The French Influence On English Vocabulary 法语对英语词汇的影响

The French Influence On

The English Vocabulary

Candy Zhang

2010******

Abstract

English, like all languages in the world, has changed through its history. It

has been shaped by a number of other languages over the centuries. Foreign influences on English are so great that they have changed English from an almost pure language to a completely mixed one. The language which has had the most penetrating influence on English is French, mainly due to the crown of Britain was ruled by Norman French for two centuries. This essay will illustrate the lexical fields of French loanwords in English during the Middle English and the Early Modern English periods and explore the French influence on the English vocabulary. The sociolinguistic factors that affected the changing language contact situation will also be taken into account.

Key Words: French, English, Vocabulary, Influence, Norman Conquest

Northwestern Polytechnical University School of Foreign languages

Introduction

The development of a certain language has a long history. It is inevitable that different languages influence and penetrate each other in their formation and development. English is a typical representative of this kind of language that assimilates the refined parts of other languages to enrich itself. Today, the English language is the third most widely spoken language in the world after Mandarin and Spanish. It is the official language of most of the Commonwealth countries and is widely learned as a second language in most of the countries of the world. Historically, English has been greatly influenced by various languages, especially by French. The influence of the French language upon the English language can be divided into two main stages. The first stage is from Norman Conquest to the year 1500 (the Middle English period). During this period over 10,000 French words were adopted into English and about 75 percent of these are still in use. At this stage the French was used by the upper class at first, and then the two languages mixed up and the French was acknowledged by common people. The second stage is from the Renaissance to the twentieth century (the Early Modern English period). During this period the scale of loanwords was wider and we can find words relating to every aspect of human society. Moreover, the degree of vocabulary influence was considerable.

The Influence of French on the English vocabulary during the Middle English Period

Social-historical background

One of the most significant influences on Middle English was French, strictly, Norman French, the language introduced in Britain by the invader. Since Edward, king of England, died childless, Harold was elected the king. But his power was challenged by William, Duke of Normandy. He invaded the country and won Harold, and then on Christmas 1066, he was crowned as the king of England.

After the conquest, the ruling classes, their servants and the bishops were Normans. Moreover, a large number of Norman French lower classes came to England. Since the actual number of the Normans who settled in England was

sufficiently great, they continued to use their own language, Norman French. The main reason for the continuity can be sought in the fact that the kings of England were likewise dukes of Normandy. Therefore, it was natural for the kings to keep contact with their territories in France. For about 200 years after the Conquest the two languages Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French were used side by side without mingling. However, since the two peoples of the society could not live separately, and had some relations with each other, they gradually came to learn and understand the other language. The Englishman who associated with the governing class soon mastered French. Knowing French and speaking it was a mark of social status at that time. Meanwhile, as English was the language of greater part of the population, many of the Frenchmen would get familiar with it.

However, in 1204, the English kings lost Normandy. The loss of Normandy was advantageous to the English language because the upper classes became bilingual. They intended to use their own language. The decay of French as the predominant language of the ruling classes was hastened by another invasion. The new invasion began in the time of King John, whose wife was from France. In the time of his son, Henry Ⅲ, great number of Frenchmen poured into England. He dismissed all the native officers and appointed foreigners in their places. Consequently, national feelings aroused the Englishmen. Another factor was the hundred years’war, beginning in 1337, which made England and France bitter enemies. It further aroused the national feelings against the use of French. At the same time, the condition of the peasant class gradually improved, and the merchant and craftsman class developed increasingly important in the towns, becoming a rich and powerful class between the nobility and peasants. Such an increase in the importance of the peasants and this new middle class undoubtedly led to an increase in the importance of the language they spoke. Thus, at the end of the thirteenth century and especially in the course of the fourteenth century, French language gradually lost its influence on English.

The Norman French influence on the English vocabulary

The Norman’s influence was so great that the English language after the Norman Conquest was very different from the language of the Anglo-Saxons. The most

important influence the French language had on the English language was the introduction of too many French words into English. In the influx of French words two stages can be known, with the year 1250 as an approximate dividing line. Since the French influence on the English language did not occur immediately after the Conquest, there were probably not more than 900 loan words before 1250. After 1250, the upper classes who had been accustomed to speak French were returning to use English. As they did not know English perfectly, they often needed to use French to express themselves. The language with more powerful speakers was regarded as more prestigious. In this way the upper classes brought an astonishing number of French words relating to government, administration, law, religion, army, and art into English. These lexical items reflected the interests of the French-speaking ruling group, and had prestigious connotations. However, it should be noted that not all French loan words are related to these classes. The lower and specially the middle class of Englishman liked to be able to communicate with their superiors and also thought it fine to be able to talk French. In this way many common French words relating to fashion, food, social life, learning and medicine found their ways into the English vocabulary. (A list of some French loan words is provided in Appendix Ⅰ) During this long period of time, French literary influence was not restricted to the Continent. From the beginning of the twelfth century much literature written in French was produced in England. When books began to be written once more in English, most of the terms at hand to express ideas were found in the language of the upper classes people who for the past two centuries had the chief control of art, science and law. Hence, a large number of French words were adopted to replace the forgotten English ones.

Moreover, it is necessary to mention that although the introduction of the French words into English resulted in the extinction of too many Anglo-Saxon words, many of the English words continues to be used side by side with their French equivalents. But, with time went by, some differences developed between the synonyms. The native words are more popular and fundamental, while the French words are often more formal, more polite and less emotional. (A list of some of the synonyms is

provided in Appendix Ⅱ)

It should also be mentioned that one of the characteristics of Old English was to enlarge its vocabulary chiefly by using prefixes and suffixes. With the borrowing of a large number of French words, French affixes found their ways in English. Furthermore, the English affixes were also added to French loan words. Some of the French affixes which entered English are as follows.

Prefixes: con-, de-, dis-, ex-, pre-, en-, pro-, trans-.

Suffixes: -ee, -ance, -ant, -ation, -ment, -ism, -ity, -able, -al, -ous, -fy, -ize.

The Influence of French on the English Vocabulary during the Early Modern English Period

French influence on the English vocabulary is not only restricted to the two or three centuries after the Norman Conquest. English has always borrowed from French.

Around the year 1500, the intellectual awakening of Europe (the Renaissance) reached England. The words such as portmanteau, genteel, cache, moustache and machine are examples of the words borrowed at this time.

In the middle of the seventeenth century, there was a civil war in England, and the court resided in France. Therefore, with the Restoration, a large number of French words came into English. Examples are parole, rendezvous, envelope, critique, memoir, tableau, routine and so on.

The French revolution which occurred in the end of the eighteenth century also resulted in the borrowing of many French words relating to revolution into England. For example, regime, guillotine, aristocrat, democrat, revolutionize, royalism, terrorism, liberal, conservative, despotism, and many others.

In the nineteenth century, there were increased travel facilities which led to more and more people going to France both for business and pleasure. In this way numerous words related to art, food and drink, fashion, adornment of home and social pastimes entered the English language. Examples are ballet, souvenir, cuisine, moquette, liqueur, route, canteen, bureau, baroque, rococo, blouse, acrobat,

restaurant, chef, prestige, etc.

More than a century ago, French was still widely considered a prestigious language. It was the diplomatic language of the world and it had considerable popularity in literary and scientific circles. During the late nineteenth century its prestige gradually declined. Examples of this period are garage, limousine, camouflage, revue and so on.

Although the status of French has fluctuated throughout the history of English, the heavy borrowing and influence on twentieth century terms relating to journalism and the media indicates French influence persists. French as a borrowing continues its contribution to the English vocabulary.

Conclusion

By analyzing the fusion of the two languages, this paper has presented how French loan words take effects in the Middle English period and the Early Modern English period. From the aspects mentioned above, it is clear that the influence of the French language upon the English vocabulary is great, deep and permanent. Thousands of French words entered English. Some words are assimilated; some native words are lost wh ile other words’ meanings are expanded. What makes a nation borrow words from another language has been clearly stated by Dr. J.A. Sheared (1962), “The acquisition of loan words from another language shows that the borrower feels that there is something superior in the foreign language, or in the people who use it, for we may suppose that no reasonable being would deliberately make use of foreign words if he felt that his own language possessed words which did the job better.” Finally, it is worthy to mention that English has become a rich language containing very large vocabulary thanks to the contact with and the assimilation of words from other languages.

The List of Some of the French Loan Words

Religion:ceremony, baptism, Bible, prayer, lesson, sermon, relic, miracle, disciple, abbot, clergy, sacrament, etc.

Law: attorney, felony, larceny, judge, jury, justice, estate, sue, fee, plea, defendant, prison, suit, advocate, complaint, summon, court, accuse, bill, act, tax, lease, assets, embezzle, disclaim, etc.

Government: people, parliament, crown, reign, treaty, council, cabinet, city, minister, nation, village, domicile, etc.

Military:army, navy, enemy, battle, defense, retreat, soldier, guard, spy, sergeant, manor, chattel, captain, corporeal, etc.

Titles and offices: duke, marquis, baron, constable, count, lieutenant, mayor, prince, viscount, vicar, dean, chancellor, countess, etc.

Art and Science: art, painting, sculpture, music, beauty, figure, image, tone, literature, poet, romance, story, chronicle, tragedy, prologue, preface, title, volume, chapter, paper, treatise, study, logic, geometry, grammar, noun, clause, gender, medicine, physician, surgeon, malady, pain, plague, anatomy, stomach, pulse, remedy, ointment, poison, alkali, sulphur, etc.

Architecture:cathedral, palace, mansion, chamber, ceiling, cellar, chimney, lattice, tower, porch, column, pillar, base, brick, storey, attic, tile, lintel, etc.

Abstract terms: sense, honour, glory, fame, colour, dignity, chivalry, piety, science, nature, etc.

Social life and domestic economy:curtain, couch, chain, cushion, screen, lamp, lantern, blanket, towel, basin, parlor, wardrobe, closet, chess, recreation, leisure, fool, minstrel, etc.

Fashion: fashion, dress, habit, gown, robe, garment, cape, cloak, coat, frock, collar, veil, train, chemise, trousers, lace, embroidery, buckle, button, plume, kerchief, boots, galoshes, etc.

Natural Scenery: valley, mountain, river, torrent, fountain, gravel, etc.

Colour: blue, brown, vermilion, scarlet, violet, crimson, mauve, etc.

Jewelry:Jewel, ivory, enamel, brooch, turquoise, amethyst, topaz, garnet, ruby, emerald, pearl, diamond, crystal, coral, beryl, etc.

Relationship: aunt, cousin, spouse, parent, uncle, nephew, niece, etc.

Division of time: hour, minute, second.

The List of Some of the Synonyms

Bibliography

Taraneh. A. Tabari, Lecturer of Tarbeyat Moallem University, The French Influence on the English Language

Isabel Roth, ISSN: 2041-6776, INNERV ATE Leading Undergraduate Work in English Studies, V olume 3 (2010-2011), pp. 255-262, Explore the Influence of French on English

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二、阅读理解：选择题 子问题 1：A; 子问题 2：C; 子问题 3：B; 子问题 4：A; 子问题 5：C 单元自测8 二、阅读理解：判断正误 子问题 1：F; 子问题 2：T; 子问题 3：F; 子问题 4：T; 子问题 5：T

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