决问题的对策，特别是要求将西方经济理论与我国对外开放实践相结合。在课堂教学过程中，经常运用中国案例来阐释相关理论，如人民币汇率变动、亚洲金融危机对中国对外贸易的影响、中美贸易摩擦、中国与世界贸易组织的关系等，这些案例使得《国际经济学》课程具有更强的活力。 2．尊重个体差异，注重过程评价，促进学生发展 本课程在教学过程中，倡导自主学习，启发学生积极思考、分析，鼓励多元思维方式，并将其表达出来，尊重个体差异；建立能激励学生学习兴趣和自主学习能力发展的评价体系。该体系由形成性评价和终结性评价构成。在教学过程中应以形成性评价为主，注重培养和激发学生的学习积极性和自信心。终结性评价应注重检测学生的知识应用能力。评价要有利于促进学生的知识应用能力和健康人格的发展。建立以过程培养促进个体发展，以学生可持续发展能力评价教学过程的双向促进机制，以激发兴趣、发展心智和提高素质为基本理念。 三、课程的设计思路 1. 完善体系，使结构更完整，表述更明确 本课程标准主要由以下几个部分组成：前言、课程目标、内容标准、实施建议等。它们分别阐述该门课程改革的背景、课程性质、课程的基本理念和课程标注的设计思路;课程的总目标与阶段目标；内容说明和内容标准；教学建议、评价建议、课程资源的开发与利用、建材编写建议。 2. 设计依据与原则 本课程标准的总体设计依据：紧紧围绕完成工作任务的需要来选择课程内容；以学生求知需求为导向，改变“以本为本”的教学现象，以“现实经济案例”为主线，创设工作情景，培养学生的实践能力；同时，注重教学内容的学术性、前沿性和探究性，注重培养学生学术兴趣和科学精神；注重教学内容的适用性，将理论与实践联系起来，提高学生的职业技能水平。 本课程标准应以国际贸易专业学生的就业为导向，根据行业专家对经管类专业所涵盖的岗位群进行的任务与职业能力分析，以本专业共同具备的岗位能力为依据，遵

国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版

国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章 集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]

第一章练习与答案 1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？ 答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。 2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。 答案提示： 3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。 答案提示： 4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。 答案提示： 5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？ 答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。 答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。 7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？ 答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？ 答案提示：小国。 9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点

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国际经济学克鲁格曼考试重点

绝对优势：是指以各国生产成本的绝对差异为基础进行的国际专业化分工，并通过自由贸易获得利益的一种国际贸易理论。 李嘉图模型：是一个单一要素模型，劳动是唯一的生产要素，劳动生产率的差异是不同国家各个产业部门之间唯一的不同之处，也是决定国际贸易的唯一因素。李嘉图模型的中心含义是如果每个国家都能够专门生产并出口本国劳动生产率较高的产品，那么他们之间的贸易就会给每个国家带来利益，他的两个核心含义：劳动生产率的差异在国际贸易中占据重要地位和贸易模式取决于比较优势而非绝对优势，至今仍能得到事实支持。 机会成本：是指因一种选择而放弃的最有替换物或失去最好机会的价值，即是指经济决策中影由中选的最优方案负担的，按所放弃的次优方案潜在收益计算的那部分资源损失。 要素比例理论/赫克歇尔俄林理论：是指从资源禀赋角度对国际贸易中的生产成本和价格的差异做出解释的国际贸易理论。其内容是：各国的贸易源于不同国家之间商品的价格存在差异，而价格差异的原因在于不同国家之间的生产成本有高有低，生产成本的高低是因为各国生产要素价格有差别，生产要素价格的差异又与各国生产要素丰裕程度密切相关。生产要素丰裕，其商品价格自认就相对低一些，生产要素稀缺，其价格相对高一些。生产要素丰裕度的差异是国际贸易产生的根本原因。 出口偏向性增长：是指一国的经济增长主要源于出口产品生产能力提高的经济增长方式，表现在生产可能性边界上就是使生产可能性边界扩张偏向出口产品。 福利恶化性增长：是指一国整体福利水平恶化的经济增长方式，是发展中国家的出口偏向型增长在严格假定下可能出现的一种极端情况。一国的出口偏向性增长可能导致该国的贸易条件恶化。因此，如果一国的经济增长方式表现为极强的出口偏向性，那么贸易条件恶化带来的负面影响就会抵消生产力提高带来的正面效应，使得该国整体的福利水平恶化。 出口补贴：是指国家为了降低出口商品的价格，提高其在国际上的竞争力，对出口商品给予的现金或财政上的补贴。 动态收益递增：成本随着累计产量下降而并非随着当前劳动生产率的上升而下降的情形就是动态收益递增 倾销：出口商以低于国内市场价格的价格，甚至以低于成本的价格在国际市场上销售商品的行为。 外部规模经济是指整个行业规模和产量的扩大而使单个企业平均成本下降或收益增加的经济现象。 边际收益：在生产的技术水平和其他投入要素的数量均保持不变情况下，新增加一个单位的某种投入要素所引起的产量的增加量。 幼稚工业论：认为新兴工业在发展初期需要国家提供保护以免在外国强大的竞争下夭折，并随着新兴工业的发展和竞争力的增强而逐步取消贸易保护，为自由贸易的实行创造条件。垄断竞争：介于完全竞争和完全垄断之间的一种市场结构，这种结构下既存在垄断，又存在竞争。 价格歧视：一家企业在销售同样的商品时，对不同的顾客索取不同价格的做法 完全垄断：完全排斥竞争的一种市场结构。 内部规模经济：单个企业生产规模不断扩大时，由其自身内部引起的平均成本不断下降，收益不断增加的经济现象。 相互倾销：不同国家生产同种或类似产品的厂商都对出口产品制定一个低于国内市场价的价格并进行双向贸易的现象。 行业内贸易：在国际贸易活动中，不同国家之间就同一产业的产品所进行的贸易。

国际经济学课后答案解析

第一章绪论 1、列举出体现当前国际经济学问题的一些重要事件，他们为什么重要？他们都是怎么影响中国与欧、美、日的经济和政治关系的？当前的国际金融危机最能体现国际经济学问题，其深刻地影响了世界各国的金融、实体经济、政治等领域，也影响了各国之间的关系因此显得尤为重要；其对中国与欧、美、日的政治和经济关系的影响为：减少中国对上述国家的出口，影响中国外汇储备，贸易摩擦加剧，经济联系加强，因而也会导致中国与上述国家在政治上的对话与合作。 2、我们如何评价一国与他国之间的相互依赖程度？我们可以通过一国的对外贸易依存度来评价该国与他国之间的相互依赖程度，也可以通过其他方式来评价比如一国政府政策的溢出效应和回震效应以及对外贸易对国民生活水平的影响。 3、国际贸易理论及国际贸易政策研究的内容是什么？为什么说他们是国际经济学的微观方面?国际贸易理论分析贸易的基础和所得，国际贸易政策考察贸易限制和新保护主义的原因和效果。国际贸易理论和政策是国际经济学的微观方面，因为他们把国家看作基本单位，并研究单个商品的（相对）价格。 4、什么是外汇交易市场及国际收支平衡表？调节国际收支平衡意味着什么？为什么说他们是国际经济学的宏观方面？什么是宏观开放经济学及国际金融？外汇交易市场描述一国货币与他国货币交换的框架，国际收支平衡表测度了一国与外部世界交易的总收入与总支出的情况。调节国际收支平衡意味着调节一国与外部世界交易出现的不均衡（赤字或盈余）；由于国际收支平衡表涉及总收入和总支出，调节政策影响国家收入水平和价格总指数，因而他们是国际经济学的宏观方面；外汇交易及国际收支平衡调节涉及总收入和总支出，调整政策影响国家收入水平和价格总指数，这些内容被称为宏观开放经济学或国际金融。 5、浏览报刊并做下列题目：（1）找出5条有关国际经济学的新闻（2）每条新闻对中国经济的重要性或影响（3）每条新闻对你个人有何影响 A (1) 国际金融危机: 影响中国整体经济,降低出口、增加失业、经济减速等 (2) 美国大选：影响中美未来经济政治关系 (3) 石油价格持续下跌：影响中国的能源价格及相关产业 (4) 可口可乐收购汇源被商务部否决：《反垄断法》的第一次实施，加强经济法治 (5) 各国政府经济刺激方案：对中国经济产生外部性效应B 以上5条新闻对个人影响为：影响个人消费水平和就业前景 第二章比较优势理论 1、重商主义者的贸易观点如何？他们的国家财富概念与现在有何不同？重商主义者主张政府应当竭尽所能孤立出口，不主张甚至限制商品（尤其是奢侈类消费品）。重商主义者认为国家富强的方法是尽量使出口大于进口，而出超的结果是金银等贵重金属流入，而一个国家拥有越多的金银，就越富有越强大。现在认为一个国家生产力即生产商品的能力越高则一国越富强 2、亚当.斯密主张的贸易基础和贸易模式分别是什么？贸易所得是如何产生的？斯密倡导什么样的国际贸易基础？他认为政府在经济生活中的适当功能是什么？亚当.斯密主张的贸易基础是绝对优势；贸易模式为两国通过专门生产自己有绝对优势的产品并用其中一部分来交换器有绝对劣势的商品。通过生产绝对优势商品并交换，资源可以被最有效的使用，而且两种商品的产出会有很大的增长，通过交换就会消费比以前更多的商品从而产生了贸易所得；斯密倡导自由贸易，主张自由放任也就是政府尽可能少干涉经济

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》中文版·第九版 课后习题答案

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》中文版·第九版课后习题答案 第一章练习与答案 1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？ 答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。 2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。 答案提示： 3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？ 试解释原因。 答案提示： 4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。 答案提示： 5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？ 答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。 答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。 7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？ 答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。 8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？ 答案提示：小国。 9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？ 答案提示： 第二章答案 1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。

国际经济学课程全英文教学

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Chapter 1 Introduction ?Chapter Organization What Is International Economics About? The Gains from Trade The Pattern of Trade How Much Trade? Balance of Payments Exchange Rate Determination International Policy Coordination The International Capital Market International Economics: Trade and Money ?Chapter Overview The intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports on television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad. The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domestic and international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexican crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. The financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 and spread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. These global linkages have been highlighted yet again with the rapid spread of the financial crisis in the United States to the rest of the world. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings and a rising wave of protectionist rhetoric have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur. ? 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Addison-Wesley

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克鲁格曼国际经济学课 后答案英语版 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT

C H A P T E R 2 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY AN D COMPARATIV E ADVANTAGE: THE RICARDIAN MODEL ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS 1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400 (1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2). b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest bananas. c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas. 2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1). b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity. 3. a. The relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2). b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. This is the point (1/2, 2), where the relative demand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relative price is 2. c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country. d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade. 4. The increase in the number of workers at Home shifts out the relative supply schedule such that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade.

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第9章 贸易政策中的政治经济学)【圣才出品】

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福利的获得需要两个或者两个以上的人的共同努力才能完成，集体行动问题就出现了，即决策集体的每个成员必须单方面决定是否参与提供某种集体产品。因为集体产品具有非排他性和非竞争性的特征，所以使得不为集体产品的提供付出成本的集团成员也可以获得集体产品。集团越大，分享收益的人越多，个人的行动对集团利益的影响越小，集团内的成员“搭便车”的动机就越强烈。这就意味着仅仅依靠个人的自愿，集体产品的供给将是不足的，集体产品不可能依靠个人的自愿提供来解决。因此，个人理性并不必然导致集体理性，个人理性不是实现集体理性的充分条件。 4．特惠贸易协定（preferential trading agreement） 答：特惠贸易协定是指各签约方之间相互减让关税或实行其他贸易优惠措施，但不将其给予非签约方的贸易优惠协定。由于这种协定违反了最惠国待遇原则，因而一般被世界贸易组织所禁止。但是，如果它能够促进签约方之间的自由贸易，那么世界贸易组织就允许其存在。如下两种方式的特惠贸易协定是世界贸易组织允许的： （1）自由贸易区，各签约方设立对外关税率，但相互之间免除关税和取消非关税壁垒； （2）关税同盟，各成员国制定统一的对外关税率，而成员国之间则是“特惠”的。 5．关税同盟（customs union） 答：关税同盟是指两个或两个以上参加同盟的国家划为一个关税区域，在区域内取消关税和非关税壁垒，实行自由贸易，同时对区域外采取统一的关税及其他贸易限制等措施。关税同盟是跨国区域经济一体化的一种基本形式。关税同盟可以分为完全关税同盟和不完全关税同盟。完全关税同盟是指将各加盟国的关税完全废除，这种关税同盟按惯例不受最惠国待遇原则的约束。但事实上，当关税同盟成立时，各国原有的关税并不能立即完全废除，为避