Is it possible to poplularize science

Philosophy of Science

Is Popularization of Science Possible?

Gustaaf C. Cornelis

Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium

gccornel@vub.ac.be

ABSTRACT:If the philosophy of science wants to pass along its views adequately to the public, it is important that the latter have a basic general understanding of science. Only in this way can "popularization of science" be meaningful from a philosophical and educational point of view. Is "good" popularization a possibility or merely a utopian phantasm. I conclude that popularization of science is possible if certain conditions are met. Scientists have to take responsibility and be honest in their efforts, both toward science as well as the public.

Introduction

Popularization of science is nothing else than an endeavour to image scientific ideas in such a way that everyone (especially non-scientists) can grasp the fundamental concepts and have an idea of what science in essence is. Of course, no one really knows what 'science' is, not even the scientists themselves. Philosophers trying to describe what the scientific method could be and others trying to put down what the scientific method should be, found out (it took them a lot of time) that there is nothing like the 'one and only' scientific approach. The impossibility to give a distinct and unique definition follows. Nevertheless, the phenomenon 'science' and its results do exist. Although nobody can tell exactly what 'science' is all about, everyone should have an idea anyway. The question at stake here is whether this is possible and, if so, to what extent.

Mapping Science

Let us take the following into consideration. The best map one can make is, evidently, a scale 1:1 parallel projection of the surface one wants to chart. But such a map is clearly lumpish to handle and quite superfluous. In extremis, the most accurate image of an object is the object itself. Mutatis mutandis, an attempt to popularize science should then present science as it is. Ilya Prigogine strongly adheres this position (Prigogine, 1996). A 'good' book on general relativity theory is then nothing else than a complete historical overview (in extenso) of all papers on the topic. However, the reader is then supposed to be a scientist (already), which makes the whole enterprise unneeded.

So, one has to take the confined capabilities of the possible reader into consideration. Since the reader is not a scientist, a 'translation' has to be made, making science more accessible. Besides this, also a selection is imperative, because the scientific domain is quite vast. Inevitably, a (major?) part of the information to get a reasonable complete view of science is lost in the process. One cannot give a full account of science.

However, according to Carl Sagan (1996), it is possible to popularize science to a great extent, by means of a comparison of science with baseball. All fields of interest-from Newtonian mechanics to sociological models-can be effectively explained in this way. But doing so, the difference between the disciplines tends to disappear. The reader might well understand Newtonian mechanics and several sociological models by means of an analogy, but will certainly fail to understand science itself. There is more to understanding science, than merely the comprehension of the respective contents of the disiciplines.

Out of all this, free interpretation results. In two ways, popularization implies necessary interpretation. Firstly, since there is no 'standard interpretation' on hand, the author of a vulgarizing book has to write down his/her view on science and scientific matters alike. As Dennis Dieks wrote regarding the popularization of quantum mechanics "For the science popularizer [] there is no 'scientific picture' which he can attempt to represent with as little distortion as possible" (Dieks, 1996, 167). Secondly, the reader makes an interpretation of his/her own. The distance between 'science' and the layperson seems to get bigger and bigger.

Still, popularization seems to be possible. It is possible to popularize all specific scientific ideas (one at a time), it is possible to show how a particular specialist works (one at a time). Ideal popularization is therefore possible, taken that the reader has enough time (to compensate the loss by selection) and taken that enough popularizers can be found to adequately present the scientific content (to compensate the loss by translation). The key to all this is time indeed. Which should not be surprising, since every learning process takes lots of time. Hence, popularization of science does not have to be utopian. But are we on the right track with the existing attempts?

Some attempts

In 1991 David Lerner published his "The Big Bang Never Happened," a first class example of a wrong type of popularization. Lerner, a science journalist, came up with a strange but viable idea, seconded by a couple of astronomers. However, without any sense of selfcritique, the thesis that standard theory was completely crazy was presented by means of a popular work on astronomy. The title was-from a publisher's point of view-brilliantly chosen. It is always exciting to everyone to hear that a standard theory is becoming overthrown (another example is Boslough's "Masters of Time. How Wormholes, snakewood and assaults on the big bang have brought mystery back to the cosmos."). 'Science', i.e., standard science, seems to fail. Hence, presenting non-scientific thoughts as scientific ones in a popular manner and at the same time scorching a standard view, the layperson is harshly misled. Furthermore, with one particular standard view down the drain, other established theories (in other fields of science) could loose their convincing power as well, just because they are 'standard' theories. In this context, it is good to know that standard big bang cosmology is not what most of the people think it is. It is a rather humble theory, based on the Hubble-relation (taking into account several parameters, which means that the redshift does not necessarily imply an overall expansion). The theory tries to fit this and a few other empirical facts (like the cosmic background radiation) into a consistent whole. The parametrization makes it a very flexible theory (standard theory, for example, does not predict a specific age for the universe), still easy to falsify.

"A Brief History of Time," Stephen Hawking's 1988 best-seller, is an example of an excellent popularizer. Following the advice of his publisher, Hawking only kept one formula in the book, since every mathematical expression would have halved the sales (White, 1992, 222). In view of popularization, it is, of course, very important to reach a public as broad as possible. Hawking succeeded in this: in 1997 a twenty first revised edition appeared.

Do the sales make good popularizations? Yes and no. Pseudo-science has even better sales-figures and can hardly be recognized as good popularization of science. It is equally important that the content of the book is unbiased, non-speculative and clear, and regards standard science. Hawking's 1988 attempt makes a high score. It is objective, perspicuous and objective. With one exception: Hawking does not state that his thoughts on the arrow of time are speculative.

In 1994, the CD-ROM titled "A Brief History of Time. An Interactive Adventure" appeared. Without effort, one can now discover Hawking's universe. The complete text is online and animated graphics

make the most complex concepts crystal-clear. But two disadvantages must be considered. For one, the CD-ROM is not available to everyone. And secondly, the majority of the users will read the book only partially. As far as the content goes, it is an superb popularizer. It's the medium that doesn't satisfy. The twentieth edition of "A Brief History of Time" was a revised edition. Hawking includes the latest theoretical ideas and empirical results in this version (which is no longer a pocketbook edition). Most importantly, though, the book is illustrated with beautiful photographs and lucid diagrams. The benefit is evidently twofold. Pictures magnetize the layman and, after the book is bought and one starts reading it, they make understanding very easy. The illustrations of the first edition seem to be very cheap in comparison with the latest publication. The new text though doesn't differ much from the original edition and the style is still the same: very transparent and fluent.

All this contrasts sharply with Hawking's "The Nature of Space and Time," a book he wrote with his close friend and colleague Roger Penrose. Actually, the book is a compilation of a series of talks, a debate between the two authors, held in 1994 at the University of Cambridge. The result is unfortunate example of bad popularization. Needless to say it didn't serve the popularization of science, nor its audience. The text is obscured by ambiguous, sometimes even shabby illustrations and very complex formulae (tensors and differential forms!). Only graduates in mathematics or physics can grasp the whole story. This shouldn't be a problem if the book wasn't presented as another 'best-seller' written by the most famous popularizer of science!

Conclusion

Lerner's publication shows that popularization is hazardous: pseudo-science lurks. The layman, intrigued by science and eager to learn, doesn't know and should be protected. But how? Popularizers should take an effort to present science objectively, making sure that the distinction between science and pseudo-science (if we don't know what science is, we still could tell what it isn't) is clear. Any confusion should be avoided, so I agree with George Gale when he writes that "We should avoid wherever possible the more speculative aspects of today's cosmology. Although it is possible that it is just these aspects of cosmology that the public most desires, we have here a case in which forbearance is the best policy. This, because, cosmological speculation is just that: speculation. And speculation is not science; indeed, it is not even popular science. We serve our audience and ourselves badly when we mislead them by presenting speculation within a scientific context." (Gale 1996, 180)

However, from a methodological point of view, speculation is fundamental in cosmology. According to Ilya Prigogine, it is necessary to present science as adequately as possible (Prigogine 1996): ideally presenting science as it is done, in its own language. Therefore, speculation cannot be left out of the picture. When Hawking described in "A Brief History of Time" his own particular view on time, a view which still remains very controversial, he showed the layman that science is still developing and depending on speculation. But the layman couldn't make the difference. So, although the book is certainly a very good popularizer (at least because of its distribution), Hawking should have flagged clearly his latest views as highly speculative. Anyway, Hawking's "Brief History" shows that 'scientifically correct', 'ideologically acceptable', 'effective' or 'objective' vulgarization of science is indeed a reachable ideal. It is most important, though, that the authors are clear about their own views and don't use popularization for their own purposes.

Bibliography

John Boslough, Masters of Time. How Wormholes, snakewood and assaults on the big bang have

brought mystery back to the cosmos. Dent, 1992.

Gustaaf Cornelis, Popularization of Science. The Democratization of Knowledge in Perspective. Communication and Cognition 29 (2) 1996.

Dennis Dieks, "The Quantum Mechanical Worldpicture and Its Popularization" in Cornelis 1996, 153-168.

Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time. Bantam Press, 1988/1997.

________, A Brief History of Time. An Interactive Adventure. CD-ROM (created by Jim Mervis and Robit Hairman), Blasterware, 1994.

________ and Roger PENROSE, The Nature of Space and Time. Princeton University Press, 1996. David Lerner, The Big Bang Never Happened. Simon and Schuster, 1991.

Ilya Prigogine and Gustaaf Cornelis, "Unity between Science and Culture." In Cornelis 1996, 239-248. Carl Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World. Science as a candle in the dark. Headline, 1996.

There are three aims of popularizing science: one, to reduce sciencephobia in general population; two, to help the youth in their choice of career; and three, to prepare the ground for good public reception of scientific endeavours, which in turn will favour research funding through democratic institutions. Beside the short overview of attempts at popularizing science in Croatia and abroad, the author proposes recommendations for good writing in popular scientific journals and stresses the problem of combining two styles, that is, the scientific and the artistic in popular scientific writing.

五种基本句型讲解与练习

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句子的基本句型 由主语、谓语动词、表语、宾语、宾语补足语等句子成分，按不同方式可组合成五种基本句型。 句子成分的表示方法： S: Subject主语； V: Verb动词； O: Object宾语； P: Predicative表语； IO: Indirect Object间接宾语； DO：Direct Object 直接宾语 OC: Object Complement宾语补足语； ◇第一种句型：主语+不及物动词(S+V) 该句型所用动词都是不及物动词，其后当然不能接宾语，但是可以用状语修饰谓语动词或整个句子。 He runs fast in the street. 他在街上跑得飞快。 The meeting begins at nine.

会议九点开始。 ◇第二种句型：主语+及物动词+宾语(S+V+DO) 该句型所用动词都是及物动词，可作宾语的有名词、代词、不定式、动名词或短语及从句。We attended the meeting. 我们出席了那次会议。(名词作宾语) She stopped him. 她叫住了他。(代词作宾语) She wants to ask a question. 她要问一个问题。(不定式作宾语) They enjoy listening to the classic music. 他们喜欢听古典音乐。(动名词作宾语) 注意：一些不及物动词之后加上介词就可以具有及物动词的功能，其后就可以接宾语了。这一类词组有：listen to 听；look at 看；look after 照看；look for 寻找；arrive at/in 到达等。 May I turn on the light？ 我可以开灯吗？ What are you looking for？ 你在找什么？ ◇第三种句型：主语+连系动词+表语(S+V+P) 连系动词的后面必须接表语，说明主语的情况和状态。通常可作表语的是名词或形容词。She became a lawyer last year. 去年，她成为了一名律师。 He is honest. 他是诚实的。 It is getting colder and colder.

固定句型及固定搭配归纳

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在初中英语学习阶段，句型和语法、词汇、短语一样重要。掌握这些核心句型，对于学习和考试可以起到事半功倍的效果。 句型1：There+be +主语+地点状语/ 时间状语 There’s a boat in the river. 河里有条船。 句型2：What’s wrong with+sb. / sth. ? What’s wrong with your watch? 你的手表有什么毛病? 句型3：How do you like...? How do you like China? 你觉得中国怎么样? 句型4：What do you like about...? What do you like about China? 你喜欢中国的什么? 句型5：had better(not)+动词原形 You’d better ask that policeman over there. 你最好去问问那边的那个警察。 句型6：How+adj. / adv. +主语+谓语!What a/ an+adj. +n. +主语+谓语! How cold it is today!

今天多冷啊! What a fine picture it is! 多美的一幅图画呀! 句型7：Thank+sb. +for(doing)sth. Thank you for coming to see me. 感谢你来看我。 句型8：So+be/ 情态动词/ 助动词+主语 He is a student. So am I. 他是一个学生，我也是。 句型9：... not ... until ... He didn’t have supper until his parents came back. 直到他的父母回来他才吃饭。 句型10：比较级+and+比较级 The baby cried harder and harder. 那孩子哭得越来越厉害。 句型11：the +比较级，the +比较级 The more one has，the more one wants. 越有越贪。 句型12：... as +adj./ adv.+as ...…not as(so) +adj. / adv. +as ... Do you think that art is as important as music? 你认为艺术和音乐一样重要吗? Last Sunday the weather was not so wet as it is today. 上个星期天的天气不如今天的天气潮湿。

英语语法、句式、简单句子结构(透彻分析)[精选.]

LESSON ONE 句子的三种模式 导言本课的重点是掌握英语的三种基本句型，注意词性和词序，以及定语的位置,同时注意中英文表达上的相同和不相同的地方。三种基本句型虽然简单，但至关重要。掌握好它们，在今后的学习中有一通百通之效。 ▲主+系动词+表 注：*注意该结构中的名词，它们能被定语修饰。 1 这个人是一个老师。The man is a teacher. 主语系表语主语系表语（名词） 2 他（是）很忙。He is busy. 主语系表语主语系表语（形容词） ▲注意中文中的系动词经常被省略,而英文中绝不能省。

3 她（是）在教室里。She is in the classroom. 主语系表语主语系表语（介词短语） ▲定语只修饰名词，不破坏句子的基本结构。通常 由形容词和介词短语充当，形容词放在所修饰的名 词之前，而介词短语放在所修饰的名词之后，请注 意英语与汉语词序的不同。看懂中文的定语是翻译 好定语的关键。 介词短语 ---英国法学家波洛克 介词短语 Happiness is a station -----------Pollock, British jurist 形容词介词短语 5

形容词介词短语 man is a teacher 介词短语形容词 6.教室里。 形容词介词短语 The teacher is handsome. My book is 表语（介词短语）定语（介词短语） She is

介词短语即可以做表语也可以做定语，虽然它们词性相同，但由于词序不同，它们所起到的作用也不同，当在is的后面是表语,跟在名词的后面它就起到定语的作用。 课堂练习 1 1是 2不是我的。 3．我的家乡hometown 峡谷valley里。 4那个贼 面behind。 1. 是 is 2钱不是我的。

四六级翻译30个常用句型

1)It is+形容词+that It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life. 可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演着一个重要的角色。 2)It is+形容词+to do/ doing She had said what it was necessary to say. 她已经说了一切有必要说的话。 3)祈使句/名词+and/ or Work hard, and you will finally be able to reach your destination. 努力工作，你就能实现自己的目标。 4)as+many/ much+名词+as It is said that visitors spend only half as much money in a day in Leeds as in Lon-don. 据说，游客每天在利兹的花销仅为在伦敦的一半。 5)倍数词+as+形容词+as The reservoir is three times as big as it was ten years ago. 这个水库的面积是十年前三倍。 6) 倍数词+ more +名词/形容词十than Smoking is so harmful to personal health that it kills seven times more people each year than automobile accidents. 吸烟对人体健康的危害极大，每年死于吸烟的人比死于车祸的人多七倍。 7)(not)as/ so...as(和……(不)一样)

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补充：英语写作常用句型： 句子写的好坏，是文章写作成败的关键。以下一些惯用句型，实用性较强。 一。开头句型： 1．As far as…is concerned,…就……而论 When it comes to sth/doing sth. 当谈论到…… 1)As far as the role of information in the future is concerned, I believe that information will play a more and more important part in people’s decision-making. 2)As far as what was mentioned above is concerned, how can we ignore the advantages travelling brings forth? 就前面所提及的而言，我们怎么可以忽视旅游带来的裨益呢？ 2．It goes without saying that…不用说 1)It goes without saying that practice makes perfect. 2)It goes without saying that reading makes a full man. 3. It can be said with certainty that…可以肯定的说 1)It can …… that cultivating a hobby can add fun to our life. 2)It can ….… that because of the knowledge, we can now enjoy a comfortable life which is brought about by advanced technology. 可以肯定地说，正由于知识我们才能享受科技进步所带来的舒适生活。 4. As the proverb says, …有句谚语说 As the saying gose, …俗话说 As the saying puts it, …俗话说 1) As the proverb says, “Honesty is the best policy.”诚实为上策。 2) As………goes, “Diligence makes up for deficiencies.”俗话说：“勤能补拙”。 3)An English proverb says, “Lost time is never found again.” 英国有句谚语说的好：“光阴如流水，一去不复回。” 5. It has to be noticed that …必须注意的是…… 1)It has to be noticed that the air we breathe is already seriously polluted by the exhaust factories and vehicles give off. 必须注意的是：我们呼吸的空气已经被工厂和交通工具所释放的废气严重污染了。 2) It has to be noticed that market all over the country are swamped with fake and poor quality products and this has greatly harmed the state’s interests and people’s health. 必须注意的是：假冒伪劣的产品充斥全国市场，这种情况大大损害了国家利益和人 民的健康。 6. It’s generally recognized that …人们普遍认为 1) It’s generally recognized that college students shouldn’t try to reach after what is beyond their grasp when they choose to find a good job after graduation.人们普遍认为大学生 在大学毕业后想找一个好工作时，不应该追求超出他们能力以外的目标。 2)It’s generally recognized that lazy hands makes a man poor, while diligent hands bring

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英语活用基本句型共五大句型42条公式： 第一种句型：S×V 1.S×V 2.It×V×S 3.There×V×S 4.There×V×S＋副词（片语） 5.Here;There×S×V 6.S×V＋副词（片语.子句） 7.S×V＋to-原形 8.S×Vp＋that从句 第二种句型：S×V＋C 9.S×V＋名.代.动名词.名词子句 10.S×V＋副词（片语） 11.S×V＋形容词×介词＋（代）名.动名词.子句 12.S×V＋形容词＋that 13.S×V＋副词（子句）.介系词片语 14.S×be＋副词（片语） 15.S×Vp＋副词（片语） 16.I t×be＋C＋S 第三种句型：S×V＋O 17.S×V＋名.代.名词子句. 18.S×W＋名.代.动名词. 19.S×V＋副词（片语） 20.S×V＋动名词. 21.S×V＋连接词形×副词（片语） 22.S×V＋that 23.S×V＋to×名.代＋that 24.S×V＋连接词×子句 25.S×V＋名.代.＋to＋名.代. 26.S×V＋名.代.＋for＋名.代. 27.S×V＋名.代.＋介＋名.代. 28.S×V＋it＋介＋名.代.＋不定词片语.名词子句 29.S×V＋名.代.＋副词 30.S×V＋名.代.＋不定词片语.副词（片语） 第四种句型：S×V＋OI＋OD 31.S×V＋名.代.＋名.代. 32.S×V＋名.代.＋连接词＋to-原形

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句型7：Thank+sb. +for (doing) sth. Thank you for coming to see me. 感谢你来看我。 句型8：So+be/ 情态动词/ 助动词+主语 He is a student. So am I. 他是一个学生，我也是。 句型9：... not ... until ... He didn’t have supper until his parents came back. 直到他的父母回来他才吃饭。 句型10：比较级+and+比较级 The baby cried harder and harder. 那孩子哭得越来越厉害。 句型11：the +比较级，the +比较级 The more one has，the more one wants. 越有越贪。 句型12：... as +adj./ adv.+as ... …not as/so+adj/adv. +as... Do you think that art is as important as music? 你认为艺术和音乐一样重要吗? Last Sunday the weather was not so wet as it is today. 上个星期天的天气不如今天的天气潮湿。

英语三大基本句型[1]

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