文档库 最新最全的文档下载
当前位置:文档库 › EUROGRAPHICS ’98 N. Ferreira and M. Gbel (Guest Editors) Volume 17,(1998), Number 3 A Lig

EUROGRAPHICS ’98 N. Ferreira and M. Gbel (Guest Editors) Volume 17,(1998), Number 3 A Lig

EUROGRAPHICS ’98  N. Ferreira and M. Gbel (Guest Editors) Volume 17,(1998), Number 3 A Lig
EUROGRAPHICS ’98  N. Ferreira and M. Gbel (Guest Editors) Volume 17,(1998), Number 3 A Lig

EUROGRAPHICS’98/N.Ferreira and M.G?bel

Volume17,(1998),Number3 (Guest Editors)

A Light Hierarchy for Fast Rendering of Scenes with

Many Lights

Eric Paquette?,Pierre Poulin?,and George Drettakis?

?Département d’informatique et de recherche opérationnelle

Universitéde Montréal.E-mail:{paquette|poulin}@iro.umontreal.ca

?iMAGIS-GRA VIR/IMAG-INRIA§

BP53,F-38041Grenoble Cedex9,FRANCE.E-mail:George.Drettakis@imag.fr

Keywords:Image synthesis,rendering,ray-tracing,hi-

erarchy,illumination,re?ection,Phong,bounds,clustering,

octree.

1.Introduction

Realistic rendering has been a major goal of computer

graphics from its very outset.Many powerful rendering ap-

proaches such as ray-tracing1,radiosity-based methods23,

and stochastic ray-tracing or Monte Carlo methods4have

been presented over the last two decades,resulting in im-

ages of impressive realism.For most existing commercial

rendering systems(for animations,?lm special effects,post-

production,advertising,etc.),ray-tracing remains the ren-

dering algorithm of choice.In such environments,scenes

containing a large number of geometric primitives as well

as a large number of light sources are common.Everyday

scenes with a large number of light sources include shopping

malls,chandeliers,city streets at night,etc.In addition,more

sources)quickly become the dominant cost of the rendering process.As a result,lighting designers and other users of rendering systems are forced to crudely approximate inter-esting and complex lighting behavior with only a very small number of simple light sources.

The work on spatial subdivision and hierarchical algo-rithms for lighting calculations8,hierarchical approaches coupled with clustering910,and spatial subdivision have al-lowed the acceleration of lighting calculation for scenes con-taining a large number of polygons.A natural application of the same hierarchical concepts is the development and use of the light hierarchy for ray-tracing which we present in this paper.

1.2.Contributions

The goal of our approach is twofold:to provide ef?cient ray-tracing of scenes with many light sources with minimum loss of image quality,and to provide an intuitive quality param-eter based on consistent error bounds for all the approxima-tions made.

To achieve this goal in a comprehensive manner,we have restricted our attention to direct illumination from point light sources using lambertian(diffuse)and Phong11(specular) re?ection models.Such assumptions are common in most commercial uses of ray-tracing systems.

Our solution involves the development of error bounds to evaluate the maximum potential error produced by the ap-proximation.In this paper,we develop an algorithm which exploits the hierarchy and the bounds for the shading under direct illumination of scenes without occlusion.The results of our algorithm in this context(see Section5)show that our light hierarchy signi?cantly speeds up shading for scenes with many light sources.

It is interesting to note that in computer graphics research, an initial solution to an illumination problem is often pre-sented for the unoccluded case(e.g.,for radiosity12or hier-archical radiosity13),which then led to complete solutions including shadows(hemi-cube radiosity14and hierarchical radiosity with shadows8).The study and introduction of a comprehensive solution without occlusion is an important step in the necessary understanding of the problem,leading subsequently to an algorithm including shadows.

For a given3D point being shaded,traversal of the light hierarchy allows us to determine the effect on shading of intermediate nodes(representing potentially large numbers of light sources contained beneath the current level of the light hierarchy).As a consequence,we can completely avoid shadowing calculations for certain such nodes(i.e.,avoiding shadowing for many light sources),or identify those light sources or sets of light sources which have the largest im-pact on?nal shading.To better underline the potential of our approach,after presenting the algorithm and the results of the implementation,we will also discuss our ideas on the treatment of shadows in Section6.

2.Previous and Related Work

There is an extensive literature on the research dedicated to speeding up shadow calculations using spatial coherence and subdivision.15Most of these approaches however are highly dependent on the number of light sources,and are thus un-suitable for scenes with many light sources.

Some algorithms have nonetheless addressed the case of scenes with many light sources.Bergeron16de?nes a sphere of in?uence around each point light source.The radius of each sphere is related to its light source intensity.Any ob-ject outside a sphere of in?uence can ignore the contribution of this point light source for both shading and shadowing. This method is ef?cient in many cases,but will fail for nu-merous light sources of low intensity because of the smaller radius of the spheres.Objects outside these spheres will ig-nore them all,even though the combined contribution of all light sources together may produce an important illumina-tion effect.Another such situation occurs when several point light sources are used to simulate a complex light source. Improving the approximation typically requires increasing the number of point light sources,each of them individually emitting a smaller proportion of the complex light global in-tensity.With spheres of in?uence,the radii would then re-duce,and the overall scene illumination would decrease as the complex light representation would be improved.This is illustrated in Fig.

1.

incorrect

Figure1:Problem associated with the spheres of in?uence Ward17presents a different approach where a sorted list of light source contributions is maintained.The main idea is to calculate the potential contribution of each light source at every point to shade(without considering visibility),and to use this estimation to sort the list of light sources.The ordered list is traversed and thus the real contribution(in-cluding visibility calculation)of the most important light sources is computed?rst.If the sum of the potential contri-butions of the remaining light sources is smaller than a pre-determined percentage of the sum of all real contributions computed so far,the traversal stops.This method performs

c The Eurographics Association an

d Blackwell Publishers1998.

Scene

Hierarchy virtual light:empty cluster:

Figure 2:Example of light hierarchy

well for a moderate number of light sources,and is the most suitable algorithm to date for the treatment of scenes with many sources.However as the number of light sources in-creases,the cost of sorting the contributions (at each pixel)of all these light sources can become an important factor of the total rendering cost for scenes where the geometri-cal complexity is smaller than the illumination complexity.An extensive comparison of our approach to that of Ward’s is presented in Section 5.

Shirley et al.4divide light sources into two categories:bright (important)and dim (less important).This selection is performed as a preprocess,and is based on an approach similar to the sphere of in?uence.A sampling probability is then assigned to each bright light source,and a unique probability is assigned to all the dim light sources.If a large number of rays are shot per pixel,this method can be very ef-fective.However,as with all Monte Carlo approaches,noise due to insuf?cient sampling can appear in the rendered im-ages.Moreover,since the dim light source to be sampled is chosen randomly,an unsuitable partitioning into dim and bright light sources can greatly increase the amount of noise.In radiosity-based methods,work has been performed in clustering objects for light-transfer calculations 910.These methods do not treat light sources separately,since they at-tempt to treat global illumination,and thus any surface is a light source in later iterations.As a consequence,these meth-ods typically will not perform very well,since (primary)light sources are often clustered with the other objects of the scene,and no light-speci?c hierarchy is actually built.

Houle and Fiume 18store an emission map in a multi-resolution structure (quadtree)to ef?ciently resample a con-tinuously varying emission distribution.However this struc-ture is only valid over a 2D planar surface,and as such can-not easily be extended for independent light sources arbi-trarily distributed in 3D space without losing its hierarchical nature.

Stam and Fiume 19simulate ?ames with a set of multi-resolution particles.To shade a point illuminated by their ?ames,the illumination is computed at two adjacent levels of the ?ame hierarchy,starting from the top.When the differ-ence in illumination is larger than a preset threshold,the pro-cess continues at the immediately superior resolution.This hierarchical structure is ef?cient for ?ames consisting of a large number of particles.An early stop can however occur when the difference between two adjacent levels is small,but would be signi?cant with a higher resolution.This is due to the fact that no bound on the approximation is provided.3.Hierarchy of Point Light Sources

As mentioned in the introduction,a hierarchical data struc-ture representing the point light sources in the scene is re-quired to achieve our goals of ef?cient and consistent treat-ment of scenes with many light sources.3.1.Octree Light Hierarchy

We have chosen to encode the light sources in an octree structure for the simplicity and compactness of its represen-tation and its hierarchical nature.

The light hierarchy is stored separately from the ray-tracing acceleration structure used for the ray-object inter-sections (in our case also an octree).This choice has the ad-vantage of creating a tighter bounding box around the light sources.The disadvantage resides in the fact that interac-tion between objects and light sources has to be treated sep-arately.For the needs of our algorithm,we have found this solution to be satisfactory.

The leaf nodes of the octree store zero,one,or more point

c The Eurographics Association an

d Blackwell Publishers 1998.

light sources.Intermediate nodes are composed of eight chil-dren nodes.Every node keeps an approximate representation of the light sources contained at the current or at lower levels. In particular,virtual light sources stored at the nodes repre-sent the set of light sources contained beneath this node.In Fig.2,we show an example of such a point light hierarchy.

3.2.Light Hierarchy Construction

The creation of the light hierarchy begins by?nding the axis-aligned bounding box of all the point light sources in the scene.This box is the root of our hierarchy.The hierarchy is subsequently subdivided in an octree fashion,until each un-subdivided octree cell contains less than a preset maximum number of light sources or a maximum subdivision depth is reached.

Once the octree has been subdivided,we proceed with the calculation of the representation of the virtual light sources. The virtual light source is simply a point light source,placed at a position corresponding to the weighted average of the light sources it represents.The weights are proportional to intensity of each real or virtual point light source over the sum of these intensities.

For tighter bounds on the approximation errors explained in the next section,we compute at each node of the octree the smallest axis-aligned bounding box of all the point light sources it represents.We call it the minimal bounding box. Table1summarizes this construction.

4.Shading with the Hierarchical Light Structure

Once the light hierarchy is built,the goal is to develop an al-gorithm allowing us to use the approximate representations (virtual light sources)where appropriate.We will thus avoid the cost of shading(and potentially shadowing)with each light source in the scene.To achieve this goal we need cri-teria allowing us to choose when the approximate shading gives a satisfactory result,thus permitting us to terminate our descent into the light hierarchy.

In what follows we?rst present some necessary prelim-inaries on shading for ray-tracing,and then proceed to de-scribe the error bounds developed for the diffuse and specu-lar cases.These error bounds are then used as the criteria to perform the actual shading.The algorithms for the shading are described for each case.

4.1.Preliminaries

A common shading formulation divides the re?ection as a combination of diffuse(pure lambertian)re?ection and spec-ular(directional)re?ection.One such popular model sug-gested by Phong11is shown in Fig.3,and can be expressed as

I

m

i1

S i f att

i

I i k d N L i k s R i E n(1)

where

I=light radiance going from the light to the viewer

and passing by p,

i=i th light source,

m=number of light sources,

S=visibility factor of the light source,

f att=attenuation of light from the light source,

I i=intensity of light source i,

k d=diffuse re?ection coef?cient of the surface,

N=surface normal at p,

L=vector from p to the light source,

k s=specular re?ection coef?cient of the surface,

R=mirror re?ection of the vector L at p with

respect to N,

E=vector from p towards viewer,

n=roughness coef?cient.

All the vectors are normalized.

We?rst derive some bounds for the diffuse re?ection,and

then present the bounds for the specular re?ection.

4.2.Diffuse Re?ection

We slightly simplify the formulation for clarity,replacing the

terms S1(unoccluded case)and f att1d2where d is the

distance from the light source to point p.We also replace the

dot products using the identities:

cosθN L

cosθi N L i

The light re?ected by a diffuse surface illuminated by m

point light sources can be computed as:

I

m

i1

I i

1

d2

k d cosθ(3)

Figure3:Phong re?ection model

c The Eurographics Association an

d Blackwell Publishers1998.

Intensity I v∑m i1I i

Position P v∑m i1P i I i1∑m i1I i1

Dispersion B min AxisAlignedBox min Px i min Py i min Pz i

max Px i max Py i max Pz i

Table1:Cluster attributes

4.2.1.Error Bound for the Diffuse Model

Given the expressions of the exact and the approximate il-

lumination at a point,we need to develop a bound on the

error committed by the approximation.This bound must be

tight and ef?cient to evaluate so it can guide a hierarchical

shading algorithm at a reasonable cost.In particular,we are

looking for a function?I abs such that for any point to shade

?I abs I I approx

To derive a suitable expression,we?rst de?ne a few vari-

ables:

?d i d i d

?θiθiθ

?d max diag

?θmax arctan?d max

max0cosθ?θmax

d2

cosθ

d?d max2

the error list is greater than the threshold,we treat the nodes with the highest error at a lower level.We continue this pro-cess until the sum of the errors is below the threshold.This way we ensure that our absolute error bound is respected. The algorithm in Fig.6illustrates how the light hierarchy is used to compute the shading.

HierarchicalIllumination(Point p,V oxel v)

{

if v.Empty()

return(0)

if v.NumberOfSources()3

return(SimpleIllumination(p,v.sources))

Evaluate I v k d d?d maxθ?θmax from p and v.

if?d max d

//We cannot evaluate our bound if?d max d.

return(IlluminationAtLowerLevel(p,v))

error=DiffuseBound(I v k d d?d maxθ?θmax)

//Compare with diffuse error threshold

if error T diffuse

AddToErrorList(v,error)

return(0)

else

return(IlluminationAtLowerLevel(p,v))

}

IlluminationAtLowerLevel(Point p,V oxel v)

{

if v.Subdivided()

v.voxelChild

sum+=HierarchicalIllumination(p,v.voxelChild)

return(sum)

else

return(SimpleIllumination(p,v.sources))

}

Figure6:Illumination algorithm using light hierarchy for diffuse surfaces

4.3.Specular Re?ection

Specular re?ection is mostly associated with highlights on surfaces.The light re?ected by a specular surface illumi-nated by m point light sources can be computed as:

I

m

i1

I i

1

d?d max2(6)

where?αmax is computed in the same way as?θmax and

cosαR E.

4.3.2.Specular Shading using the Light Hierarchy

Starting at the root of the light hierarchy,if the maximal po-

tential contribution of a voxel is greater than T spec,we open

that voxel and treat its children.If the potential contribution

is below T spec,we add the voxel to the list of ignored con-

tributions.After the traversal of the light hierarchy is com-

pleted,we check the list of ignored contributions to ensure

that its sum is lower than T spec.As for the diffuse re?ection,

we then recompute the hierarchical illumination of the nodes

with the larger maximal contribution at a lower level.This

process is repeated until the sum of the ignored contribu-

tions is lower than T spec.When the threshold is respected,the

maximal error present in the image will be equal or smaller

to it.Choosing a very small T spec results in no visual arti-

facts.

Instead of ignoring the contributions of these voxels,we

could adopt an approach similar to Ward17,and add an ap-

proximation of the contribution of these voxels based on the

illumination of their virtual light sources.This way,the re-

sulting error would be smaller and we could use a larger

threshold resulting in greater speedups.While reducing the

error,this would not change the value of the bound.The av-

erage error would be smaller,but the maximal error would

stay the same.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2e14548539.html,bined Diffuse and Specular Re?ections

To handle surfaces with both diffuse and specular re?ec-

tions,the two algorithms are mainly executed independently.

Some calculations as well as the traversal of the hierarchy

c The Eurographics Association an

d Blackwell Publishers1998.

are shared,but the main parts of the algorithms are treated separately.The rendering times are a little less than the sim-ple sum of both times,but are still proportional to it.

5.Results

5.1.Basic Test Scenes

We have developed a set of test scenes which allows us to evaluate our approach in several different con?gurations, while keeping a low intersection cost between rays and the scene made of only a few polygons.The three main scenes treated are shown in the following(the names subsequently used are in quotes):the?rst is an image of“Light Strings”lighting a street(Fig.7(a));the second is a scene lit by light sources forming the“U de M”logo(Fig.7(b));and the last is a simple scene illuminated by a“Cluster”of light sources (Fig.7(c)).The rendering of this last scene is done with the camera on the left,just behind the light sources.In our tests, the rendering of this scene occurs with the light sources be-ing invisible.All the light sources in one scene have equal intensities.

We present results on variations of these scenes containing a number of light sources ranging from64to16384.This is done by increasing the density of the light sources in each case.

For all the specular tests,the roughness factor we use is n200.

In the result tables presented below,we show the cost of standard ray-tracing with octree acceleration(RT),the cost of Ward’s(Ward)method17,the cost of the light hierarchy method(LH),and the speedup achieved by our method over the ray-tracing method(SU).Our implementation of Ward’s method is slightly different than the one presented in his paper17to ensure that,as with our algorithm,it has an ab-solute error bound.

For each test,the error thresholds(diffuse and specular) we use are1%RGB or255255255RGB for images quantized in0255.Since the actual error is smaller than the threshold,the test runs result in images that are visually indistinguishable from those computed with the traditional ray-tracing.The maximal observed error at a pixel is111 RGB for all the images and the average pixel error is negli-gible since it is less than002002002RGB.

5.2.Diffuse Case

In Table2we present the results of our algorithm for dif-fuse https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2e14548539.html,pared to standard ray-tracing,we see that the light hierarchy achieves important speedups(up to90 times faster).For a high number of light sources(greater than1024),we are consistently faster than Ward’s method. It should be noted that with Ward’s method,the increase in rendering time does not seem to be logarithmic.In compari-son,our method shows a logarithmic increase in time for the Light Strings and U de M scenes,as can be seen in Fig.8. The more linear behavior of the Cluster scene indicates that

Figure8:Logarithmic behavior of the light hierarchy method

for this scene,more light sources are required before reach-ing the“plateau”part of the logarithmic curve.

Light Strings

64lights11.470.2%91.2% 1.1

256lights87.570.3%73.5% 1.4

1024lights550.668.3%42.4% 2.4

4096lights2716.370.8%18.4% 5.4

16384lights13157.172.5% 5.7%17.6

U de M

64lights14.864.9%85.1% 1.2

256lights108.660.0%44.4% 2.3

1024lights632.657.8%16.2% 6.2

4096lights3114.958.7% 4.2%23.6

16384lights14609.359.5% 1.1%90.1

Cluster

64lights8.6107.0%95.3% 1.0

256lights33.9112.4%90.9% 1.1

1024lights136.1119.6%74.1% 1.3

4096lights545.5127.6%47.0% 2.1

16384lights2179.6135.6%33.5% 3.0

(a)“Light Strings”

(b)“U de M”

(c)“Cluster”Figure7:The three different test scenes

Light Strings

64lights12.826.6%15.6% 6.4 256lights93.517.2%8.3%12.0 1024lights575.413.1% 6.3%15.8 4096lights2815.312.3% 5.0%20.1 16384lights13549.311.5% 3.9%26.0 U de M

64lights17.125.1%7.0%14.2 256lights117.916.1% 3.1%32.8 1024lights670.212.5% 1.8%55.4 4096lights3261.511.5% 1.3%76.4 16384lights15195.311.0% 1.1%91.6 Cluster

64lights10.439.4% 5.8%17.3 256lights41.043.7% 3.4%29.3 1024lights164.149.7% 2.6%39.1 4096lights656.756.0% 2.3%43.8 16384lights2632.362.4% 1.9%51.6

(a)Rendering

(b)Error

Figure9:Artifacts related to the increase of the diffuse threshold.(a)is the actual image while(b)is the error image.The intensity and contrast of the error image have been adjusted such that black represents no error and white the maximal error that occured in this image,(59,59,59)RGB.

old we are using for our tests can still be increased without resulting in the artifacts present in Fig.9.While keeping a maximal error of(1,1,1)RGB,we can increase the thresh-old to cut the rendering time of our tests by half.If fact,our threshold is approximately ten times greater than the actual (maximal)error.This is obviously conservative,but tolera-ble.Increasing the threshold increases the potential error in the image and the rendering speed.Fig.9for example,shows a speed up of ten compared to simple ray tracing with only 64light sources.This is about9times faster than the result of Table2.

6.Possible Extensions to Handle Occlusions

As mentioned in the introduction,the algorithms and data structures we present here treat the case of unoccluded illu-mination only.The goal of our paper is thus to present the principles of the light hierarchy and demonstrate,through experimental results,that the potential for speedup is very important.Nonetheless,it is clear that the utility of the light hierarchy will be much more widespread when occlusion is treated completely.For this reason,we present next our?rst ideas on the treatment of shadows.

We also list other improvements to the algorithms pre-sented as well as interesting new research directions.

6.1.Treating Shadows

The work presented here shows very encouraging results for illumination without occlusion.In the presence of shadows,one can only hope to have more important gains from the use of the light hierarchy,since the cost of each light ray is multiplied by the cost of the actual ray intersection with the scene.

Even though our error bounds do not include shadow information,the maximum contribution(upper bound)is nonetheless valid,since shadowing can only reduce this con-tribution.We can thus use our hierarchical illumination al-gorithm as a basis of a solution for shadows.The problems of determining a lower bound,or at least an estimate of the minimum contribution,as well as the more delicate issue of preservation of shadow shapes have to be treated separately.

6.1.1.Volumetric Soft Shadows

An approach for using the light hierarchy for scenes with shadows could consist in using the hierarchy when a cluster of light sources is entirely visible from a given3D point to shade.To do this,we need to make a decision on whether a voxel of the light hierarchy at a given level is completely un-occluded,completely occluded,or partially visible from the 3D point.In the?rst case,we use the algorithms presented above in Section3;in the second case we do not need to shade at all;for the partially visible case,we must descend into the light hierarchy.

Algorithms for consistent visibility determination have been presented for other problems(e.g.,shafts by Haines and Wallace20,or conservative triage by Teller and Hanrahan21). What is unclear for these approaches is whether the cost of the visibility determination would make the gains of the light

c The Eurographics Association an

d Blackwell Publishers1998.

hierarchy negligible or even useless.This research direction is nonetheless worthy of further investigation.

As an alternative,we can use an approximation to visibil-ity determination by using the ideas presented in the work of Sillion22on volumetric visibility.Without going into details, we can represent the visibility characteristics of a cluster by a set of extinction coef?cients,permitting us to avoid ray-intersections with the contents of the cluster of objects.

6.2.Hierarchy Construction and More General Models The light hierarchy currently used is constructed very rapidly since we simply subdivide an octree.It is possible that more involved clustering approaches,such as that described in the work of Cazals et al.23,which take into account certain ge-ometric properties of the items being clustered(in our case the light sources),could result in improved performance. The approach described here is not restricted to the sole use of ray-tracing direct light.The central ideas and concepts of our approach could be applied to improve on the cluster-ing of light sources in radiosity-based algorithms.

7.Conclusions

The introduction of a new data structure in the form of a light hierarchy provides an ef?cient solution to the problem of ray-tracing scenes with many light sources.We have cho-sen to create an octree hierarchy of the light sources in a scene which is maintained independently of the rest of the geometry.Intermediate nodes of the light hierarchy approx-imate the illumination due to the light sources contained in the children octree voxels,by means of virtual light sources. Error bounds on the error committed when using the vir-tual light sources were presented,both for the diffuse and the specular cases.Based on these bounds,the shading cal-culation at each visible point is performed by a hierarchical descent in the light hierarchy.When the descent ceases at a given hierarchical level,we avoid the cost of shading with all the light sources contained below that level,resulting in signi?cant speedup.

To carefully evaluate the ideas and develop a deeper un-derstanding of the issues involved,we have currently re-stricted our algorithm to the case of unoccluded scenes.The results for a set of such test scenes show very encouraging speedup,of up to90times for both diffuse and specular sur-faces.

We believe that the introduction of the light hierarchy for ray-tracing,in conjunction with the error bounds and the hi-erarchical descent open a very promising research direction for ef?cient rendering of scenes with many light sources. The development of the complete solution including shad-ows could lead to signi?cant acceleration of the rendering times when scenes with complex geometry would be used.Acknowledgments

We acknowledge?nancial support from NSERC and FCAR. Thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their comments which improved the?nal version.

Appendix A:Derivation of the bounds

Diffuse bound

We?rst state few useful rules:

0y0εx yε(7) cosφ1σcosφσcosφ1σ(8)

cosθi min1cosθi max0cosθi(9) We approximate the minimal diffuse illumination by: I

m

i1

I i

1

d?d i2

k d

m

i1

I i

cosθ?θi

d?d max2by9

k d

m

i1

I i

max0cosθ?θi

d?d max2

k d I v max0cosθ?θmax

d2i

k d cosθi

k d

m

i1

I i

cosθ?θi

d?d max2by7

k d

m

i1

I i

min1cosθ?θi

d?d max2by8

k d

m

i1

I i

min1cosθ?θmax

d?d max2

I max

From there,the bound on the error is the maximum be-tween I approx I min and I max I approx.Re-arranging few

c The Eurographics Association an

d Blackwell Publishers1998.

terms gives:

?I abs k d I v max cosθ

d?d max2

min1cosθ?θmax

d2

(10)

Specular bound

The specular bound is simply an approximation of the max-imal specular illumination:

I

m

i1

I i

1

d?d i2

k s

m

i1

I i

cos nα?αi

d?d max2by9 k s

m

i1

I i

min1cosα?αi n

d?d max2

k s I v min1cosα?αmax

n

21.S.Teller and P.Hanrahan,“Global visibility algorithms

for illumination computations”,in Computer Graphics

Proceedings,Annual Conference Series,1993,pp.239–

246,(1993).

22. F.X.Sillion,“A uni?ed hierarchical algorithm for

global illumination with scattering volumes and ob-

ject clusters”,IEEE Transactions on Visualization and

Computer Graphics,1(3),pp.240–254(1995).ISSN

1077-2626.

23. F.Cazals,G.Drettakis,and C.Puech,“Filtering,clus-

tering and hierarchy construction:a new solution for

ray tracing very complex environments”,Computer

Graphics Forum(Proc.of Eurographics’95),15(3),

pp.371–382(1995).

c The Eurographics Association an

d Blackwell Publishers1998.

英美音发音差别讲解

英美音发音差别 (一)单词中字母“r ”发音――“卷舌”的标志 显而易“听”,卷舌音是美音区别于英音的一大特色。 请注意: A 美音中除了Mrs. 中的“r ”不卷舌之外,只要含有“r ”字母的单词均要卷舌。 美音英音 spare /5speEr/ /speE/ burglar /5bErglEr/ /5bE:glE/ purpose /5pErpEs/ /5pE:pEs/ 最典型实例 chairman, horse, dirty (二)在美音中/t/发音与/d/相近 注意:美音中/t/ 出现在两个元音之间且处于非重读位置的时候,发音近似/d/, 而不是完全等同。我们这里用/d/来表示这个近似音。 美音英音 city /5sidi/ /5siti/ better /5bedEr/ /5betE/ pretty /5pridi/ /5priti/

最典型实例 waiter, winter, actor, yesterday, chapter (三)听辨美音中的/A/ 字母a 的发音出现在-ss, -st, -th, -ff, -ef, -nce 等前面时,美音把a 读为/A/ 美音英音 can’t /kA nt/ /ka:nt/ last /5lAst/ /5la:st/ Mask /5mAsk/ /5ma:sk/ chance /5tFAns/ /5tFa:ns/ advantage /Ed5vAntidV/ /Ed5va:ntidV/ 最典型实例 answer, advance, after, ask, banana, branch, castle, commander, example, fast, France, glance, glass, half, last, etc. (四)由“hot dog” 看字母“o ”在美音中的发音 字母“o ” 在美音读为/a/而在英音中读为/R/ 美音英音 bottle /batl/ /bCtl/ popular /5papjulE/ /5pCpjulE/ knock /nak/ /nCk/

生物化学氨基酸代谢知识点汇总

生物化学氨基酸代谢知识点汇总

————————————————————————————————作者:————————————————————————————————日期:

第九章氨基酸代谢 第一节:蛋白质的生理功能和营养代谢 蛋白质重要作用 1.维持细胞、组织的生长、更新和修补 2.参与多种重要的生理活动(免疫,酶,运动,凝血,转运) 3.氧化供能 氮平衡 1.氮总平衡:摄入氮= 排出氮(正常成人) 氮正平衡:摄入氮> 排出氮(儿童、孕妇等) 氮负平衡:摄入氮< 排出氮(饥饿、消耗性疾病患者)2.意义:反映体内蛋白质代谢的慨况。 蛋白质营养价值 1.蛋白质的营养价值取决于必需氨基酸的数量、种类、量质比 2.必需氨基酸-----甲来写一本亮色书、假设梁借一本书来 3.蛋白质的互补作用,指营养价值较低的蛋白质混合食用,其必需氨 基酸可以互相补充 而提高营养价值。 第二节:蛋白质的消化、吸收与腐败 外源性蛋白消化 1.胃:壁细胞分泌的胃蛋白酶原被盐酸激活,水解蛋白为多肽和氨基

酸,主要水解芳香族氨基酸 2.小肠:胰液分泌的内、外肽酶原被肠激酶激活,水解蛋白为小肽和氨基酸;生成的寡肽继续在小肠细胞内由寡肽酶水解成氨基酸 氨基酸和寡肽的主动吸收 1.吸收部位:小肠,吸收作用在小肠近端较强 2.吸收机制:耗能的主动吸收过程 ○1通过转运蛋白(氨基酸+小肽):载体蛋白与氨基酸、Na+组成三联体,由ATP供能将氨基酸、Na+转入细胞内,Na+再由钠泵排出细胞。○2通过r-谷氨酰基循环(氨基酸):关键酶----r--谷氨酰基转移酶, 具体过程参P199图

氨基酸脱氨基产生的胺类可引起脑功能异常

氨基酸脱氨基产生的胺类可引起脑功能异常 一.摘要 正常情况下,中枢递质几乎都不能通过血脑屏障,这有利于维持脑内中枢递质水平的稳定,排除脑外刺激因素的干扰。所以能如此,可能与脑毛细血管内皮细胞中的酶系统有关,已经发现其中含有单胺氧化酶,而多种中枢递质是单胺类化合物,如儿茶酚胺、5羟色胺、组织胺等,都可被单胺氧化酶灭活,这种内皮细胞胞浆内的生物化学转化作用加强了血脑屏障的功能,从而可使脑组织内环境保持稳定,少受一般循环血液中有强烈生理作用的物质含量剧烈变动的干扰。然而,中枢神经系统疾病常引起血脑屏障结构和功能的剧烈变化,从而进一步影响脑功能的异常。 二.选题依据 假性神经递质神经冲动的传导是通过递质来完成的。神经递质分兴奋和抑制两类,正常时两者保持生理平衡。兴奋性神经递质有儿茶酚胺中的多巴胺和去甲肾上腺素,乙酰胆碱、谷氨酸和门冬氨酸等;抑制性神经递质只在脑内形成。食物中的芳香族氨基酸、如酪氨酸、苯丙氨基酸等,经肠菌脱羧酶的作用分别转变为酪胺和苯乙胺。正常时这两种胺在肝内被单胺氧化酶分解清除,肝功能衰竭时,清除发生障碍,此二种胺可进入脑组织,在脑内经β羟化酶的作用分别形成胺(β-羟酪胺)和苯乙醇胺。后二者的化学结构与正常神经递质去甲肾上腺素相似,但不能传递神经冲动或作用很弱,因此称为假性神经递质。当假性神经递质被脑细胞摄取并取代了突触中的正常递质,则神经传导发生障碍,兴奋冲动不能正常地传至大脑皮层而产生异常抑制;出现意识障碍与昏迷。 三.解决方案及可行性分析 由于氨中毒是肝性脑病的主要原因,因此减少氨的吸收和加强氨的排出是药物治疗的主要手段。 1.乳果糖(β- 半乳糖果糖)是一种合成的双糖,口服后在小肠不会被分解,到达结肠后可被乳酸杆菌、粪肠球菌等细菌分解为乳酸、乙酸而降低肠道的pH 值。肠道酸化后对产尿素酶的细菌生长不利,但有利于不产尿素酶的乳酸杆菌的生长,使肠道细菌所产的氨减少;此外,酸性的肠道环境可减少氨的吸收,并促进血液中的氨渗入肠道排出。 2.L- 鸟氨酸-L- 门冬氨酸是一种鸟氨酸和门冬氨酸的混合制剂,能促进体内的尿素循环(鸟氨酸循环)而降低血氨。 3.谷氨酸与氨结合形成谷氨酰胺而降低血氨,有谷氨酸钾和谷氨酸钠两种,可根据血钾和血钠调整两者的使用比例。谷氨酸盐为碱性,使用前可先注射3~5g维生素C,碱血症者不宜使用。 4.GABA/BZ 复合受体拮抗剂氟马西尼(flumazenil),可以拮抗内源性苯二氮卓所致的神经抑制。对于Ⅲ~Ⅳ期患者具有促醒作用。静脉注射氟马西尼起效快,往往在数分钟之内,但维持时间很短,通常在4 小时之内。其用量为0.5 ~1mg 静脉注射;或1mg/h持续静脉滴注。 5.减少或拮抗假神经递质支链氨基酸(BCAA)制剂是一种以亮氨酸、异亮氨酸、缬安酸等BCAA 为主的复合氨基酸。其机制为竞争性BCAA 为主的复合氨基酸。其机制为竞争性抑制芳香族氨基酸进入大脑,减少假神经递质的形成,其疗效尚有争议,但对于不能耐受蛋白质的营养不良者,补充BCAA 有助于改善其氮平衡。 四.预期结果 利用以上药物进行治疗后,可明显消除假神经递质对儿茶酚胺的竞争性干扰,从而使

第8章 氨基酸代谢

第8章氨基酸代谢 ──形成性评价 一. 选择题 1. 生物体内大多数氨基酸脱去氨基生成α-酮酸是通过下面哪种作用完成的?( C )P202 A. 氧化脱氨基 B. 还原脱氨基 C. 联合脱氨基 D. 转氨基 E. 嘌嘌呤核苷酸循环 2. 下列哪一种氨基酸可以通过转氨基作用生成α-酮戊二酸?(A )P202 A. Glu B. Ala C. Asp D. Ser E. His 3. 以下对L-谷氨酸脱氢酶的描述,哪一项是错误的?( D )P199 A. 它催化的是氧化脱氨反应 B. 它的辅酶是NAD+或NADP+ C. 它和相应的转氨酶共同催化联合脱氨基作用 D. 它的辅酶是FMN或FAD E. 其催化的反应是可逆的 4. 下列氨基酸代谢可以产生一碳单位的是( B )P214 A. Pro B. Ser C. Glu D. Thr E. Ala 5. 鸟氨酸循环中,尿素生成需要的2分子氨,其中一分子来源于( C )P209 A. 鸟氨酸 B. 精氨酸 C. 天冬氨酸 D. 瓜氨酸 E. 以上都不是 6. L-谷氨酸脱氢酶的辅酶是(A )P199 A. NAD(P)+ B. FAD C. FMN D. CoA E. TPP 7. 血清中的AST活性异常升高,主要表示哪种器官的细胞损伤?(A )P201 A. 心肌细胞 B. 肝细胞 C. 肺细胞 D. 肾细胞 E. 脑细胞 8. 血清中的ALT活性异常升高,主要表示哪种器官的细胞损伤?( B )P201 A. 心肌细胞 B. 肝细胞 C. 肺细胞 D. 肾细胞 E. 脑细胞 9. 体内蛋白质分解代谢的最终产物是( C ) A. 氨基酸 B. 肽类 C. CO2、H2O和尿素 D. 氨基酸、胺类、尿酸 E. 肌酐、肌酸 10. 人体内氨基酸脱氨基的主要方式是(C )P202 A. 转氨基作用 B. 氧化脱氨基作用 C. 联合脱氨基作用 D. 还原脱氨 E. 嘌呤核苷酸循环脱氨基作用 11. 在下列氨基酸中,可通过转氨基作用生成草酰乙酸的是( C )P200 A. 丙氨酸 B. 谷氨酸 C. 天冬氨酸 D. 苏氨酸 E. 脯氨酸 12. 转氨酶的辅酶中含有的维生素是( E )P200 A. VitB12 B. VitB1 C. VitA D. VitD E. VitB6 13.人体内合成尿素的主要脏器是(D )P205 A. 脑 B. 肌组织 C. 肾 D. 肝 E. 心 14. 体内代谢过程中NH3的主要来源是( C )P205上 A. 肠道吸收 B. 肾脏产氨 C. 氨基酸脱氨基 D. 胺分解 E. 碱基分解 15. 体内氨的主要去路是(B )P205下图最大箭头指向 A. 合成谷氨酰胺 B. 合成尿素 C. 生成铵盐 D. 生成非必需氨基酸 E. 参与嘌呤、嘧啶合成 16. 脑中氨的主要去路是(C )P206中 A. 合成尿素 B. 扩散入血 C. 合成谷氨酰胺 D. 合成氨基酸 E. 合成嘌呤

氨基酸的常见化学反应

氨基酸的常见化学反应 ? -氨基的反应 ?亚硝酸反应 ?范围:可用于Aa定量和蛋白质水解程度的测定(Van slyke法) ?注意:生成的氮气只有一半来自于Aa,ε氨基酸也可反应,速度较 慢. ?与酰化试剂的反应 ?Aa+酰氯,酸酐-→Aa被酰基化 ?丹磺酰氯用于多肽链末端Aa的标记和微量Aa的定量测量. ?烃基化反应 ?Aa的氨基的一个氢原子可被羟基(包括环烃及其衍生物)取代. ?与2,4-二硝基氟苯(DNFB,FDNB)反应 ?最早Sanger用来鉴定多肽或蛋白质的氨基末端的Aa ?与苯异硫氰酸酯(PITC)的反应 ?Edman用于鉴定多肽或蛋白质的N末端Aa.在多肽和蛋 白质的Aa顺序分析方面占有重要地位(Edman降解法) ?形成西佛碱反应 ?Aa的α-NH2能与醛类化合物反应生成弱碱,即西佛碱(schiff ‘s base) ?前述甲醛滴定:甲醛与H2N-CH2-COO-结合,有效地减低了后者的 浓度,所以对于加入任何量的碱, [H2N-CH2-COO- ]/ [+H3N-CH2-COO- ]的比值总要比不存在甲醛的情况下小得多。加入 甲醛的甘氨酸溶液用标准盐酸滴定时,滴定曲线B并不发生改变。 ?脱氨基反应 ?Aa在生物体内经Aa氧化酶催化即脱去α-NH2而转变成酮酸 ?α-COOH参加的反应 ?成盐和成酯反应 ?Aa + 碱-→盐 ?Aa + NaOH -→氨基酸钠盐(重金属盐不溶于水) ?Aa-COOH + 醇-→酯 ?Aa+ EtOH ---→氨基酸乙酯的盐酸盐 ?当Aa的COOH变成甲酯,乙酯或钠盐后,COOH的化学反 应性能被掩蔽或者说COOH被保护,NH2的化学性能得到 了加强或活化,易与酰基结合。Aa酯是制备Aa的酰氨or 酰肼的中间物 ? ?成酰氯反应 ?当氨基酸的氨基用适当的保护基保护以后,其羧基可与二氯亚砜作 用生成酰氯 ?用于多肽人工合成中的羧基激活 ?叠氮反应 ?氨基酸的氨基通过酰化保护后,羧基经酯化转变为甲酯,然后与肼

中英文发音的区别

中英文发音的区别 其实,英语语音的音感是一种只可意会不能言传的感觉。说归说,最终还要自己慢慢地揣摩和体会。我就试着表达一下吧,不知道能不能有帮助(*^__^*) “口腔的后半部分发音”其实就是说英语时我们要使用的口腔后部发音法,这是一种新提出的发音理论。 简单点儿说,就是说英语的时候自己的声音要靠后,不能靠前,不能让自己的声音听起来太“直白”。比如ROAD这个单词,很多英语专业人士都将这个音发成了“肉的”,而实际上,根本原因在于:汉语拼音里的[r]在发音时舌头是不卷起来的,发起来就像“日”的一声,舌位比较靠前。而英语音标[r]发音时舌头是向后卷起的,舌位靠后。明白了这一点就容易掌握ROAD的纯正读音了。 我想这也许是口腔后部发音法最好的一个例子了,希望对你有帮助吧(*^__^*) 英语和汉语是发声方法完全不同的两种语言,汉语用的是口腔的“前部发声方法”,而英语用的是口腔的“后部发声方法”,前部发声法是一种比较放松的、动作较大的、速度较慢的粗旷发声方法,它难以细腻区分英语的很多相似音,并且不适合于发速度较快的英语音。而后部发声是一种发音拘紧的小动作快速发音方法,它可以细腻地区分英语的相近音,并适合于英语的快速发音。 为什么汉语和英语要采用一前一后的发声方法呢?说起来道理也特别简单,只要你了解了英语发音的几大特点后就可以理解发声方法的妙处。英语发音归纳起来总体上有三个特点,即:音多、音相近、发音速度快。首先是音多,英语单词由于是多音节文字,使英语是一种讲起话来很“费音”的语言,汉语几个音就说清楚的东西,用英语说就要滔滔不绝地说上一大堆音,比如说“国际”两个音,用英语说international,要五个音。英语一句话几十个音、上百个音是很平常的事,这说明英语发音比汉语的负担大,汉语发音可以放开嘴巴大动作地大大方方地舒舒服服地发每个音,而英语发音就必须收起嘴巴小里小气地发每个音,甚至还要轻发和省略好多音,不然的话音太多发不过来。其次是音相近,汉语发音由于是大动作发音,音和音之间相差很远,即使放开发音也混不到一起去,而英语发音天生就是“小动作”发音,音和音之间区别很小,一不小心就会混到一起,不能敞开了发音,必须小心翼翼地细腻发音。若说英语时放开嘴巴发音,则往往会出现一团糟的发音状况,因此英语发音时必须

英美英语读音的区别

英美英语读音的区别 [ 2007-11-20 11:42:00 | By: jinxia ] 英语和美语在读音上的差异主要反映在元音字母a, o 和辅音字母r 的不同读音上。 1.在ask, can't, dance, fast, half, path 这一类的单词中,英国人将字母a 读作[a:],而美国人则读作[?],所以这些词在美国人口中就成了[?sk][k?nt][d?ns][f?st][h?f]和[p??]。 2.在box, crop, hot, ironic, polish, spot这一类单词中,英国人将字母o读作[)],而美国人则将o读作近似[a:]音的[a]。所以这些词在美国人读起来就成了[baks][krap][hat][ai'ranik][paliJ] 和[sp at]。 3.辅音字母r在单词中是否读音是英语与美语的又一明显差异。在英语的r音节中不含卷舌音[r],而美语的r音节中含卷舌音[r],如下列词在英语和美语中读音是不同的: 英语读音美语读音 car [ka:] [kar] door [d):] [dor] river ['riv2] ['riv2r] party ['pa:ti] ['parti] board [b):d] [bord] dirty ['d2ti] ['d2rti] morning ['m):ni9] ['morni9] 英语中只有在far away, for ever, far and wide等连读情况下,字母r才明显的读作卷舌音[r]: [fa:r2'wei][f2'rev2][far2ndwaid]。 4.在以-ary或-ory结尾的多音节词中,英国人通常将a或o弱读,而美国人不仅不弱读,还要将a或o所在的音节加上次重音,所以这些词在英语和美语中不仅读音有差异,节奏也显然不同,例如: 英语读音美语读音 dictionary ['dikJ2n2ri] ['dikJ2nori] laboratory [le'b):r2tri] ['l?br2,tori] necessarily ['nesis2rili] [,nesi'serili] preparatory [pri'p?r2t2ri] [pri'p?r2,tori] secretary ['sekr2tri] ['sekr2,tori] 5.在以-ile结尾的另一类单词中,英国人将尾音节中的字母i读作长音[ai];而美国人则弱读作[2],例如: 英语读音美语读音 docile ['dousail] ['das2l] fertile ['f2tail] ['f2rtl] fragile ['fr?d3ail] ['fr?d32l]

氨基酸的代谢

一、氨基酸代谢的概况 ?重点、难点 ?第一节蛋白质的营养作用 ?第二节蛋白质的消化,吸取 ?第三节氨基酸的一般代谢 ?第四节个别氨基酸代谢 食物蛋白质经过消化吸收后进人体内的氨基酸称为外源性氨基酸。机体各组织的蛋白质分解生成的及机体合成的氨基酸称为内源性氨基酸。在血液和组织中分布的氨基酸称为氨基酸代谢库(aminoacidmetabolic pool)。各组织中氨基酸的分布不均匀。氨基酸的主要功能是合成蛋白质,也参与合成多肽及其它含氮的生理活性物质。除维生素外,体内的各种含氮物质几乎都可由氨基酸转变而来。氨基酸在体内代谢的基本情况概括如图。大部分氨基酸的分解代谢在肝脏进行,氨的解毒过程也主要在肝脏进行。 图8-2 氨基酸代谢库 二、氨基酸的脱氨基作用 脱氨基作用是指氨基酸在酶的催化下脱去氨基生成α—酮酸的过程,是体内氨基酸分解代谢的主要途径。脱氨基作用主要有氧化脱氨基、转氨基、联合脱氨基、嘌呤核苷酸循环和非氧化脱氨基作用。 (一)氧化脱氨基作用

氧化脱氨基作用是指在酶的催化下氨基酸在氧化的同时脱去氨基的过程。组织中有几种催化氨基酸氧化脱氨的酶,其中以L-谷氨酸脱氢酶最重要。L-氨基酸氧化酶与D-氨基酸氧化酶虽能催化氨基酸氧化脱氨,但对人体内氨基酸脱氨的意义不大。 1.L-谷氨酸氧化脱氨基作用由 L谷氨酸脱氢酶(L-glutamatedehydrogenase)催化谷氨酸氧化脱氨。谷氨酸脱氢使辅酶NAD+还原为NADH+H+并生成α-酮戊二酸和氨。谷氨酸脱氢酶的辅酶为NAD+。 谷氨酸脱氢酶广泛分布于肝、肾、脑等多种细胞中。此酶活性高、特异性强,是一种不需氧的脱氢酶。谷氨酸脱氢酶催化的反应是可逆的。其逆反应为α-酮戊二酸的还原氨基化,在体内营养非必需氨基酸合成过程中起着十分重要的作用。 (二)转氨基作用 转氨基作用:在转氨酶(transaminase ansaminase)的催化下,某一氨基酸的a-氨基转移到另一种a-酮酸的酮基上,生成相应的氨基酸;原来的氨基酸则转变成a-酮酸。转氨酶催化的反应是可逆的。因此,转氨基作用既属于氨基酸的分解过程,也可用于合成体内某些营养非必需氨基酸。 图8-4 转氨基作用 除赖氨酸、脯氨酸和羟脯氨酸外,体内大多数氨基酸可以参与转氨基作用。人体内有多种转氨酶分别催化特异氨基酸的转氨基反应,它们的活性高低不一。其中以谷丙转氨酶(glutamicpyruvic transaminase,GPT,又称ALT)和谷草转氨酶(glutamic oxaloacetictransaminase,GOT,又称AST)最为重要。它们催化下述反应。 转氨酶的分布很广,不同的组织器官中转氨酶活性高低不同,如心肌GOT最丰富,肝中则GPT最丰富。转氨酶为细胞内酶,血清中转氨酶活性极低。当病理改变引起细胞膜通透性增高、组织坏死或细胞破裂时,转氨酶大量释放,血清转氨酶活性明显增高。如急性肝炎病人血清GPT活性明显升高,心肌梗死病人血清GOT活性明显升高。这可用于相关疾病的临床诊断,也可作为观察疗效和预后的指标。 各种转氨酶的辅酶均为含维生素B6的磷酸吡哆醛或磷酸吡哆胺。它们在转氨基反应中起着氨基载体的作用。在转氨酶的催化下,α—氨基酸的氨基转移到磷酸吡哆醛分子上,生成磷酸吡哆胺和相应的α—酮酸;而磷酸吡哆胺又可将其氨基转移到另一α—酮酸分子上,生成磷酸吡哆醛和相应的α—氨基酸(图8—6),可使转氨基反应可逆进行。

氨基酸的保护

保护氨基酸:是指氨基酸的功能基团与其它基团反应而封闭了氨基酸功能基 团活性的氨基酸衍生物,都能叫保护氨基酸。包括a氨基和羧基,以及侧链功能基团。 氨基保护基的选择策略: 选择一个氨基保护基时,必须仔细考虑到所有的反应物,反应条件及所设计的反应过程中会涉及的底物中的官能团。 最好的是不保护. 若需要保护,选择最容易上和脱的保护基,当几个保护基需要同时被除去时,用相同的保护基来保护不同的官能团是非常有效。要选择性去除保护基时,就只能采用不同种类的保护基。 要对所有的反应官能团作出评估,确定哪些在所设定的反应条件下是不稳定并需要加以保护的,选择能和反应条件相匹配的氨基保护基。 还要从电子和立体的因素去考虑对保护的生成和去除速率的选择性 如果难以找到合适的保护基,要么适当调整反应路线使官能团不再需要保护或使原来在反应中会起反应的保护基成为稳定的;要么重新设计路线,看是否有可能应用前体官能团(如硝基等);或者设计出新的不需要保护基的合成路线。 Ⅰ氨基酸的保护基(保护羧基) (一)叔丁基tBu - (tert-butyl) ester 标准保护程序: 在N-保护的氨基酸的溶液中,加入DMAP(0.5当量)和叔丁醇(1.2当量)在干燥的DCM (DCM是一氧化二碳?),0℃在惰性气氛下,加入EDCI(1.1当量),并搅拌2小时。然后将混合物在室温下,搅拌直到TLC通过(通常是14小时),在真空下浓缩。将残余物再溶解在乙酸乙酯中,用水萃取两次,然后用饱和碳酸氢钠水溶液萃取两次。将有机溶液干燥(硫酸镁)并真空浓缩。如果必要将残留物通过快速色谱法(SiO)纯化。 脱保护: 将该化合物溶解在甲酸中在室温下搅拌直至反应完成(TLC通过)(通常是12小时)。然后将溶液浓缩,并重复加入甲苯浓缩数次。如有必要,可以将所得残余物通过快速色谱法(SiO)进行纯化。 (二)苄基Bn - (benzyl) ester 标准保护程序: 氨基酸在惰性气氛下搅拌用无水THF和O的苄基N,N'-diisopropylisourea(见文献进行合成)在室温下,直到完成通过TLC(通常为2天)。将混合物冷却至-20℃,并过滤。将滤液真空浓缩,并在必要时通过快速色谱法(SiO)纯化。 去除 氨基酸衍生物溶解在1:1的甲醇:叔丁醇和Pd(OH)2-C在氢气气氛下加入。将混合物搅拌,直到完全通过TLC(通常>3小时),然后过滤并浓缩。将所得残余物然后可以通过快

中英文发音区别

英语和汉语是两种完全不同的两种语言,两种语言的发声方法差别就更大。两者最大的差别在于:汉语用的是“前口腔发声方法”,说话时,口腔的前部比较用力。发声位置在口腔的前方。英语用的是“后口腔发声方法”说话时口腔的后部比较用力,口腔的后部很开阔,发声位置在口腔的后部。这两重发声方法是根本上不同的口腔演奏方法,是不能互相替代的。 比如:一把吉他他有6根弦,有高音弦、低音弦,不同的弦发出不同的声音,不同的音适合于弹奏不同的曲子。人的嘴巴也像一把吉他一样,有多种不同的“演奏”方法,能发出多种不同的声音,并用不同的声音来说不同的语言。 中国学生听外国人讲英语时,或许会有一种感觉,就是外国人嘴里说出的英语与我们中国人说的英语声音好像不太一样,又说不出不同在哪里,努力去模仿也模仿不出来,这是怎么回事 人的嘴巴表面上没什么差别,都能吃饭、喝水,但让人难以想到的是,不同地方的人说不同的语言时,以及不同地方的人说同一种语言时,在发声方法上、用力与用气上、口型及口型姿态上、发音音质上有千差万别的变化,而且各种发声方法之间还可以完全不同,甚至完全相反。有人用大气说话,有人用小气说话,有人用爆破力说话,有人用柔和力说话,有人用嘴前边说话,有人有嘴后边说话。比如说汉语,生活在不同地方的人说汉语的发声方法是不同的。一般上海人说话时,嘴巴用的是“前口腔”,力量集中在嘴的前面,声音也都集中在嘴唇的前方,速度快,声音细小,听起来“偏尖、偏高、偏沙哑”。而东北人说话则用的是“后口腔”,嘴巴开得较开,说话的声音从口腔后面的嗓子眼里出来,在喉咙里轰轰直响,给人实实在在的感觉。 英语和汉语是两种完全不同的两种语言,两种语言的发声方法差别就更大。两者最大的差别在于:汉语用的是“前口腔发声方法”说话时,口腔的前部比较用力。发声位置在口腔的前方。英语用的是“后口腔发声方法”说话时口腔的后部比较用力,口腔的后部很开阔,发声位置在口腔的后部。这两种发声方法是根本上不同的口腔演奏方法,是不能互相替代的。 汉语和英语发声最大的区别就在于两者发声位置的不同。下面结合图片来说明汉语和英语发音上最主要的区别。见图: 东方人发声图说明:图中黑点处为说汉语的发音位置,中国人说汉语时,听觉上感觉声音是在口腔的前边。 中国人讲汉语,我们天生会一种方法叫做口腔前部发声方法,这两种方法你要是不知道的话,那天生会的是口腔前部发声法,就是说汉语的方法。如果想说英语的话,你必须开发出你的嘴巴,发英语音的口腔后部发声法。 什么地方人用口腔前部发声法呢地球上的东方地区。东方是哪中国,日本,韩国,香港,新加坡,菲律宾,越南,泰国,这一带都是口腔前部发声,口腔前部的特点就是,说话的时候嘴巴的前半截动作大。你们应该看得清我现在讲汉语的样子,我现在用的是口腔前部发声,你们发现了没有,我口腔前部的动作比较大,其实你们每天讲汉语的时候口腔前部的动作比较大,你的爸爸,妈妈,你的爷爷奶奶,我们中国人祖祖辈辈用的是口腔前部动作来发音,前部动作非常大。我们发出的音是什么音呢我们发出的是一种偏尖,偏沙哑的一种声音。偏尖,偏沙哑东方地区的人发出的声; 西方人发声图说明:图中黑点处为说英语的发音位置,外国人说英语时,听觉上感觉声音是在口腔的里边。 地球上的西方国家:欧洲,到后来的美国,他们用的可是口腔的另一部分在讲英语,叫做口腔的后部发声法。这个后部发声法发出的音和咱们汉语音反过来,和东方音反过来。它是一种偏低,偏粗,偏浑厚的声音。

氨基酸的代谢

一、选择题 1.转氨酶的辅酶是()。E A、NAD+ B、NADP+ C、FAD D、FMN E、磷酸吡哆醛 2. 氨的主要去路是()。A A、合成尿素 B、合成谷氨酰胺 C、合成丙氨酸 D、合成核苷酸 E、合成非必需氨基酸 3. 1mol尿素的合成需消耗ATP摩尔数是()。C A、2 B、3 C、4 D、5 E、6 4.有关鸟氨酸循环,下列说法哪一个是错的。()A A 循环作用部位是肝脏线粒体 B、氨基甲酰磷酸合成所需的酶存在于肝脏线粒体 C、尿素由精氨酸水解而得 D、每合成1mol尿素需消耗4molATP E、循环中产生的瓜氨酸不参与天然蛋白质合成 5.参与尿素循环的氨基酸是()。B A、蛋氨酸 B、鸟氨酸 C、脯氨酸 D、丝氨酸 E、丙氨酸 6. 一碳单位的载体是()。B A、二氢叶酸 B、四氢叶酸 C、生物素 D、焦磷酸硫胺素 E、硫辛酸 7 . 在鸟氨酸循环中,尿素有下列哪种物质水解而得。()C A、鸟氨酸 B、半胱氨酸 C、精氨酸 D、瓜氨酸 E、谷氨酸 8 . 参与转变作用的氨基酸是()。D A、Tyr B、Trp C、Glu D、Cys E、Ser 9. 人类营养必需氨基酸指()。A A、Val,Leu B、Trp,Pro C、Phe,Tyr D、Met,Cys E、Ser,Trp 10 .尿素循环与三羧酸循环是通过哪些中间产物的代谢连接起来的。()C A、Asp B 、草酰乙酸C、Asp和延胡索酸D、瓜氨酸E、Asp和瓜氨酸 11 .尿素循环中,能自由通过线粒体膜的物质是()。B A、氨基甲酰磷酸 B、鸟氨酸和瓜氨酸 C、精氨酸和延胡索酸 D、精氨酸和代琥珀酸 E、尿素和鸟氨酸 12 .联合脱氨作用所需的酶有()。B A、转氨酶和D-氨基酸氧化酶 B、转氨酶和L-谷氨酸脱氢酶 C、转氨酶和腺苷酸脱氢酶 D、腺苷酸脱氢酶和L-谷氨酸脱氢酶 E、以上都是 13. 不能脱下游离氨的氨基酸脱氨方式是()。B A、氧化脱氨基 B、转氨基 C、联合脱氨基 D、嘌呤核苷酸循环 E、以上都是 14. 能增加尿中酮体排出量的氨基酸是()。A A、Leu B、Gly C、His D、Ser E、Ala 15. 即增加尿中葡萄糖也增加尿中酮体的排出量的氨基酸是()。E A、Ile B、Trp C、Tyr D、Thr E、以上都是 16. 动物体内转氨酶的种类虽然很多,但就其辅酶来说仅有一种,即()。E A、磷酸 B、辅酶A C、辅酶Ⅰ D、辅酶Ⅱ E、磷酸吡哆醛

浅析英语英式发音与美式发音的区别

班级:土木5班学号:051150518 班级代码:616 姓名:杨琪林

为了更加了解美式英语与英式英语的差异,有二点理由说明了我们为什么要强调使用英语的人数以及英语的世界性。首先,英语并不是美国人或英国人,或其以英语为母语者的唯一特产。另外说英语的人俞多,它的地理位置分布愈广大。 在一般人的观念里英国是一个很严谨的国家。英国人似乎在穿着上,用餐的礼仪上,工作的时候都很严谨,也较有规律。也因此,大众对英国的语言也有相同的观念,觉得英式英语是一种严谨的语言。而美国是由英国移民所组成的一个国家,它的建国时间较短,因此,在人们的印象中,美国和英国有着大大的不同。美国人较热情,做任何事情随心所欲,所以美国人在说话时也应是如此。 在美国的英语中,有许多很口语化的方言和俗语,就像我们台湾本土的闽南语一样有很多很有趣的俗语,也许会人认为在英语的对话中添加一些方言和俗语,会让人觉得粗俗或没水准。其实不然。因为若在说话时添加一些方言或俗语,可以使你说出来的话更生动活泼、更丰富、更有内涵,且更容易让人了解。相对的,如果说话时都一板一眼、毫不越矩,不但自己说话时要很小心谨慎,别人也无法很轻松地与你交谈。 英国人和美国人所使用的英语都遵循既定的规则,但随着社会潮流的进步及改变,无论是在英国或是美国,人们所使用的英语也都一直在改变。只是在大众的感觉里,美国英语改变的速度似乎比英国英语还要来的快。但事实上,学者们的研究却认为美式英语在某些层面

上比英式英语还要守旧。此外,学者们也认为造成两者差异最大的原因是因为自然环境的不同。例如:区域、地形、动植物和人口稠密度。另外,还有些原因是因为英国人和美国人生活背景和社会体制的不同。例如:政治体制、教育体制。 美国的语言也叫做「英语」,乍听之下好像不合常理,因为应该是英国的语言才叫做「英语」,但是由于美国人是来自于英国的移民,所以美国人和英国人所说的语言都是同一种语言。虽然这两个国家所说的都是一种语言,但是还是有些许的差异,不过这些差异对一般人来说也许明显,但却不尽然明了其差异之根源所在。在1700年以前,英语并没有英式英语和美式英语两种分别,因为当时只有英国,美式英语在当时是不存在的。不过之后,因为部分英国人移民到美洲大陆,在美洲大陆又发展了一个文化,再加上英语这个语言在口说及书写方面很少受要标准化和统一化的影响,因此,今日英语才形成英式英语及美式英语两种形式。而由此我们也可以知道,英式英语及美式英语两者之间最大的差异是在「发音」和「字母」。一种语言使用的人越多,范围越广,就越容易产生差异,变成了虽然是同一种语言,但却有不同的体系,不同的形式出现。其实,并不是只有英国和美国这两个国家所使用的英语有所差异,所有英语系的国家所使用的英语多多少少都有些不同,不过虽然各个国家所使用的英语都各有其特点,但唯有英国英语和美国英语较为一般人所知道,较具借债性,因此我们就以这两种较具代表性,也较有系统性的英语来作研究与探讨。 本文研究将英式英语与美式英语两者之间的差异,大致分为发

氨基酸的讲解

氨基酸的讲解 一、判断题 ()1.蛋白质的营养价值主要决定于氨基酸酸的组成和比例。 ()2.谷氨酸在转氨作用和使游离氨再利用方面都是重要分子。 ()3.氨甲酰磷酸可以合成尿素和嘌呤。 ()4.半胱氨酸和甲硫氨酸都是体内硫酸根的主要供体。 ()5.限制性蛋白水解酶的催化活性比非限制性的催化活性低。 ()6.磷酸吡哆醛只作为转氨酶的辅酶。 ()7.在动物体内,酪氨酸可以经羟化作用产生去甲肾上腺素和肾上腺素。 ()8.尿素的N原子分别来自谷氨酰胺和天冬氨酸。

()9.芳香族氨基酸都是通过莽草酸途径合成的。 ()10.丝氨酸能用乙醛酸为原料来合成。 二、选择题(单选题) 1.生物体内氨基酸脱氨基的主要方式为: A.氧化脱氨基B.还原脱氨基C.直接脱氨基D.转氨基E.联合脱氨基 2.成人体内氨的最主要代谢去路为: A.合成非必需氨基酸B.合成必需氨基酸C.合成NH4+随尿排出D.合成尿素E.合成嘌呤、嘧啶、核苷酸等 3.转氨酶的辅酶组分含有: A.泛酸B.吡哆醛(或吡哆胺)C.尼克酸D.核黄素E.硫胺素

4.GPT(ALT)活性最高的组织是: A.心肌B.脑C.骨骼肌D.肝E.肾 5.嘌呤核苷酸循环脱氨基作用主要在哪些组织中进行? A.肝B.肾C.脑D.肌肉E.肺 6.嘌呤核苷酸循环中由IMP生成AMP时,氨基来自: A.天冬氨酸的α-氨基B.氨基甲酰磷酸C.谷氨酸的α-氨基D.谷氨酰胺的酰胺基E.赖氨酸上的氨基 7.在尿素合成过程中,下列哪步反应需要ATP? A.鸟氨酸+氨基甲酰磷酸→瓜氨酸+磷酸B.瓜氨酸+天冬氨酸→精氨酸代琥珀酸 C.精氨酸代琥珀酸→精氨酸+延胡素酸D.精氨酸→鸟氨酸+尿素E.草酰乙酸+谷氨酸→天冬氨酸+α-酮戊二酸

不同种类氨基酸和糖的美拉德反应

1 美拉德反应概述 美拉德反应又称羰氨反应,指含有氨基的化合物和含有羰基的化合物之间经缩合、聚合而生成类黑精的反应。此反应最初是由法国化学家美拉德于1912年在将甘氨酸与葡萄糖混合共热时发现的,故称为美拉德反应。由于产物是棕色的,也被称为褐变反应。反应物中羰基化合物包括醛、酮、还原糖,氨基化合物包括氨基酸、蛋白质、胺、肽。反应的结果使食品颜色加深并赋予食品一定的风味,如:面包外皮的金黄色、红烧肉的褐色以及它们浓郁的香味。 和焦糖化反应(caramelization)相比,美拉德反应发生在较低的温度和较稀的溶液中。研究证明,美拉德反应的程度与温度、时间、系统中的组分、水的活度、以及pH有关。当美拉德反应温度提高或加热时间增加时,表现为色度增加,碳氮比、不饱和度、化学芳香性也随之增加。在单糖中,五碳糖(如核糖)比六碳糖(如葡萄糖)更容易反应;单糖比双糖(如乳糖)较容易反应;在所有的氨基酸中,赖氨酸(lysine)参与美拉德反应,可获得更深的色泽。而半胱氨酸(cysteine)反应,获得最浅的色泽。总之,富含赖氨酸蛋白质的食品,如奶蛋白易于产生褐变反应。糖类对氨基酸化合物的比例变化也会影响色素的发生量。例如,葡萄糖和甘氨酸体系,含水65%,于65℃储存时,当葡萄糖对甘氨酸比值从10:1或2:1减至1:1或1:5时,即甘氨酸比重大幅增加时,色素形成迅速增加。如果要防止食品中美拉德反应的生成,就必须除去其中之一,即除去高碳水化合物食物中的氨基酸化合物,或者高蛋白食品中的还原糖。在高水分活度的食品中,反应物稀释后分散于高水分活度的介质中,并不容易发生美拉德反应;在低水分活度的食品中,尽管反应物浓度增加,但反应物流动转移受限制。所以,美拉德反应在中等程度水分活度的食品中最容易发生,具有实用价值的是在干的和中等水分的食品中。pH对美拉德反应的影响并不十分明显。一般随着pH的升高,色泽相对加深。在糖类和甘氨酸系统中,不同糖品在不同pH时,色度产生依次为: pH<6时:木糖>果糖>葡萄糖>乳糖>麦芽糖; pH>6时:木糖>葡萄糖>果糖>乳糖>麦芽糖。 在日常生活中,也经常接触到美拉德反应。面食烘烤产生棕黄色和香味,就是面团中糖类和氨基酸或蛋白质反应的结果,这也是食用香料合成的途径之一。

英美音发音的区别(完整版)

英美音发音的区别 1、国际音标与K.K. 音标对照表 IPA :国际音标48 个元音:20个,辅音:28个K.K.:美式音标51 个元音:22个,辅音:29个区别:1书写形式的不同.如:i: (IPA)------i (K.K.) 等. 2.发音的个别不同.美式中加入卷舌音,而英式中没有卷舌音.如?:(IPA)------?(K.K.) 3.一些单词在IPA中本是发?, 但是在美音中发ɑ。一些单词在IPA中本是发ɑ:,但是在美音中发? 4.此表中在最末加上了几个常见特殊的组合音标。 IPA K.K. 发此音的字母或字母 组合及例举单词 IPA K.K. 发此音的字母或字母组 合及例举单词 IPA K.K. 发此音的字母或字母组 合及例举单词 元音(vowels) ɑ:ɑr ar, farm, car eeth, this, the, there i: i e, ee, ea, ie, me, sea, piece, bee ɑa, calm ∫∫sh, ti, ci, s ship, motion, social, sure u: u oo, o, ue, ui,ew flew,cool,fruit, true, do υ?υr ure, oor, our, sure, poor, tour ??s pleasure, usual ?:?au, ou, al, aw, author,call,law, bought i??r eer, ere, ear, ier deer, here,year, fierce h h h, wh, hi, who ?:?ir, ur, ear, or bird, turn, learn, work e??r ear, air, are, ere bear, fare, there, fair r r r, right, red ??er, or, ar, ur, pleasure, teacher, actor,dollar ?r our, or, ore four, lord, more, store, ??ch, tch, church, match ?ou, o, a, ago, delicious, today 辅音(consonant)??ge, j age, vegetable, join, joy i ?i, y, e sit, happy, decide ρρp, pen, bag t r t r tr, tree, country u υoo, ou, o, u look, could, put, wolf b b b, bite, d r d r dr, dress, dry, hundred eεe, a, ea, set, head, many t t t, tw tear, fit, two, ??ts, boots, nuts ??u, o, ou, oo, luck,love,trouble,flood d d d, dark, afford ??ds, woods, ?ɑo, a, hot, wash, ??k, c, ch, ck, cock king, cake, school, box, m m m man, name ??a, fat, g g g, gh girl, ghost n n n, kn, nice, knife, nine ei e a, ay, ea, ey, ai,eigh say, cake, great, rain ??f, gh, ph, face, laugh, phone ??-ng, n sing, English, ɑiɑ?i, y, igh, high, line, fly ??v view, cave ? ?l, light, lose ?u o o, ow, oa, no, know, boat s s s, c, ce, ss sick, ceilling, cell, kiss, ?l, fall, call ɑuɑυou, ow, house, cow z z z, se, ze zoo, shoes, choose, size ωωw, wh wet, window, when, what ?i ??oy, oi, boy, oil, noise θθth, thank, mouth ??y year, yell

英美发音区别

英音美音九大区别(转)来源:张旸的日志 英音美音九大区别 (一)单词中字母“r”发音――“卷舌”的标志 显而易“听”,卷舌音是美音区别于英音的一大特色。 请注意: 美音中除了Mrs.中的“r”不卷舌之外,只要含有“r”字母的单词均要卷舌。 美音英音 spare/5speEr//speE/ burglar/5bErglEr//5bE:glE/ purpose/5pErpEs//5pE:pEs/ 最典型实例 chairman,horse,dirty (二)在美音中/t/发音与/d/相近 注意:美音中/t/ 出现在两个元音之间且处于非重读位置的时候,发音近似/d/,而不是完全等同。我们这里用/d/来表示这个近似音。 美音英音 city /5sidi//5siti/ better/5bedEr//5betE/ pretty/5pridi//5priti/ 最典型实例 waiter,winter,actor,yesterday,chapter (三)听辨美音中的/A/ 字母a的发音出现在-ss, -st, -th, -ff, -ef, -nce 等前面时,美音把a读为/A/ 美音英音 can’t/kAnt//ka:nt/ last /5lAst//5la:st/ Mask /5mAsk//5ma:sk/ chance/5tFAns//5tFa:ns/ advantage/Ed5vAntidV//Ed5va:ntidV/ 最典型实例 answer,advance,a fter,ask,banana,branch,castle, commander, example,fast,F rance,glance, glass,half,last, etc. (四)由“hot dog”看字母“o”在美音中的发音 字母“o” 在美音读为/a/而在英音中读为/R/ 美音英音

第五章 氨基酸代谢

第五章氨基酸代谢 1

讲授新课: 第五章氨基酸代谢 蛋白质是生物体最重要的大分子之一,是一切生命活动的物质基础。在生物体内,蛋白质不断地进行着分解和合成代谢,使物质得到有效分配和利用,使生命得到体现。 蛋白质的降解产物氨基酸,不仅能重新合成蛋白质,而且是许多重要生物分子的前体,例如:嘌呤、嘧啶、卟啉、某些维生素和激素等。当机体摄取的氨基酸过量时,氨基酸可以发生脱氨基作用,产生的酮酸可以通过糖异生途径转变为葡萄糖,也可以通过三羧酸循环氧化成二氧化碳和水,并为机体提供所需能量。 不同生物体利用氮源合成氨基酸的能力不同。脊椎动物不能合成全部20种蛋白质氨基酸。高等动物能利用铵离子合成氨基酸,但不能利用硝酸、亚硝酸和大气中的氮气。高等植物能合成全部蛋白质氨基酸,也能利用氨、硝酸和亚硝酸作为氮源,许多豆科植物还能通过共生关系利用大气中的氮气。微生物合成氨基酸及对氮源的利用能力差异很大,例如溶血链球菌需要17种氨基酸,大肠杆菌能合成全部蛋白质的氨基酸,固氮微生物能利用大气氮合成氨及氨基酸。 第一节蛋白质的酶促降解 人和动物要不断地从食物中摄取蛋白质,食物中蛋白质进入人体后,在消化道中经过一系列复杂的水解反应降解成氨基酸才能被组织利用。 在植物体内,特别是当种子萌发时,蛋白质发生强烈的降解作用,产生的氨基酸被重新利用形成幼苗中的蛋白质。可见蛋白质的酶促降解是生命活动的重要组成部分。1979年国际生化协会命名委员会将作用于肽键的酶归属于第三大类(水解酶类)第四亚类(EC 3. 4),而根据蛋白酶水解多肽的部位可分为蛋白酶和肽酶两个亚亚类。 一、蛋白酶 蛋白酶又称肽链内切酶,它可作用于肽链内部的肽键,生成长度较短的含氨基酸分子数较少的肽链。蛋白酶对不同氨基酸所形成的肽键有专一性。例如胰蛋白酶水解由碱性氨基酸的羧基所形成的肽键,胰凝乳蛋白酶水解由芳香族氨基酸的羧基所形成的肽键,而胃蛋白酶能迅速水解由芳香族氨基酸的氨基和其它氨基酸形成的肽键,也能较缓慢地水解其它一些氨基酸(如亮氨酸)和酸性氨基酸参与形成的肽键。根据蛋白酶的催化机理可将其分为4类(表5-1)。在生物体内,蛋白酶可将蛋白质水解为许多小的片段,但要彻底水解为氨基酸还需要肽酶的作用。 表5-1 蛋白酶的种类 编号名称作用特征例子 EC 3. 4. 21丝氨酸蛋白酶类 (serine proteinase)在活性中心含组氨酸和丝氨酸胰凝乳蛋白酶、胰蛋白酶、 凝血酶 EC 3. 4. 22硫醇蛋白酶类 (thiol proteinae)在活性中心含半胱氨酸木瓜蛋白酶、无花果蛋白 酶、菠萝蛋白酶 EC 3. 4. 23羧基(酸性)蛋白酶类 [carboxyl(acid)proteinase] 最适pH在5以下胃蛋白酶、凝乳酶 EC 3. 4. 24金属蛋白酶类 (metalloproteinase)含有催化活性所必需的金属枯草杆菌中性蛋白酶、脊椎 动物胶原酶 2

相关文档
相关文档 最新文档