语言学 考试题型 标准答案
题型
I．简答题5×1’=5’
例：类似于自由词素、词根、词干、连着词素、曲折词素等待解释
II．判断正误T/F 20×1’=20’
例：动词是逆构词法中产生最多的词。
III．单项选择题20’
例：奥斯丁、姆斯金、德莱斯提出的理论？
IV．写音标10×1’=10’
P35～36
V．划分词素10×3×0.5’=15’
VI．翻译10×1’=10’
分英翻汉和汉翻英
例：合作原则、聚合关系、组合关系、曲折后缀、词缀、前缀、后缀
VII．选择答题2×5’=10’
VIII．树形图
给词，分析意思，是否有歧义？用树形图解释出来。
样卷A
I．
1. displacement
2. pragnatics
3. stem
4. syntax
5. hyponymy
II. T/F
9. Lang is arbitrary to the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to. F
10. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language. F
11. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in umber, and yet there is no limit to the umber of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. F
12. Agreement is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each in terms of categories. T
13. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use; it originated with John Langs Shaw Austin. T
14.
15.Vibretion of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voucing. F?
16. The word ―flower‖ is the super ordinate of the typonyms ―rose‖―tulip‖ and ―rose‖. T 17．Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. T
18.The English sound [m]is a bilabial nasal voice. T
19. A study of the features of the Chinese used in the Tang Dynasty in diachronic study. T?
20.While English has borrowed most heavily form French, other languages have also made their contributions. F
21. Inflectional affixs are those whose major function is to attach themselves to the morphemes to form a new word. F
22. A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable. F
23. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. F
24. The phrase ―green house‖ with the first element stressed means ―a house which is green in colour‖ F
25. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order. F
26. The compound word ―book store‖ is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaning of its compounments. F
27. Only when a maxim under cooperative principle is blatantly violated can the hearer know that it’s being violated and conversational implications arise. T
28. The word ―photo graphically‖ is made up of 4 morphemes. T
III.
29. The famous quotation from Romeo and Juliet arose by any other name world smell as sweet well illustrates: the conventional nature of language.
30. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it’s a said to be: descriptive.
31. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? Phonology
32. Phonetially, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element.
33. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic
……
36. The word ―trasist~‖ is formed through: lending
37. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of classed displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns.
38. Concord is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.
39. Chomsky uses the term performance to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic com.
40. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][s][d][z][n] share the feature of P35
41. Translate formational Generative Crammer was introduced by N. Chomsky in 1957.
42. The relationship between ―married/ single‖ is complementary.
43. Of the 3 speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because of this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.
44. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are synomy~s.
45. The function of the sentence ―A nice day, isn’t it?‖ is 寒暄
46.
47. We can do things with words ―this‖ is main idea of the speech act theory.
48. The utterance―we are already working 25 hours a day, 8 days a week‖ obviously violates the maxim of quantity.
IV.
49. voiceless dental fricative
50. high front tense unrounded vowel
51. voiced alveolar stop
52. high back tense rounded vowel
53. voiceless bilabial stop
54. voiced labiodental fricative
V.
55. What are the 4 maxims of the cooperative Principle?
56. What are the distinctions between inflectional affix and derivational affix? VIII.
Leave the book on the shelf.
①leave the book on the shelf
Put the book on the shelf.
②leave book on the shelf
Keep away from the book on the shelf
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2e16970624.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
2.Design Features of Language
Arbitrariness (Saussure)
This feature means that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. Duality
The elements of the spoken language are sounds that do not convey meaning in themselves. Creativity
By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Displacement
This means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
3.Functions of Language
(1) Informative Function
Language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker thinks, to give information about facts.
(2) Interpersonal function
This is by far the most important socio-logical use of language. People establish and maintain their status in a society.
(3) Performative Function
This function is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.
(4) Emotive function
The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. (5) Phatic communion
It refers to the social interaction of language which is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.
(6) Recreational function
This function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.
(7) Metalingual function
Our language can be used to talk about language itself.
4.What is linguistics?
Linguistics is scientific discipline with the goal of describing language and speech in all relevant theoretical and practical aspects and their relation to adjoining disciplines.
5.Main Branches of Linguistics
*Phonetics
It studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.
* Morphology
It is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning---morphemes and word-formation processes.
*Phonology
It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.
*Syntax
It is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.
*Semantics
It examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.
*Pragmatics
It is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.
6.Important Distinctions in Linguistics
*Descriptive vs. prescriptive
A linguistic study is DESCRIPTIVE if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is PRESCRIPTIVE it tries to lay down rules for “correct‖ behavior.
* Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic description refers to a language description at some point in time;
Diachronic description is about a language description as it changes through time.
* Langue & parole
LANGUE refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;
PAROLE refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.
*Competence & performance
Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language;
Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance.
7.CONSONANTS and VOWELS
Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity;
A vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.
8.Manners of Articulation
*Stop (or plosive)(爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth.
There are two kinds of stops: oral stops and nasal stops
* Fricative(摩擦音): close approximation of two articulators so that the air-stream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.
* Approximant(无摩擦延续音):
This is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air-stream is produced.
* Lateral(舌边音): obstruction of the air-stream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.
* Affricates (破擦音)：
When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates. In English there are two affricates.
* Nasals (鼻音):
When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English.
* Glides (滑音):
They are som etimes called ―semivowels‖. They are produced with a narrower passage between the lips and the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction. In English, they are [w,j]
9.The place of Articulation
* Bilabial(双唇音):
In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. In English, bilabial sounds include [p,b,m]
* Labiodental(唇齿音):
In the obstruction of these sounds, the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f,v
* dental(齿音):
The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English.
* alveolar(齿龈音):
The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t,d,s,z,n,l,r]
* palatal(颚音):
The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.
* velar(软腭音):
The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum(软腭), or the soft palate.
* glottal(喉音):
The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English: [h].
10.Classification of English vowels
* Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.
11.
12.The Phoneme theory
The phoneme simply refers to a ―unit of explicit sound contrast‖
13.Allophones(音位变体)
Peak and speak are not actually pronounced as they are transcribed in dictionaries.
We know that in English there is a rule that this sound is unaspirated after /s/ but aspirated in other places. In what we have talked about, different variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution(互补分布) because they never occur in the same context.
14.Assimilation(同化)
*This is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
*There are two possibilities of assimilation:
If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation(逆同化);
The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation(顺同化).
* Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown in the following:
pancake
sunglasses
You can keep them.
He can go now.
Define the following terms
consonant phoneme allophone
What is assimilation?
15.Suprasegmentals
The syllable structure
Stress
Intonation
Tone
16.Identification of words
*Stability
Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement.
* Relative uninterruptibility:
This means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing can be used to insert in the three parts of the word disappointment: dis+appoint+ment.
* A minimum free form:
This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as ―the maximum free form‖ and word ―the minimum free form‖, the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute
a complete utterance.
17.Classification of words
Variable & invariable words
*Variable words refer to those that we can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms, for the word write, there are several grammatically different forms: wrote, written, writing
* Grammatical words & lexical words:
Those which express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words, also known as function words. Those which have lexical meanings,
i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words, also known as content words.
* Closed-class words and open-class words:
A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.
New expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.
* Word class:
Traditionally, we had such word classes as ―n. adj. v. adv. prep. etc.‖ But here are some of the categories newly introduced:
a. Particles
They include the infinitive m arker ―to‖, the negative marker ―not‖ and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as ―get by‖, ―do up‖, ―look back‖.
Chapter Three: Morphology
b. Auxiliaries
Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs, but linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class:
Negation: I can’t come. *I wantn’t come.
Inversion: Is he coming? *Keeps he coming?
Code: I’ll come and so will Bill.
*I intend to come and so intend Bill.
Emphasis: He has come. *He seems to come.
c. Pro-form
In order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, it is advisable to regard pro-form as a separate word class.
Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.
Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.
Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.
Pro-locative: Jane’s hiding there, behind the door.
d. Determiners:
This is a new word class which refer to words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference: the, a, some, all, etc.
Quirk, et al proposes that there are three subclasses of determiners:
Predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third,etc.
Central determiners: the, a, this, that, these, those, etc.
Postdeterminers.next, last, past, other, (a) few, much, etc.
18.The formation of word
* Morpheme & morphology
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g.
boys---boy+-s
checking---check+-ing
disappointment---dis-+appoint+-ment
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. For example, the verb purify consists of two parts: pur(e) and –ify, from which we can work out a rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may explain the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ify, such as simplify, beautify, amplify,etc.
* Types of morphemes
a. Free morpheme and bound morpheme
Morphemes can be classifies into two types.
Those which may occur alone, i.e. those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. E.g. close, dog, nation are free morphemes. All monomorphemic words are free
morphemes. And polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds.
Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur alone and must appear with another morpheme, e.g.
nations---nation+-s; dogs---dog+-s
worked---work+-ed; reading---read+-ing
The word distempered has three morphemes: dis-, temper, -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme while dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes
* Root, affix and stem
Polymorphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.
a. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e.
it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved, e.g.
bound morphemes: inter-, -al, -ism
internationalism
root: nation
All words contain a root morpheme.
b. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three types: prefix, suffix and infix, depending on the position with reference to the root or stem of the word.
prefix: dis-, mono-, poly-, un-, pre-, in-, re-
suffix: -er, -ism, -ify, -tion, -ly, -ology
infix: tooth/teeth, foot/feet
A root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound. Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words such as black in blackboard, blackbird,blacksmith. And there are few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive, in receive, perceive and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit; -cur in incur, recur and occur.
c.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be adde
d. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.
* Inflectional affix and derivational affix
This is also a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. Inflectional affixes in English are used to show various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case, e.g. –(e)s, -ing, -er, -est, -’s, -ed. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class while derivational affixes very often change the lexical meaning.
19.Inflection and word formation
Inflection: It is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached, e.g.
a. number: table/tables, car/cars
b. person, finiteness and aspect:talk/talks/talking/talked
c. case: boy/boy’s, John/John’s
Word formation: It refers to the process of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type(derivation).
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/2e16970624.html,pound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as icecream, sunrise.
b.Derivation: It shows the relation between roots and affixes.
20.Morpheme and phoneme
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. A single may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. The phoneme /z/ in goes represents the third-person singular present tense morpheme –es, but /z/ occurs very often when it has nothing to do with this specific morpheme.
Let’s look at the following examples:
a. boys
b. boy’s
c. raise
In a, the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme; in b, it represents the morpheme that means the possessive case. But in c, it means nothing at all.
21.Lexical change
*Invention(新创词语)
Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xeros Frigidaire, granola
* Blending(混成法)
It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word. E.g.(See P97)
*Abbreviation(缩写词)
It is also called clipping, i.e. a new word is created by the following processes:
i. Cutting the final part: ii. Cutting the initial part
advertisement ----- ad aeroplane ---- plane
bicycle ---- bike telephone ---- phone
television ---- telly omnibus ----- bus
iii. Cutting both the initial and final parts
influenza ---- flu refrigerator ---- fridge
* Acronym (缩略语)
It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E.g.
WTO--World Trade Organization （世贸组织）
UNESCO--United Nations Education Science &
Cultural Organization (联合国教科文组织)
scuba—self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus (配套的水下呼吸器)
*Back-formation (逆构词法)
It refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E.g.
television/televise editor/edit
laser / lase calmative/calm
*Analogical creation (类推造字法)
In the conjugation of some English verbs, there is a co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular. E.g.
old new
work wrought worked
beseech besought beseech
slay slew slayed
Chapter Three: Morphology
* Borrowing (借用词)
English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. E.g.
Chinese: taji, chowmien, wok, kung-fu, etc.
There are several types of processes with regard to borrowing. Let’s take a look at the following:
ii. Loanblend (混合借词)：
It is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E.g.
coconut (Spanish+English)
China-town (Chinese+English)
iii. Loanshift（转移借词）:
It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E.g.
bridge from Italian ―ponte‖;
artificial satel lite from Russian ―sputnik‖
iv. Loan translation (翻译借词)：
This is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.
E.g. ―almighty‖ translated from Latin ―omnipotens‖
―free verse‖ translated from Latin’s ―verse libre‖
―black humor‖ translated from French ―humour noir‖
22.Semantic change
There are five types of semantic changes:
Broadening(词义扩展)：
It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. E.g.
―holiday‖ used to mean ―holy day‖;
it means ―a day for rest‖.
(more examples on P108)
Narrowing (词义缩小)：
The original meaning can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. E.g.
―meat‖ used to mean ―food‖ in the 7th century;but the meaning is restricted to ―the edible
flesh of mammals‖.
(More examples on P108)
Meaning shift(词义转换)：
This means that the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above. What makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. E.g. ―bead‖ originally means ―prayer‖, but later it refers to ―the prayer bead‖, finally ―small, ball-shaped p iece of glass, metal or wood.‖
Class shift(词类转换)：
By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notionto a process or attribution. It is also known as zero-derivation or conversion. E.g.
―engineer‖ as n. means ―a person trained in a branch of engineering‖, but it means ―to act as an engineer‖ when used as a verb.
Folk etymology (俗词源学、民间词源)：
It refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.
23.Syntax
This word is derived from Greek and is composed of two morphemes: /syn/(together) + /tax/(to arrange). In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.
24.Syntagmatic relation (组合关系)
It is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. There are syntactic and semantic conditions that the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet. For example,
a. The boy kicked the ball.
b. *Boy the ball kicked the.
c. *The ball kicked the boy.
25.Horizontal Relations. (替代词关系)
26.Paradigmatic relation (聚合关系)
It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.
For example, what should be filled in the blank?
The _______ is smiling.
Only singular human nouns like boy, girl, man, woman, student, baby, doctor, nurse, etc.
27.Endocentric and exocentric constructions
*Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It also known as a headed construction.
*Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases.
Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes:
Exocentric construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center, or head, in it. Prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, e.g.
prepositional phrases: in the school, on the desk
subordinate clauses: if he is going
28. Category
Number: 数字 Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural …
Gender: 性别Gender displays such contrasts as ―masculine: feminine: neuter ‖.
Case: 场合
Agreement: 认同
29.
7 types of meanings (G. Leech, 1974):7. Themantic
Associative meaning (meaning （主题意义）—what is communicated by the way in
which the message is organized in terms of order & emphasis.
联想意义)：
2. Connotative meaning —what is communicated by virtue of what language
（内涵意义）refers to.
3. Social meaning —what is communicated of the social circumstances of
（社会意义）language use.
4. Affective meaning —what is communicated of the feelings & attitudes of the
（情感意义）speaker/writer.
5. Reflected meaning —what is communicated through association with another
（反映意义）sense of the same expression.
6. Collocative meaning —what is communicated through association with words
（搭配意义）which tend to occur in the environment of another word.
1. Conceptual meaning Logical, cognitive, denotative content
30. The referential theory.
31.Sense relations （意义关系）
*Synonymy (同义关系)：It refers to the Sameness Relation or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Total synonymy is rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:
1) Dialectal synonyms – synonyms used in different regional dialects.
British English American English
autumn fall
lift elevator
luggage baggage
lorry truck
petrol gasoline
flat apartment
torch flashlight
2) Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style. Some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style, e.g.:
old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent
kid, child, offspring
chap, pal, friend, companion
room, chamber
3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive but express different emotion of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
E.g.:
like, love, admire, adore, worship
He is a nice man and all the pupils like him.
The pop singer is especially worshipped by teenagers.
4) synonym
Some words differ in their words they go together with. For example,
when we want to say that someone has done something wrong or criminal, we can use ―accuse of‖, ―charge with‖, ―rebuke for‖. Different verbs are followed by different prepositions.
5) Semantically different synonyms
There are synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.
*Antonymy (反义关系): The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. There are different kinds of antonyms.
1) Gradable antonyms (分级反义词): Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.
old middle-aged, mature, elderly young
hot lukewarm, warm, cool cold
2) Complementary antonyms (互补反义词): A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
alive dead
male female
true false
3) Converse antonyms (相反反义词): Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called converse antonyms or relational opposites.
husband/wife father/son
teacher/pupil doctor/patient
buy/sell let/rent
above/below parent/child
left/right up/down
*Hyponymy (上下义关系): It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word that is more general in meaning is called the superordinate (上义词); the more specific words are called its hyponyms (下义词). Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
superordinate: flower
hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, morning glory, carnation, …
superordinate: furniture
hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, …
32.Pragmatics
Definition: Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. Pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.
33.Speech Act Theory
He made a distinction between what he called ―constatives‖ and ―performatives‖.
34.performatives and constatives
*Performatives
They refer to the utterances that serve to cause the hearer to perform acts. E.g.
(1) I name this ship Elizabeth.
(2) I do.
(3) I promise to come in time tomorrow.
(4) I warn you not to touch that button.
(5) I apologize.
*Constatives
They refer to the statements that are used to state facts or to describe states of something. E.g.
(1) It’s raining outside.
(2) I can’t find my pen.
(3) The teacher is coming.
(4) There is a door there
(5) That’s a chair.
35. A theory of the illocutionary act
Three Related Acts of a Speech Act:
A illocutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
An illocut ionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is the act performed by saying something.
A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
*Five Categories of Speech Acts (Searle):
representatives (阐述类): stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true; directives (指令类): trying to get the hearer to do something;
commissives (承诺类): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action; expressives (表达类): expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;
declaratives (宣告类): bringing about immediate changes by saying something.
36.The Cooperative Principle
The Cooperative Principle
The four maxims:
☆Quantity – informativeness
1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange)
2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
☆Quality – truthfulness
1) Do not say what you believe to be false.
2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
☆Relation – relevance
Be relevant.
☆Manner – clarity
1) Avoid obscurity of expression.
2) Avoid ambiguity.
3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).
4) Be orderly.
37.Characteristics of Implicature
Chapter 8: Pragmatics
?Characteristics of Implicature
1). Cancellability (不可取性)
Cancellability means that if some presupposition is used to attach the original utterance, the implicature will be cancelled.
Cancellability is caused by two factors. Firstly, the speaker attaches some words to the original utterance to show that he wants to cancel the original implicature; secondly, an utterance in certain context shows that the speaker intends to remove the implicature of the utterance.
A: Would you like some tea?
B: Tea would keep me awake. But I do want to stay awake
tonight.
2). Non-detachability (不可分离性)
Conversational implicature exists in the content of utterance, not in the form. Any substitutes can not be used to change the original pragmatic implicature in the utterance.
Suppose everyone knows that Jack is an idiot, any other words can not change the implicature of the utterance:
?Jack is a genius.
?Jack is a mental prodigy.
?Jack is an exceptionally clever human being.
?Jack is an enormous intellect.
Jack is a big brain.
A: What did you think of the lecture?
B: Well, I thought the lecture hall was big.
3). Calculability (可推导性)
It means that the speaker infers the pragmatic implicature by the literal meaning or by the maxims of the PC.
A: How did Jimmy do his history exam?
B: Oh, not at all well. They asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born. Johnny: Hey, Sally, let’s play marbles.
Mother: How is your homework getting along, Johnny?
A: what did your sister buy at Sears yesterday?
B1: She bought a red dress, a green one, and a blue one.
B2: She bought a red dress, she bought a green dress, and she bought a blue dress.
4). Non-conventionality (非规约性)
Conversational implicatures can be inferred by the maxims of the CP, the literal of an utterance and the context. The literal meaning appears before the pragmatic implicature. The literal meaning of an utterance doesn’t change while the pragmatic implicature appears dynamic, as the contexts change. For example,
(1) There is a policeman at the corner.
(2) It’s Sunday today.
(3) A: would you like to invite me up to a coffee?
B: Oh…I’m afraid the place is in a terrible mess.
5). Indeterminacy (不确定性)
It refers to the fact that a word with a single meaning may have different implications in different contexts, as Levinson provides the example:
A: What do you think of John?
B: John’s a machine.
—John is cruel.
—John is capable.
—John is hardworking.
—John is stupid.
Another example:
A: What do you think of Tom?
B: He is a fish.
-- He is good at drinking.
-- He is a good swimmer.
-- He is quiet.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
《语言学纲要》试题库剖析
绪论、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系 二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。
语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
修订版《语言学纲要》第三章语音和音系答案
第三章语音和音系 一、名词解释 语音四要素——音高、音重（强）、音长、音质。 音素——是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位 音位——具体语言中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小的语音单位。也是按语音的辨义作用归纳出来的音类，从语言的社会属性划分出来的语言单位 音位变体——处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。如果它们被归并为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成为同一音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我们把它们叫做音位变体。 非音质音位——非音质音位指具有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音重、音长等。例如汉语普通话声调中的阴平、阳平、上声、去声，是由音高的变化形成的而不是音质变化形成的，就是非音质音位。 区别特征——具体语言中有区别音位的作用的发音特征，叫做该语言的区别特征。每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。运用区别特征比较容易说清楚音位在具体语言中的特点和具体语言语音系统的组织方式。 音节——由音位组成的语音中最小的结构单位，也是从听觉上感受到的最自然的单位。 语流音变——音位和音位组合的时候，由于受说话时快慢，高低、强弱的不同和邻音的影响，可能发生不同的临时性的变化。这种变化，我们叫做语流音变。 音步——语言的一种节奏中，语流是大致每隔两个音节就有一次小的轻重、高低、长短或松紧的交替，形成语流中大致等距离出现的两音节的节奏单元。这种节奏单元叫做音步。 二、填空或简答 1、画一张元音舌位图，用国际音标标出八个基本元音。 八个基本元音[i][e][ ][a][u][o][?][ɑ]
胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
语言学纲要修订版练习题及答案
第一章 一、填空 语言的功能 1、语言的功能包括（社会）功能和（思维）功能。 2、语言的社会功能包括（信息传递）功能和（人际互动）功能。 3、在各种信息传递形式中，语言）是第一性的、最基本的手段。（ 4、人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由（左）半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由（右）半球制约。 5、儿童语言习得一般经过（独词句）阶段和（双词句）阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。二、判断正误（对）1、文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。（错）2、当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。（错）3、书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。（对）4、抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。（错）5、布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。（错） 6、聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。（对） 7、不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。（错） 8、汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。三．思考题1、为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？除了语言之外，人们还使用其他的信息传递工具：（1）文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式等辅助性的交际工具（2）体态语等伴随性的副语言交际工具，（3）盲文、手语等类语言交际工具。但这些交际工具或者使用范围的有限，或者运用效率低下，或者使用频率不高，很难与语言这种交际工具相提并论。文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用，中小学语文教学主要就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。总之，在上述的种种信息传递工具当中，身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言，文字基础之上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具；语言是人类最重要的信息传递工具。 2、语言的人际互动功能表现在哪些方面？说话者在传递客观经验信息的同时，也在表达着主观的情感、态度和意图，寻求听话者的反馈。而受话者在接收说话者传递的客观经验信息的同时，也了解了说话者的主观情感态度，从而做出回应。这样语言就成为说话者和听话者间交际互动的工具。例如：张三和李四同时在教室看书，张三坐在窗子边的位置，李四坐在中间位置。 A.李四说：“今天气温很低。” B.张三说：“我马上关上。” A、B 的对话表达了一种委婉的请求。李四说“今天气温很低”的目的并不是反映今天的天气，而是向坐在窗户边的张三请求将窗户关上。 3、为什么说思维离不开语言？思维需要语言（1）语言是人类思维的工具，思维活动必须用语言作手段（2）语言是保存思维成果的媒介。思维成果必须依靠语言的巩固才能得以保持。（3）语言可帮助思维逐步深化（4）语言可帮助思维条理化（5）语言可帮助传递思维成果。思维的成果靠语言才能表达出来，使听读者了解。 4、语言思维功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些表现？人类的大脑的左右半球的分工是人类所特有的。人类以外的动物，没有这样的分 2 工,没有专门管语言的“左半球” ，因此它们没有逻辑思维的能力，也掌握不了语言。大脑中人类特有的语言功能区（1）说话中枢，也称布洛卡区，在大脑左半球前部，是19 世纪60 年代，法国神经解剖学家保罗·布洛卡(Paul Broca)发现的。这一区域受到损伤就会得失语症，丧失说话能力，但基本能听懂别人的话。（2）书写中枢，也在大脑左半球前部，靠近布洛卡
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版).
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
《语言学纲要》模拟试题
《语言学概论》考核题型与分章模拟题 一、填空题(每小题2分,计30分) 二、选择题(每小题1分,计10分) 三、名词解释(每小题2分,计10分) 四、分析说明题(每小题5分,计20分) 五、论述题(每小题10分,计30分) 第一章语言的功能 一、填空(15分) 1、语言的功能包括( 社会)功能与( 思维)功能。 2、语言的社会功能包括(信息传递)功能与(人际互动)功能。 3、人的大脑分左右两个半球,语言功能及计数、推理能力等由(左 )半球掌管,音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由(右 )半球制约。 二、判断正误(15分) ( 错 )1、书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。 ( 错 )2、聋哑人不会说话,所以不具有抽象思维的能力。 ( 对 )3、不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。 三.思考题(70分) 1、语言的人际互动功能表现在哪些方面？ 说话者在传递客观经验信息的同时,也在表达着主观的情感、态度与意图,寻求听话者的反馈。而受话者在接收说话者传递的客观经验信息的同时,也了解了说话者的主观情感态度,从而做出回应。这样语言就成为说话者与听话者间交际互动的工具。例如: 张三与李四同时在教室瞧书,张三坐在窗子边的位置,李四坐在中间位置。 A、李四说:“今天气温很低。” B、张三说:“我马上关上。”
A、B的对话表达了一种委婉的请求。李四说“今天气温很低”的目的并不就是反映今天的天气,而就是向坐在窗户边的张三请求将窗户关上。 2、不同语言思维方式的特殊性体现在哪些方面？ 思维能力就是全人类普遍的,但使用不同语言的民族在思维方式上会有所不同。 每一种语言都包含着一个民族认识客观世界的特殊方式,我们学会一种语言也就学会了该民族的独特的思维方式。不同语言背景的人进行思维时常常呈现出不同的特点: A 不同民族的不同语言对事物的分类可能不同。 英文中的“uncle”,与汉语中伯父、叔父、姑父;堂伯、堂叔、堂姑父、姨父、舅父、表姑父、表叔……等词对应。 B 相同语素构成的词,可能表示不同的概念。 手+纸汉:手纸日:信 汽+车汉:汽车日:火车 第二章语言就是符号系统 一、填空(20分) 1、说出的话语句子就是无限的,但无限多的句子都就是由有限的(词 )与( 规则 )组装起来的。 2、我们就是通过( 听话)认识到“孔子就是中国古代的思想家”这个( 心理现实 )的。 3、心理现实就是存在于( 客观现实 )与(语言符号 )之间的人脑中的信息存在状态。 4、语言符号的( 任意性 )与( 线条性),就是语言符号的基本性质。 5、( 组合关系 )与( 聚合关系 )就是语言系统中的两种根本关系。 二、判断正误(20分) ( 错 )1、音位与音位组合构成语素。 ( 错 )2、语言就是一种社会规约,所以每个人说话就是不自由的。 ( 错 )3、句子就是比词组高一层级的符号单位,所以句子的长度一定大于词组。
徐通锵 叶蜚声 《语言学纲要》学习指导书课后习题答案
《语言学概论》学习辅导书参考答案（导言） 一、名词解释（20分，每小题4分） 1.语言学：就是以语言为研究对象的科学，研究语言的本质、语言的结构和发展规律。 2.小学：指我国传统的语文学，包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学三方面的内容。 3.专语语言学：也叫具体语言学、个别语言学，以一种（或几种有联系的）语言为研究对象，研究某一种语言的结构。 4.共时语言学：以同时的、静态分析的方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况，是从横向的方面研究语言。 5.历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。 二、填空题（20分，每空1分） 1.中国? 印度? 古希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言的三大发源地。 2.文字学? 音韵学? 训诂学? 是我国传统的语文学。 3.研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音? 词汇和语义? 语法三个部分。 4.运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为编码? 发送? 传递? 接收解码五个过程 5.专语语言学可以从纵向和横向研究语言，由于研究角度不同，所以又分为历时语言学和共时语言学 6.历史比较语言学的建立，标志着语言学开始走上独立发展的道路。 7.布隆菲尔德的代表着作《语言论》，是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性着作。 8.索绪尔被称为现代语言之父，其代表作有《普通语言学教程》 三、问答题（60分，每小题10分） 1.古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？ ①研究对象不同：古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料，不重视口头语言的研究，而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究，如制定语言规范，确立共同语的各方面标准等，都要依据口语的研究成果； ②研究目的不同：古代语言学研究语言，主要是给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典着作作注解，比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典着作的需要来研究文言的，而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构，以此探讨语言发展的共同规律。 2．语言交际过程分哪几个阶段？请举例具体说明 可分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。编码就是发话人利用词语组织语句；发送就是把思维成果变成话语，通过发音器官表达出来；传递就是通过空气振动形成声波，把话语传达给受话人；接收是受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话；解码则经过大脑的思维把声波还原成语言，理解对方话语的含义，从而完成信息传递接收。如果受话人收到语言信息有所反馈，那么上述五个阶段则又重复一遍，只是发话人与受话人调换了。 3.“语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学；既与社会科学有密切的联系，有与自然科学有密切的联系。”怎样理解这段话的含义？ 语言是伴随着人类一起出现的，是人类社会生活必不可少的，所以人类很早就注意到了语言的重要性，很早就注意研究语言，所以语言学是古老的，但语言学直到18世纪下半叶，产生了历史比较语言学，后来又建立了语言学的各个部门，语言研究才发展成为一门独立的学科，同其它学科相比，语言学的确是十分年轻的。语言是社会现象，与社会的政治、经济、文化、历史等密切相关，而语言的发生又与物理、生理、心理等学科密切相关，而现代社会语言与语言的信息处理（如机器翻译、语码转换等）又涉及到数学、计算机科学，所以语言学既与社会科学有密切的联系，又与自然科学有密切的联系。正因为如此，随着语言学与别的学科的交融，又产生了许多新的语言学分支学科，如社会语言学、心理语言学、统计语言
《语言学纲要》试题及答案
【练习与思考】 一、填空题 1、语音的发音、传递、感知三个环节，分别对应于语音的（)( ）( ）三个方面的属性。 2、语音同其它声音一样,也具有（）( )( ）( ）四个要素。 ３、人类的发音器官可分为( ）( ）（)三大部分。 4、在发音器官中,唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、声带等是能够活动的,叫做（）发音器官；上齿、齿龈、硬腭等是不能活动的，叫做( ）发音器官。 5、口腔中最为灵活的发音器官是（) ６、从自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位是( )。 7、根据发音特点,音素可以分为( ）和( ）两类。 ８、每个元音的音质是由（)( ）( )三个方面的因素决定的。 9、辅音的发音特点是主要由( )和（)两个方面决定的。 10、[t]—[ｄ]的区别性特征表现为（)对立。 １１、汉语拼音方案是以()字母为基础制订的。 12、语音中具有辨义作用的最小单位是（）。 1３、一个音位通常是归纳几个音素的结果,那么，属于同一音位的几个音素叫（)。14、一般把具有辨义作用的音高、音强、音长形成的音位分别叫做()( ）（）。１５、( )是听觉上能够自然辨别出来的最小语音单位，它也是语音中最小的（）单位。 1６、汉语的音节通常可以分为( )、（）和（）三部分,其中韵母又分（)、( )、( )三部分,声母和韵母是由(）音位构成的，声调由超音质音位的( )构成的。1７、常见的语流音变主要有（)( )（）（）四种。 1８、我们在念“老虎”时，通常要把“老”念成类似阳平,这种变化叫做( )。 2、指出下列各组音素的区别特征。 [p‘]－[p] [f]－[ｖ] ［ts]-[t§] [n]－［ｌ］ [y]－[i] [ｙ]－[u] 三、名词解释 1、语音 2、音质 3、音素 4、音标 5、半元音 6、音位 ７、音位变体 8、条件变体 ９、自由变体 １０、典型变体 11、超音质音位
英语语言学教程胡壮麟版
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat
修订版《语言学纲要》第四章语法答案
第四章语法 一、举例解释下列名词 内部曲折——是通过改变词中语素的部分元音或辅音来表示语法意义的一种方式,又称语音交替或音位交替。如英语的所谓不规则动词, 大多是用语音交替来表示形态变化。格——表示名词、代词在句中同其他词的关系，它的意义是直接和句法相关的。性——通过词（名词、代词等）的形态变化表现事物的性别特征。欧洲的许多语言中都有。 屈折词缀——黏附在词的后面，只改变一个词的形式，不构成新词的词缀。黏着语素——不能够独立成词的语素叫黏着语素。 体——体（aspect ）表示动作行为的各种阶段和状态，是动词特有的语法范畴。最常见的是完成体和未完成体（或持续体、进行体），此外还有起始体、继续体、中断体、反复体、短时体（或瞬间体）等等。 时——时是动词的语法范畴，时（tense ）表示动作行为发生的时间。这时间往往以说话的时间为准，分为现在、过去、未来。 词法——语素组合在词的规则和词的变化规则合称词法。 二、填空 1、和动词有关的语法范畴有时、体、（态）和（式）。 2、由两个或两个以上的语素构成的词叫做（合成词）。 3、在workers 中，worker 这一部分可以称为（词干）。 4、按照词法结构类型，语言可以分为（词根语）、（黏着语）、（屈折语）和（复综语）。 5、句子的最大特点是（有语调）。 6、仅有一个语素构成的词是（单纯词）。 7、最小的语法单位是（语素）。 8、和名词有关的语法范畴有性、格、（数）。 9．词的组合有五种基本类型，例如“研究问题”属于（支配式），“跑的很快” 属于（补充式），“马上出发”属于（偏正式），“火山爆发”属于（主谓式）
10、能够改变词类的是（构词）词缀。 11 、表达语法意义的语法形式除了有类的配列之外，还有（形态的一致性配合）和（虚词）。 三、单项选择 1 、下列各组词中全部属于复合词的一组是（D ）A．大学、人民、（英）reader B ．劳动、阿姨、（英）railway C．瓶子、教室、（英）unhappy D ．道路、材料、（英）classroom 2 、与“春光明媚”结构相同的组合是（A ） A．阳光充足 B ．已经开始 C．调查研究 D ．工人和农民 3 、以下关于句法变换陈述正确的一项是（B ）A．句法变换反映的是句子之间的关系 B．句法变换可以区分句法多义C．容许变换说明一个语言的语序是自由的D．变换从不改变句子的语义 4 、区分词类最重要的依据是（C） A．意义B 、形态变化C 、句法功能D 、语言的类型特点 5 、现代汉语普通话中的“花儿”是（） A ．单纯词 B ．派生词 C ．复合词 D ．语素6、分析以下Michoacan Aztec 语中的一些词以及英语翻译。nokali —my house nokali mes-- my houses mokali —your house ikali —his house kalimes--houses 如果表示friend 的词是mahkwa，表示my friends 的词应该是（E ） B. mahkwas 四、分析题 1、用变换的方法区分下列句法多义的句子：支持的是王书记 我们支持是王书记（王书记是受事）