跨文化交际英语答案(缩印版)

【Translation】

1、纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。

2、文化有时候被称为我们的心智程序，我们“头脑的软件”。但是，我们可以进一步引申这个用电脑所做的类比，把文化看作是支持运行的操作环境。文化就像电脑使用的DOS 或者Unix 或者“视窗”（Windows）等操作系统一样，使我们能在各种各样的实际应用中处理信息。用“视窗”这个比喻来描述文化似乎也很有吸引力。文化就是我们心灵的视窗，透过它我们审视生活的方方面面。一个社会中不同个体的视窗是不大一样的，但都有着一些重要的共同特征。文化就好像是鱼畅游于其中的水一般，人们想当然地把文化看成是客观存在的事实，因而很少去研究它。文化存在于我们所呼吸的空气之中，文化对于我们了解我们自身之为何物是必不可少的，就正如生命离不开空气一样。文化是特定群体的共有财产，而不单是个体的特征。社会按照文化设定的程序运作，这种程序来自于相似的生活体验以及对这种生活体验之含义的相似阐释。如果文化是一种心智程序，那么它也是现实的心灵地图。从我们很小的时候开始，文化就告诉我们应该看重什么、偏好什么、规避什么和做些什么，文化还告诉我们事物应该是什么样。文化为我们提供超越个体经验可能的理想典范，帮助我们决定应该优先考虑的人或事。文化为我们建立起行为准则，并视遵守这些准则的行为为正当、合法。

。

3、虽然，我们每个人都有各自一套独特的价值观，但在每一文化里，总有弥漫于整个文化之中的普遍的价值观。这些被称作文化价值观,文化价值观通常是规范性的，它使文化的成员知道什么是好的和坏的、什么是正确的和错误的、什么是真的和假的、什么是积极的和消极的，等等。文化价值规定了什么是值得为之献身的，什么是值得维护的，什么会危及人们及其社会制度，什么是学习的恰当内容，什么是可讽刺嘲笑的，什么是形成群体团结的途径。文化价值观也指明了文化中的什么行为是举足轻重的，哪些是应当尽力避免的。价值观是人们在做出抉择和解决争端时作为依据的一种习得的规则体系。跨文化交际的参与者所具有的价值观是十分重要的，因为价值观产生出决定何为正当或不正当社会行为的标准。换言之，价值观有助于人们决定他们的行为方式，以符合他们的价值系统所期望的行为准则。由于文化价值系统之间存在差异，我们可以预见，在相似的情境中，跨文化交际的参与者会表现出并期待着不同的行为。

4、我们说语言总是模糊的，指的是我们所说所写的东西总不能完全表达我们的意图。我们通过说话和写作

所传达的意思不仅仅由词语和句子

本身决定，听众和读者的理解也起到

了一定的作用。换言之，是交际双方

共同创造了语言所表达的意思。语言

的模糊性是与生俱来的。为了沟通，

我们必须自己推断出对方的意思，除

此之外别无他法。在理解别人说话

时，我们必须推测这些话的意思。这

些推测主要基于以下两个来源：（1）

他们所使用的语言；（2）我们的世界

知识。这种知识包括能够预知在某种

特定语境下人们通常会说些什么。语

言是模糊的。这意味着无论是读或

写，我们永远无法完全地领会他人的

意思。换言之，语言永远无法完全地

表达我们的意思。然而，这对跨文化

交际意味着什么呢？首先必须明白，

如果交际参与者拥有更多共同的预

期和世界知识，交际便会有比较好的

效果。共同的背景、历史和经历使得

人们之间的交际较为容易，因为任何

一方对另一方用意的推测都基于共

同的经验和知识。来自同一个村子、

同一个家庭的两个人当然要比来自

地球不同半球不同城市的两个人少

犯交际上的错误，至少不会在推测对

方用意上闹笑话。

5、由于在性别、年龄、种族或文化

群体、教育、国家或城市的地域、收

入或职业群体、个人经历等各方面的

差异，人们分属不同的语言群体，这

些差异使我们很难完全领会另一个

群体成员所表达的意思。在当今世界

的跨文化交际中，人们之间的差异是

相当大的。人们每天要与来自世界各

地不同文化背景、不同群体的人交

往，成功交际的关键在于尽可能地共

享对话语意义的推定。当我们与迥然

不同的人打交道时，我们往往不知道

该怎样推导出他们的语句意义。因

此，在交际过程中，就很难依靠共享

的知识和背景来有把握地诠释他人

表达的意义。就是来自相同文化、甚

至相同家庭中的男性和女性也会经

常误解对方的意思，原因是男性和女

性对交际目的有不同的预期。为了让

女人高兴，男人要送她一件她真正想

要的礼物。他问女人想要什么礼物

——哪怕是上天摘星星。糟糕的是，

女人最想要的却是男人可以凭直觉

就知道她想要的是什么。至少在北美

社会中，男性和女性对于表达的看法

往往不同：前者倾向于直接明了，后

者则倾向于间接委婉。女性觉得不用

直接问就知道她想要什么是很重要

的。男性则觉得，如果女性能爽快地

告诉他怎样做才能让她高兴就再好

不过了。

6、非言语交际被认为是不直接依靠

语言使用的任何交际方式。然而，一

般来说，很难知道言语交际方式与非

言语交际方式的区分到底在哪儿。有

些非言语交际方式，例如点头，总是

伴随着言语，而且是语言使用时言语

系统的一部分。另一方面，像舞蹈和

音乐等交际形式常常是没有任何言

语成分的。我们在这里想做的只是要

引起大家对一个事实的注意，即人类

交往的许多方面都依赖于那些不能

轻易转换为言语、但却对我们相互理

解至关重要的交际形式。当然, 我们

不能不强调口语和书面语交际的重

要性，然而我们也必须意识到许多交

际的发生并不使用语言。一个人出席

会议时的穿着会可能是暗示其他与

会者，他或她打算如何参与会议。事

实上，我们能运用我们行为或表现的

任何方面来和他人进行交际。

7、今天有许多人总想在很短的时间

内做很多的事，这种时间观念可以称

作“时间强迫”行为综合症，就是不断

地试图超越人类能力所限去完成更

多的事情。直到不久以前，时间强

迫” 还一直被认为是美国人、尤其是

出生于从经济大萧条时期直到第二

次世界大战结束这个阶段一代美国

男性的重要特征。很明显, 这种“时间

强迫”的观念现在已不再仅仅是这一

代美国男性的文化特征，它已成为亚

洲“工薪阶层”的一个特点，并作为商

务国际化的一个方面而迅速传遍整

个世界。这种时间观念最重要的影响

之一就是：在某个交际情境中，节奏

较快的交际参与者几乎总会对较慢

的参与者做某种消极的评价。那些共

享“时间强迫”观念的人通常会觉得

其他行动比他们慢的人是保守的、不

合作的、阻止变化的、反对进步的。

隐藏在“时间强迫”观念之后的是那

种未来永远好于过去的理念，而这一

理念是牢固地建立在对进步的信仰

基础之上的。

8、如果接受这样的信念，认为以往

的存在状况影响着我们对现实的看

法，并且接受相应的原则，认为每个

人都有着相似的但又不完全一样的

个人经历，那么，随之就得到这样的

结论：另一个人对宇宙的描述不一定

会和我们对宇宙的描述完全一样。然

而，我们大多数人似乎仍认为我们自

己感知事物的方法是唯一正确的。我

们常常忽略感知的差异，并且断定，

如果一个人不知道巴比罗?毕加索是

有史以来最伟大的艺术家，他简直就

不懂艺术。实际上，他很可能有着不

同的经历，对他来说，什么是伟大的

艺术跟我们对于艺术的感知或许并

不一致。在我们的日常活动中，感知

差异常常出现在不同的群体之间。不

同年代的人、不同少数民族、不同职

业和不同文化有着相冲突的价值观

念和目标，这些都影响着他们对于现

实的感知和解释。我们的文化是导致

感知不一致的主要因素。文化影响着

我们对于现实看法的形成。因此，它

在跨文化交际中起着一种主导作用。

我们的文化以各种方式告诉我们，怎

样去判断别人，使用什么标准去做判

断。这样评价的危险在于它们常常是

不真实的，武断的并导致误解的。相

信并在行为中表现出仿佛只有我们

和我们的文化才发现了最真实而且

是唯一的标准，对世界持这样的看法

是极其天真幼稚的。

9、身处异域文化的人们总会面临着

这样一个问题，即为了适应当地人的

信仰、价值观、准则和社会规范，到

底需要在多大程度上改变自己的行

为举止呢？在交往中谁有责任把文

化差异考虑在内？是应该让来访者、

新来的人或旅居者调整自己的行为

以适应当地文化，还是让当地人改变

交流方式，从而为初来乍到的人们提

供便利？人们必须多大程度地改变

自己文化的信仰、价值观、准则和社

会行为来以适应主导文化的模式

呢？俗话说“入乡随俗”，很明显，这

让改变的重任落在了新来者的身上。

话虽很有道理，但并不能适用于所有

情况。在大多数情况下，顺应当地文

化期望的行为表现出对异文化和习

俗的尊重。这样的顺应能够使新来者

真正地与当地人进行交流和互动。尊

重不同文化中语言和非语言代码的

差异意味着跨文化交际者有责任合

理地、尽可能多地学习这些交际代

码。当然，如何才算合理的、尽可能

多的，那要视具体情况而定。有的时

候，新来者全面地采用当地的文化规

则可能会被视为无礼的行为，使属于

当地文化群体的人们感到不安。

10、理想的减少交际失误的办法是同

交际的其他参与者共享知识。这就是

为什么同一文化群体的成员之间最

容易交际的原因。这也解释了为什么

在社交上人们总是同与自己很接近

的人聚在一起。当你不必费力就能理

解所发生的事情或者让别人明白你

的意图时，交际将变得更为轻松顺

畅。遗憾的是，在大多数情况下，这

样的联系在交际中时常是不可能存

在的。我们甚至可以进一步说，那不

仅是不可能的，而且也是不受欢迎

的。今天, 交际发生的情境常常是不

同文化群体成员之间在交际。由于跨

文化交际是在不同文化群体成员之

间进行的，因此，既然我们之间不共

享知识、假设、价值观念和话语形式，

我们必须预料到相互理解时将会发

生问题。我们必须注意这些问题，根

据我们之间的差异预计哪儿会出现

问题，接着调整我们的交际使之尽可

能有效。和其他群体共享知识并不等

同于要加入那个群体并成为其成员。

有些群体对吸纳新成员相当排斥。在

提高跨文化交际能力时，我们应该记

住, 无论我们多么地了解并欣赏另一

种文化，都不太可能成为这种文化的

成员。关键是要尽可能地了解其他文

化，以便理解和掌握相互之

间的差异和共性。

【Case Study】

Case 1

In this case, there seemed to be

problems in communicating with

people of different cultures in spite

of the efforts made to achieve

understanding. We should know that

in Egypt as in many cultures, the

human relationship is valued so

highly that it is not expressed in an

objective and impersonal way. While

Americans certainly value human

relationships, they are more likely to

speak of them in less personal, more

objective terms. In this case,

Richard‘s mistake might be that he

chose to praise the food itself rather

than the total evening, for which the

food was simply the setting or excuse.

For his host and hostess it was as if

he had attended an art exhibit and

complimented the artist by

saying, ―What beautiful frames

your pictures are in.‖In Japan the

situation may be more complicated.

Japanese people value order and

harmony among persons in a group,

and that the organization itself－be

it a family or a vast corporation－is

more valued than the characteristics

of any particular member. In

contrast, Americans stress

individuality as a value and are apt

to assert individual differences when

they seem justifiably in conflict with

the goals or values of the group. In

this case: Richard‘s mistake was in

making great efforts to defend

himself. Let the others assume that

the errors were not intentional, but it

is not right to defend yourself, even

when your unstated intent is to assist

the group by warning others of

similar mistakes. A simple apology

and acceptance of the blame would

have been appropriate. But for poor

Richard to have merely apologized

would have seemed to him to be

subservient, unmanly. When it

comes to England, we expect fewer

problems between Americans and

Englishmen than between Americans

and almost any other group. In this

case we might look beyond the

gesture of taking sugar or cream to

the values expressed in this gesture:

for Americans, ―Help yourself‖; for

the English counterpart, ―Be my

guest.‖ American and English people

equally enjoy entertaining and being

entertained but they differ somewhat

in the value of the distinction.

Typically, the ideal guest at an

American party is one who ―makes

himself at home,‖ even to the point of

answering the door or fixing his own

drink. For persons in many other

societies, including at least this

hypothetical English host, such guest

behavior is presumptuous or rude.

Case 2

A common cultural

misunderstanding in classes involves

conflicts between what is said to be

direct communication style and

indirect communication style. In

American culture, people tend to say what is on their minds and to mean what they say. Therefore, students in class are expectd to ask questions when they need clarification. Mexican culture shares this preference of style with American culture in some situations, and that‘s why the students from Mexico readily adopted the techniques of asking questions in class. However, Korean people generally prefer indirect communication style, and therefore they tend to not say what is on their minds and to rely more on implications and inference, so as to be polite and respectful and avoid losing face through any improper verbal behavior. As is mentioned in the case, to many Koreans, numerous questions would show a disrespect for the teacher, and would also reflect that the student has not studied hard enough.

Case 3

The conflict here is a difference in cultural values and beliefs. In the beginning, Mary didn‘t realize that her Dominican sister saw her as a member of the family, literally. In the Dominican view, family possessions are shared by everyone of the family. Luz was acting as most Dominican sisters would do in borrowing without asking every time. Once Mary understood that there was a different way of looking at this, she would become more accepting. However, she might still experience the same frustration when this happened again. She had to find ways to cope with her own emotional cultural reaction as well as her practical problem (the batteries running out).

Case 4

It might be simply a question of different rhythms. Americans have one rhythm in their personal and family relations, in their friendliness and their charities. People from other cultures have different rhythms. The American rhythm is fast. It is characterized by a rapid acceptance of others. However, it is seldom that Americans engage themselves entirely in a friendship. Their friendships are warm, but casual, and specialized. For example, you have a neighbor who drops by in the morning for coffee. Y ou see her frequently, but you never invite her for dinner --- not because you don‘t think she could handle a fork and a knife, but because you have seen her that morning. Therefore, you reserve your more formal invitation to dinner for someone who lives in a more distant part of the city and whom you would not see unless you extended an invitation for a special occasion. Now, if the first friend moves away and the second one moves nearby, you are likely to reverse this --- see the second friend in the mornings for informal coffee meetings, and the first one you will invite more formally to dinner. Americans are, in other words, guided very often by their own convenience. They tend to make friends easily, and they don‘t feel it necessary to go to a great amount of trouble to see friends often when it becomes inconvenient to do so, and usually no one is hurt. But in similar circumstances people from many other cultures would be hurt very deeply.

Case 5

In China, it is often not polite to accept a first offer and Heping was being modest, polite and well-behaved and had every intention of accepting the beer at the second or third offer. But he had not figured on North American rules which firmly say that you do not push alcoholic beverages on anyone.

A person may not drink for religious reasons, he may be a reformed alcoholic, or he may be allergic. Whatever the reason behind the rule, you do not insist in offering alcohol. So unconscious and so strong are their cultural rules that the Americans equally politely never made a second offer of beer to Heping who probably thought North

Americans most uncouth. However,

what we have to remember is that

cultures are seldom a strict either-or

in every instance for all people and

there are always individual

differences. Probably this young

Chinese nurse was very different

from Heping or, unlike Heping, she

may have known something about

the American cultural rules and was

just trying to behave like an

American when she was in an

American family.

Case 6

When a speaker says something to a

hearer, there are at least three kinds

of meanings involved: utterance

meaning, speaker‘s meaning and

hearer‘s meaning. In the dialogue,

when Litz said How long is she

going to stay?‘ she meant to say that

if she knew how long her

mother-in-law was going to stay in

Finland, she would be able to make

proper arrangements for her, such as

taking her out to do some sightseeing.

However, her mother-in-law

overheard the conversation, and

took Litz‘s question to mean ―Litz

does not want me to stay for long‖.

From the Chinese point of view, it

seems to be inappropriate for Litz to

ask such a question just two days

after her mother-in-law‘s arrival. If

she feels she has to ask the question,

it would be better to ask some time

later and she should not let her

mother-in-law hear it.

Case 7

Keiko insists on giving valuable gifts

to her college friends, because in

countries like Japan, exchanging

gifts is a strongly rooted social

tradition. Should you receive a gift,

and don‘t have one to offer in return,

you will probably create a crisis. If

not as serious as a crisis, one who

doesn‘t offer a gift in return may be

considered rude or impolite.

Therefore, in Japan, gifts are a

symbolic way to show appreciation,

respect, gratitude and further

relationship. Keiko obviously has

taken those used items from Mary,

Ed and Marion as gifts, for she

probably doesn‘t kno w that

Americans frequently donate their

used household items to church or to

the community. Mary, Ed and

Marion would never consider those

used household items given to Keiko

as gifts. No wonder they felt very

uncomfortable when they received

valuable gifts in return.

Case 8

As the Chinese girl Amy fell in love

with an American boy at that time, it

seems that she preferred to celebrate

Christmas in the American way, for

she wanted very much to appear the

same as other American girl. She did

not like to see her boyfriend feel

disappointed at the ―shabby‖

Chinese Christmas. That‘s why she

cried when she found out her

parents had invited the minister ‘s

family over for the Christmas Eve

dinner. She thought the menu for the

Christmas meal created by her

mother a strange one because there

were no roast turkey and sweet

potatoes but only Chinese food. How

could she notice then the foods

chosen by her mother were all her

favorites? From this case, we can

find a lot of differences between the

Chinese and Western cultures in

what is appropriate food for a

banquet, what are good table

manners, and how one should

behave to be hospitable. However,

one should never feel shameful just

because one‘s culture is different

from others‘. As Amy‘s mother told

her, you must be proud to be

different, and your only shame is to

have shame.

Case 9

Hierarchy is significant in the

Japanese culture. This structure is

reflected everywhere in Japanese life,

at home, school, community,

organizations, and traditional

institutions such as martial arts or

flower arrangements. In this case,

the young chairman must have had

his own ideas about how to manage

the company; however, when

encountered with his grandfather‘s

dissenting opinions, he dared not to

take a stand against him. This may

manifest the rigid hierarchical

structure in the Japanese society. In

the Japanese society, how hierarchy

is formed depends mainly on

seniority, company, the grandfather

obviously overpowered the

inexperienced young chairman. In

other words, the grandfather seemed

to be an absolute authority for the

young chairman. In Japanese

culture, challenging or disagreeing

with elders‘ opinions would be

deemed as being disrespectful and is

often condemned. People in lower

positions are expected to be loyal

and obedient to authority. That‘s

why the young chairman didn‘t say

anything but just nodded and agreed

with his grandfather. But Phil

seemed to know little about the

Japanese culture in this aspect. In

many Western cultures, particularly

American culture, seniority seldom

matters very much in such situations,

and young people are usually

encouraged to challenge authority

and voice their own opinions.

Unfortunately, his outspoken protest

could easily offend the grandfather

and he might be regarded as a rude

and ill-bred person by other

Japanese.

Case 10

In Japan, a company is often very

much like a big family, in which the

manger(s) will take good care of the

employees and the employees are

expected to devote themselves to the

development of the company and, if

it is necessary, to sacrifice their own

individual interests for the interests

of the company, from which, in the

long run, the employees will benefit

greatly. But for the French, a

company is just a loosely- knit social

organization wherein individuals are

supposed to take care of themselves

and their families. Moreover, the

way the French make decisions in

the family might also be different

from the typical Japanese one, which

may not often involve females and

the power to decide usually lies with

the dominating male. As there are

such cultural differences between the

Japanese and the French, Mr.

Legrand‘s decision made Mr.

Tanaka feel dumbfounded.

Case 11

Incidents such as these can point to

possible cultural differences in

so-called ―polite‖ behavior, and at

the same time highlight the tendency

for people to react emotionally to

unexpected behavior. People in most

cultures would probably agree that

an apology is needed when an

offence or violation of social norms

has taken place. However, there may

be differing opinions as to when we

should apologize (what situations

call for an apology) and how we

should apologize. To many

Westerners, Japanese apologize

more frequently and an apology in

Japanese does not necessarily mean

that the person is acknowledging a

fault. To many Japanese, Westerners

may seem to be rude just because

they do not apologize as often as the

Japanese would do. In this case, for

instance, the attitude of the

Australian student‘s parents is

shocking to the Japanese but will be

acceptable in an English-speaking

society, for the student is already an

adult and can be responsible for her

own deeds.

Case 12

In this case, it seems that the Chinese

expectations were not fulfilled. First,

having two people sharing host

responsibilities could be somewhat

confusing to the hierarchically

minded Chinese. Second, because

age is often viewed as an indication

of seniority, the Chinese might have

considered the youth of their

Canadian hosts as slight to their own

status. Third, in China, it is

traditional for the host to offer a

welcome toast at the beginning of the

meal, which is the reciprocated by

the guests; by not doing so, the

Canadian might be thought rude.

The abrupt departure of the Chinese

following the banquet was probably

an indication that they were not

pleased with the way they were

treated. The Canadians‘ lack of

understanding of the Chinese culture

and the Chinese ways of

communication clearly cost them in

their business dealings with the

visiting delegation.

Case 13

This example vividly illustrates that

failures in intercultural translation

may probably lead to very serious

consequence, or even disasters to

human beings. Definitely, translation

is not such a simple process as

rendering a word, a sentence or a

text literally, but rather a far more

complex one than most people

assumed. For example, once a

Chinese cosmetic manufacturer

wanted to promote their products

into the international market. The

slogan of the advertisement

was: ―sweet as Jade‖, since in

Chinese ―jade‖was always

employed to complim ent woman‘s

beauty; but unfortunately, it was not

an appropriate word to describe the

beauty of a lady in Western cultures.

In English, ―jade‖ in its use of

referring a woman had the

connotations such as vulgar, rude,

immoral, or skittish. Undoubtedly,

the sales in European countries were

not satisfying. The seeming

equivalents between languages may

have very different connotations in

different cultures, thus the translator

should be cautious in the process of

doing the translation so as to avoid

misunderstandings.

Case 14

―杨‖ refers to Y ang Kaihui who was

Mao Zedong’s deceased wife and ―

柳‖ refers to Liu Zhixun who was Li

Shuyi‘s deceased husband. They can

be translated in different ways, but it

seems to be very difficult, if not

impossible, to achieve equivalence in

translating from Chinese into

English. Adopting the literal

translation strategy, version 1

appears to be faithful to the original

but may easily confuse the readers in

the target language. Version 2

employs the liberal translation

strategy with an attempt to convey

the original meaning as precisely as

possible. However, the original

poetic flavor is lost as the rhetoric

device — pun — is not reproduced.

Case 15

The translation seems to be faithful

to the original, but it may not be

really good for the purpose of

intercultural communication.

Foreign readers of the translation

may find it strange and

inappropriate. The following is what

a friendly American journalist has

commented on the translation: My

first reaction was unfortunately

laughter because it is so full of

mistakes. It omits some necessary

information about the Dragon-Boat

Festival, including its historical

origins and when it actually takes

place. These things are important…

The copy seems to try to ―snow‖ the

reader with fanciful, overblown

assertions about how terrific it all is,

but in unintentionally hilarious

language that leaves the reader

laughing out uninformed… The

brochure also suffers from lack of

background material, the

taking-if-for-granted that the reader

already is familiar with many

aspects of Chinese history and

culture… It doesn‘t tell you where to

go, how to get there, when things are

open and closed, how much they cost,

and so forth. All these are things

people visiting an area want to know.

Why is it that many Chinese travel

guides read basically the same, no

matter what region is being written

about, and are so packed with

indiscriminate hyperbole? Less

exaggeration would actually be more

convincing.

Case 16

Comparing the two English versions,

we can see that in Y ang‘s version more culturally-loaded meanings are conveyed from the original while Hawkes‘ s version may be easier for English speaking readers to comprehend. Look at some of the differences between the two versions of this extract:贾母老祖宗凤辣子The Lady Dowager / Grandmother Jia Old Ancestress / Granny dear Fiery Phoenix / Peppercorn Feng二舅母王氏Lady Wang, her second uncle‘s wife / her Uncle Zheng‘s wife, Lady Wang学名叫做王熙凤Wang Xi-feng the school-room name His-feng / the somewhat boyish-sounding name of黛玉忙赔笑见礼，以“嫂”呼之Tai-yu lost no time in greeting her with a smile as ―cousin.‖/Dai-yu accordingly smiled and curt-eyed, greeting her by her correct name as she did so.竟不象老祖宗的外孙女儿She doesn‘t take after her father, son-in-law of our Old Ancestress /She doesn‘t take after your side of the family, Ganny. 怨不得老祖宗天天嘴里心里放不下No wonder our Old Ancestress couldn‘t put you out of her mind and was for ever talking and thinking about you. / I don‘t blame you for having gone on so about her during the past few days 现吃什么药？What medicine are you taking? / Not translated And there are some culturally-loaded expressions in the text that seem to defy translation:琏二嫂子内侄女以“嫂”呼之外孙女儿嫡亲的孙女儿妹妹By comparing different translations of the same text, we can achieve a better understanding of cultural gaps and differences and then learn to employ proper strategies to bridge those gaps in translating across languages for intercultural communication.

Case 17

When these two men separate, they may leave each other with very different impressions. Mr Richardson is very pleased to have made the acquaintance of Mr Chu and feels they have gotten off to a very good start. They have established their relationship on a first-name basis and Mr Chu‘s smile seemed to indicate that he will be friendly and easy to do business with. Mr Richardson is particularly pleased that he had treated Mr Chu with respect for his Chinese background by calling him Hon-fai rather than using the western name, David, which seemed to him an unnecessary imposition of western culture. In contrast, Mr Chu feels quite uncomfortable with Mr Richardson. He feels it will be difficult to work with him, and that Mr Richardson might be rather insensitive to cultural differences. He is particularly bothered that, instead of calling him David or Mr Chu, Mr Richardson used his given name, Hon-fai, the name rarely used by anyone, in fact. It was this embarrassment which caused him to smile. He would feel more comfortable if they called each other Mr Chu and Mr Richardson. Nevertheless, when he was away at school in North America he learned that Americans feel uncomfortable calling people Mr for any extended period of time. His solution was to adopt a western name. He chose David for use in such situations.

Case 18

Even if the American knew Urdu, the language spoken in Pakistan, he would also have to understand the culture of communication in that country to respond appropriately. In this case, he had to say ―No‖ at least three times. In some countries, for instance, the Ukraine, it may happen that a guest is pressed as many as seven or eight times to take more food, whereas in the UK it would be unusual to do so more than twice. For a Ukrainian, to do it the British way would suggest the person is not actually generous. Indeed, British recipients of such hospitality sometimes feel that their host is behaving impolitely by forcing them into a bind, since they run out of polite refusal strategies long before the Ukrainian host has exhausted

his/her repertoire of polite insistence

strategies.

Case 19

Talk ing about what‘s wrong is not

easy for people in any culture, but

people in high-context countries like

China put high priority on keeping

harmony, preventing anyone from

losing face, and nurturing the

relationship. It seems that Ron Kelly

had to learn a different way of

sending message when he was in

China. At home in Canada he would

have gone directly to the point. But

in China, going directly to the

problem with someone may suggest

that he or she has failed to live up to

his or her responsibility and the

honor of his or her organization is in

question. In high-context cultures

like China, such a message is serious

and damaging. In low-context

cultures, however, the tendency is

just to ―spit it out,‖ to get it into

words and worry about the result

later. Senders of unwelcome

messages use objective facts,

assuming, as with persuasion, that

facts are neutral, instrumental, and

impersonal. Indirectness is often the

way members of high-context

cultures choose to communicate

about a problem.

Case 20

It seems that the letters of request

written in English as well as in

Chinese by Chinese people are likely

to preface the request with extended

face-work. To Chinese people, the

normal and polite way to form a

request requires providing reasons

that are usually placed before the

requests. Of course, this is just the

inverse of English conventions in

which requests are fronted without

much face-work. In the view of the

English-speaking people, the opening

lines of Chinese requests and some

other speech acts do not usually

provide a thesis or topic statement

which will orient the listener to the

overall direction of the

communication. Worst of all, the

lack of precision and the failure to

address the point directly may lead

to suspicions that the Chinese

speakers are beating around the

bush. To them, the presence of a

clear and concise statement of what

is to be talked about will make the

speech more precise, more dramatic,

and more eloquent. However, the

Chinese learning and using English

in communication may find it

difficult to come to terms with the

common English tendency to begin

with a topic statement. In the

Chinese culture, stating one‘s

request or main point at the

beginning would make the person

seem immodest, pushy, and

inconsiderate for wanting things. If

your speech gives others the

impression that you are demanding

something, you would lose face for

acting aggressively and not

considering the others. Thus you‘d

be hurting people by claiming

something for yourself. In such a

situation, it is usually considered a

smart strategy if you carefully

delineate the justifications that will

naturally lead to your request or

argument. Therefore, instead of

stating their proposition somewhere

in the beginning and then

proceeding to build their case,

Chinese people often first establish a

shared context with which to judge

their requests or arguments. Only

after carefully prefacing them with

an avalanche of relevant details, as if

to nullify any opposition, will they

present the requests or arguments.

Case 21

Sometimes our best intentions can

lead to breakdowns in cross-cultural

communication. For example, one of

the very common manners of

touching --- handshaking --- may

result in conflict when performed

with no consideration of cultural

differences. Among middle-class

North American men, it is customary

to shake hands as a gesture of

friendship. When wanting to

communicate extra friendliness, a

male in the United States may, while

shaking hands, grasp with his left

hand his friend‘s right arm.

However, to people of Middle

Eastern countries, the left hand is

profane and touching someone with

it is highly offensive. Therefore, in

Vernon‘s eyes, Kenneth was actually

an extremely offensive message to

him.

Case 22

In Puerto Rican culture, as in some

other Latin American and Eastern

cultures, it is not right for a child to

keep an eye-contact with an adult

who is accusing him or her, while in

the United States, failing of meeting

other person‘s eye accusing him or

her would be taken as a sign of

guiltiness. As the principal knew

little about this cultural difference in

using eye-contact, he decided that

the girl must be guilty. Generally

speaking, avoiding eye-contact with

the other(s) is often considered as an

insult in some cultures, but may

signify respect for authority and

obedience in other cultures.

Case 23

Just like smile, laughing does not

always serve the same function in

different cultures. Interestingly, for

us Chinese, laughing often has a

special function on some tense social

occasions. People may laugh to

release the tension or

embarrassment, to express their

concern about you, their intention to

put you at ease or to help you come

out of the embarrassment. In this

case, the people there were actually

wishing to laugh with the American

rather than laugh at her. Their

laughing seemed to convey a number

of messages: don‘t take it so

seriously; laugh it off, it‘s nothing;

such things can happen to any of us,

etc. Unfortunately the American was

unaware of this. She thought they

were laughing at her, which made

her feel more badly and angry, for in

her culture laughing on such an

occasion would be interpreted as an

insulting response, humiliating and

negative.

Case 24

It is obvious that there exists some

difference between the British and

Germans in their use of touch. The

lack of touch that seems to be

natural in Britain may be considered

strange by Germans. What is

required (in this case, shaking hands

with each other) in one country

could be taken as unnecessary in

another. The appropriateness of

contact between people varies from

country to country. Figures from a

study offer some interesting insight

into this matter. Pairs of individuals

sitting and chatting in college shops

in different countries were observed

for at least one hour each. The

number of times that either one

touched the other in that one hour

was recorded, as follows: in London,

0; in Florida, 2; in Paris, 10; in

Puerto Rico, 180. These figures

indicate that touch is used very

differently in different cultures.

Case 25

For people from the American

culture and western European

cultures, one‘s time should be

scheduled into segments or

compartments which are to be kept

discrete from one another. They

prefer to do one thing at a time.

They will be annoyed when they

have made an appointment with

somebody, only to find a lot of other

things going on at the same time.

They don‘t like to interrupt others

and be interrupted by other while

they are doing something. In

contrast, people from many other

cultures including the Chinese

culture are more likely to operate

with several people, ideas, or matters

simultaneously. They are more easily

distracted and subject to

interruptions, which they would not

usually mind very much. The

miscommunication between

Katherine and the director can be

ascribed to their lack of knowledge

about each other‘s way of using time.

In this case, to the Chinese director

as well as many other Chinese people,

it is natural to handle the other

things which needed to be dealt with

immediately. He may have thought

that, in this way, he utilized the time

best. But to Katherine and most

Westerners, it‘s quite different. They

tend to do things strictly according

to their schedule and appointments

with others, which is their concept of

using time best.

Case 26

Jack felt his privacy violated when

he saw Magid standing at the door.

It was absolutely a big surprise‘ for

Jack---a surprise deviated from the

giver‘s real intention, and jack

immediately showed his emotion as a

conditioned reflex ,which wrote on

the look ,saying ― I am completely

not happy to s ee you ‖. A few seconds

later, he smiled and said,‖ Hi, Magid,

come on in.‖ This obvious change on

his face was certainly noticed by

Magid. Then, during the whole

afternoon, they had coffee and

chatted. It seemed they had a nice

time together. However, it turned out

that they both felt a little

uncomfortable. I guess. Jack, out of

politeness, had to pretend he was

very happy to see Magid, but from

the bottom of his heart, he was so

displeased with this dear old friend

for not having phoned to say he was

coming that he might have expressed

his unhappiness from time to time

through nonverbal messages, such as

facial expressions, hand movements

and body postures. These messages

might contradict his words. Magid

could more or less perceive this

subtle awkwardness that he might be

perplexed about. Here‘s one thing I

don‘t understand. As Magid was

aware of the embarrassment

between Jack and him, why did he

choose to stay such a long time at

Jack‘s instead of leaving earlier ?

Next time, Magid should call his

friend first to make sure it‘s a right

time to pay a visit when he wants to

see Jack.

Case 27

We Chinese people usually attach

great importance to taking good care

of our guests. We often go out of our

way to make a guest feel comfortable,

and our kindness often knows no

bound when it comes to a foreign

visitor. But westerners including

North Americans are trained to

spend time alone and to do things for

themselves from the time they are

still very young. Therefore, they may

feel uncomfortable when they are

always surrounded by people

attempting to be kind to them.

Hospitality itself may be something

universal, but the form and amount

of hospitality differ greatly

from culture to culture.

Case 28

The most striking feature of the

Japanese house was lack of privacy;

the lack of individual, inviolable

space. In winter, when the fusuma

were kept closed, any sound above a

whisper was clearly audible on the

other side, and of course in summer

they were usually removed

altogether. It is impossible to live

under such conditions for very long

without a common household

identity emerging which naturally

takes precedence over individual

wishes. Although it has become a

standard practice in modern Japan

for children to have their own rooms,

many middle-aged and nearly all

older Japanese still live in this way.

They regard themselves as ―one

flesh‖, their property as common to

all; the uchi (household, home) is

constituted according to a principle

of indivisibility. The system of

moveable screen means that the

rooms could be used by all the family

and for all purposes: walls are built

round the uchi, not inside it.

Case 29

From their experiences of sending

some young people to be educated at

the colleges run by the white people,

the Indians concluded that it was no

good doing so, for those young

people who had been taught in the colleges returned home obviously incapable of making a living in the woods where the Indians lived. Just as their speaker said, ―different nations have different conceptions of things‖, what is good educ ation for one may not be good for another. In this case, both the white people (the Virginia Government) and the Indians were ethnocentric. However the white people, by offering a fund for educating Indian youth, were more ethnocentric than the Indians, as they seemed to believe that their learning and sciences w ere without doubt superior to the Indians‘ learning. They didn‘t expect that what they considered as good for the Indian youth would be taken as ―totally good for nothing‖ by the Indians, to whom, the white people’s learning and sciences could be inapplicable in their living environment and irrelevant to the way they preferred to live. On the other hand, the Indians were also somewhat ethnocentric when they implied that their education was better by asking the white people to send their sons to be educated by the Indians and promising that they would be able to ―make men of them‖ through instructing them in all the Indians knew. Besides, the Indians, because of their limited scope of knowledge and experience, didn‘t realize that they could also learn something useful from the white people.

Case 30

It is said that the event which really marked a dividing point in Western images of China was the visit of U. S. President Richard Nixon to China in Februa ry 1972. ―A week that changed the world‖ was Nixon’s characterization of his own trip and his view was shared by many Americans, because it symbolized that the U. S. no longer regarded China as a major enemy, perhaps even not as an enemy at all. Images of contemporary China were changed drastically in the process. That was the time when color television came into widespread use in the Western world, and when television achieved an undoubted lead over every other medium as a formation of popular images. Much of Nixon‘s visit to China was telecast as it was happening. Journalists and China specialists were interviewed endlessly on television. There was an expansion of interest in Chinese food, art, fashions and acupuncture. The number of Americans going to China rose quickly. There was a mania for everything Chinese.

Case 31

It seems that Ian and Peter have the same problem, that is, they are both strongly stereotyped by other people and are seldom seen as they actually are. The pinning of qualities and abilities onto individuals and stereotyping them as either artistic and expressive or practical and sensible may run deep within some societies. It would seem that a person needs to be one or the other obviously not the case in this example of the two brothers. To be categorized as an artist would seem to deprive one of the right of being serious about more important issues in life, whereas to be categorized as a scientist or non-artist‘ is to mean that one is perhaps not capable of being a colorful and interesting person. In this way, people are reduced in their potentials according to such crude labels that are used to explain them.

Case 32

This case clearly shows two very different perceptions of what is going on. Jeremy believes he is being supportive, inclusive and understanding, whereas Jabu feels she is being treated badly and indeed the victim of racism. Jeremy is obviously trying his best to do what he can for Jabu; but he is making a basic mistake which derives from his notion of her culture, which prevents him from dealing with her as she sees herself. Jeremy does not base his understanding of Jabu on what he

observes of her, but on impressions

he himself has had from his own

experience in her country, South

Africa, and the basis of his

impressions is likely to have been

stereotypical. The way Jeremy treats

Jabu often implies that Jabu and her

culture are inferior and backward.

By making her special‘, what Jeremy

has done to Jabu actually inhibits

her ability to integrate and makes

her feel labeled less capable than the

other students. The final straw for

Jabu is when she overhears Jeremy

in the corridor saying that her

lateness in meeting deadlines is

caused by her being a black African‘.

The error in this judgment is

revealed by Jabu‘s observation that

she certainly is not being treated

equally with other students. Indeed,

it is Jeremy‘s overgeneralization that

her lateness is a product of her

national culture which prevents him

from seeing a far more common

explanation —that she is really

more like other students than

different to them.

Case 33

The problems that Li Li has

encountered during her stay in the

United States are typically some of

those that people will usually be

faced with when they enter a new

culture. Here are obviously distinct

stages that Li Li has gone through in

the process of her adaptation to the

American cultural environment:

honeymoon period (Letter 1), when

she was fascinated and excited by

almost everything in the United

States and felt elated to be in the new

culture; culture shock. (Letter 2),

when she was immersed in many

problems that she had not been

prepared for and became extremely

homesick; initial adjustment (Letter

3), when she learned more about

American culture and cultural

adaptation and began to feel much

better then; mental isolation (Letter

4), when she felt frustrated and

became even somewhat hostile

towards Americans; and acceptance

period Letter 5), when she began to

realize the positive and negative

aspects of the country and have a

more balanced perspective about her

experiences there. hat she means by

writing in her fifth letter that ―I

think I have finally arrived in

America is that she has finally

learned to accept the culture very

different from her own and begun to

integrate herself into it. She is no

longer like a fish out of water, and

does not feel alienated from the new

environment any more.

Case 34

In this case, it seems that Kevin

failed to understand that customs for

such a social gathering would be

culturally different and Blanca were

not properly prepared for

experiencing a culture shock like this

when she came to work and live in a

new cultural environment.

Dominican culture, it is usually

considered inappropriate for a

young unmarried female to go to a

social gathering alone without

anyone else accompanying her. A

chaperone is often required, and

getting one‘s parents‘ permission is

also necessary. However, all this may

be very strange to North Americans

nowadays. Kevin could not quite

understand why Blanca, already an

adult supposed to be independent,

had to bring her little sister along to

the gathering so as to get her

parents‘ permission. Another thing

at which they differ is that in

Dominican culture, somewhat like

our Chinese culture, people going

out together to eat seldom pay

separately. The elder one(s) would

pay for the younger one(s), and the

male(s) would pay for the female(s).

Because of having expected that

Kevin would pay for their meals,

Blanca didn‘t bring much money

with her when she was going to The

Blue Hat. Therefore, when Kevin

s aid ―separate checks, please‖ to the

waiter, as North American people

usually do while going out together

to eat, he didn‘t realize that he had

put Blanca in a very embarrassing

situation. That‘s why Blanca

whispered to her sister, telling her

that she did n‘t have much money

with her then and just ordered

something to drink when she said

they were not hungry at all.

Case 35

The American‘s personal experience

in Russia has taught us not to jump

to a conclusion about any other

culture. We may misinterpret the

behavior and intention of people in

other cultures, for we are easily

influenced by some popular

overgeneralizations about other

cultures. We have to be aware that

things in other cultures may not be

what they appear to us foreigners.

One of the difficulties we will

experience in adjusting to a new

culture is that we may have taken

too much of our own cultural

baggage‖: misleading stereotypes

and preconceptions about members

of that culture. In intercultural

communication it is sometimes true

that a little learning about other

cultures can be a dangerous thing.

Distorted or biased knowledge may

be worse than no knowledge at all.

Even if what we know about other

cultures has been proved to be right

and well grounded, we still have to

remember that there will often be

variation within any culture. We

should always be prepared for

exceptions when interacting with

individuals from another culture.

Case 36

We all know that we are members of

a particular culture and we share the

same cultural identity with other

members of the culture. However,

much of our cultural identity may

simply be outside of our awareness.

Not until we find ourselves in

situations where our sense of self ---

our values, beliefs, practices --- is

called into question do we perceive

the tacit dimensions of our cultural

identity. In this incident, the German

woman has found out that

Americans treat their neighbors in a

way that is different from the way

Germans do. As her expectations

were thwarted, she became aware of

her own cultural identity, her

cultural way of thinking, of

interpreting the world. This could be

a painful process, which many of us,

as the German woman in this case,

may not be prepared for. Therefore,

it is important to raise people‘s

awareness of their culturally shaped

identity and acknowledge the

likelihood of some emotional

disturbance during the cultural

adjustment.

Case 37

Peter was brought up in a culture in

which the demands of politeness and

face‘ require either that one goes

against one‘s real wishes and accepts

invitations that one would really

prefer not to accept, or that one finds

elaborate excuses (an ill child is a

very useful one) to avoid

commitment. However, in Moroccan

culture, things are quite different.

Peter seems to have gradually

adapted very well to the new cultural

environment in which he found

himself. The lesson we can learn

from this is that one should not

judge the behavior of those of

another culture by one‘s own

cultural standards and should learn

to ―do as the Romans do when in

Rome‖.

Case 38

This is just a case of the conflict

between the first generation and the

second generation of Chinese

immigrants in the United States.

These two generations have grown

up in totally different social

environments in which their values

are differently shaped and their

views of the world differently formed.

The daughter, born and brought up

in America, has already been totally

Americanized even though she has

her eyes and skin of the same color

as her parents. Living in American

society, she finds it natural to

identify herself with the mainstream

American culture, in which parents

and children (especially the grown

up children) are supposed to treat

each other as equals, while her

mother, though having lived in

America for many years, is still

culturally more Chinese than

American. Therefore, the mother,

often with good intentions, is likely

to misunderstand what her daughter

says and does. To deal with conflicts

of this kind, sincere exchange of

opinion and willingness to learn

from each other are among the best

measures.

Case 39

Annie felt unhappy about Rosa‘s

cousin because she thought Rosa‘s

cousin had stayed with them for too

long and seemed to have depend on

Rosa too much, which, in Annie‘s eye,

was actually an interference to

Rosa‘ studies. Rosa did not change

after her cousin came. She was still

the same good student as Annie

remembered. However, to her, family

comes first, so she went out of her

way to look after her cousin, even

though that means she would be left

with little time for herself and her

classes. The misunderstanding

between Annie and Rosa comes from

the difference in what they value.

Annie seemed to value privacy,

independence, personal needs and

interests more than Rosa, to whom

family relationships and obligation

to family members meant very much.

In Mexican culture, family is the

core of affiliation while in the

mainstream American culture,

individual responsibility is

emphasized and self-reliance is

preferred.

Case 40

In this case, American students were

seen how they would behave in the

culture in which they were

communicating with the French

students, applying what they had

learned in classroom but were not

yet quite accustomed to. They finally

behaved in the culturally

appropriate manners because they

were pulled by the force of

relationships, by real people in a real

situation. This is the ultimate goal of

learning about culture and

communication, when learners move

from the classroom out the door into

the new way of life.

摘要：本文探讨了商业法体系，并将

其与国外的商业法律进行了比较。

在调查的基础上，客观地指出了该体

系的可行性及不足之处。同时提出了

完善这一体系的建议。

Abstract: This paper explores the

commerce law system in China, and

compares it with those in foreign

countries. On the basis of the

investigation, it objectively points

out the feasibility and disadvantages

of this system. At the same time, it

comes up with some suggestions to

improve it.

摘要：本文在教学实践的基础指出

了在“建筑学”这门课程中引入CAD

的重要性和必要性。根据这门课程的

需要，设计了CAD系统，介绍了该

系统的特点及功能，并展示了它在教

学中的实际效果。

Abstract: On this basis of practical

teaching, this paper points out the

importance and necessity of

introducing CAD into architecture.

In accordance with the needs of this

course, a CAD system has been

designed, and its special features and

functions are presented. Its real

teaching effects are shown in the

paper.

摘要：本文讨论了从大到小的分布

以及相应的估值问题，并考虑它们在

稀少事件研究中的应用，提供了一些

分布的最简单形式在预测稀少事件

发生方面的应用实例。

Abstract: Rank order distributions

and the corresponding estimation

problem are discussed. Their

application to the study of rare

events is considered. Examples are given of the application of the simplest of these distributions in predicting the occurrence of rare events.

跨文化交际案例 英语专业

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(完整word版)跨文化交际英文案例

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