42Regional geologic and tectonic setting of the Maracaibo supergiant basin,western Venezuela

AUTHORS

Paul Mann Institute for Geophysics,John A.

and Katherine G.Jackson School of Geo-sciences,University of Texas at Austin,4412Spicewood Springs Road,Building 600,Austin,Texas 78759;paulm@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/305894443.html, Paul Mann is a senior research scientist at the Institute for Geophysics,University of Texas at Austin.He received his Ph.D.in geology at the State University of New York in 1983and has published widely on the tectonics of strike-slip,rift,and collision-related sedimentary basins.A cur-rent focus area of research is the interplay of tectonics,sedimentation,and hydrocarbon oc-currence in Venezuela and Trinidad.

Alejandro Escalona Institute for Geophys-ics,John A.and Katherine G.Jackson School of Geosciences,University of Texas at Austin,4412Spicewood Springs Road,Building 600,Austin,Texas 78759

Alejandro Escalona is a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute for Geophysics,University of Texas at Austin.He received his Ph.D.in geology at the University of Texas at Austin in 2003,where he focused on stratigraphic and struc-tural evolution of the Maracaibo Basin,Vene-zuela.He is currently interpreting regional seis-mic and well data subsurface data from offshore Venezuela to link offshore and on-land Cenozoic depocenters.

Mar?′a Vero ′nica Castillo Department of Geological Sciences and Institute for Geophysics,John A.and Katherine G.Jackson School of Geosciences,University of Texas at Austin,4412Spicewood Springs Road,Building 600,Austin,Texas 78759;present address:Enersis S.A (ENI)Caracas,Venezuela

Mar?′a Vero ′nica Castillo is a geoscientist at ENI Venezuela in Caracas and a lecturer on three-dimensional seismic interpretation at the Uni-versidad Central de Venezuela in Caracas.She obtained her Ph.D.in geology at the University of Texas at Austin in 2001,where she focused on the structural evolution of the Maracaibo Basin,Venezuela.Her current interest is using merged 3-D seismic data sets for regional basin analysis.

Regional geologic and tectonic setting of the Maracaibo supergiant basin,western Venezuela

Paul Mann,Alejandro Escalona,and Mar?′a Vero ′nica Castillo

ABSTRACT

This special issue contains eight topical studies on the structure,stratigraphy,and petroleum system of the Maracaibo Basin,a super-giant basin in western Venezuela.Most of the work reported in this special issue is the product of thesis-related research by master’s and doctoral-level students at the Jackson School of Geosciences of the University of Texas at Austin during a collaborative relation-ship with the Venezuelan national oil company,Petro ′leos de Vene-zuela,S.A.,that was initiated in the late 1980s.This introductory article presents a regional overview of the tectonic setting and ge-ology of the Maracaibo Basin.

With a cumulative oil production of more than 30billion bbl,since the first production well was drilled in 1914and estimated ultimate oil reserves of more than 44billion bbl,the Maracaibo Basin is the most prolific hydrocarbon basin in the Western Hemisphere.Unlike the more extensive Gulf of Mexico giant hydrocarbon prov-inces,the relatively small size (50,000km 2;19,305mi 2),relative simplicity in its structure and stratigraphy,and wealth of surface and subsurface data make the Maracaibo Basin an attractive target for basinwide synthesis.The objective of this article is to present a re-gional compilation of two-dimensional (2-D)and three-dimensional (3-D)seismic data,wells,and outcrop data at a basinwide scale to reveal the basin’s 3-D structure and stratigraphy.Moreover,we show regional tectonic reconstructions,regional geologic maps,and basin subsidence history to better constrain four major tectonic events that affected the basin and that are critical for understanding the timing and distribution of major unconformities and clastic wedges,the distribution of the reservoir rocks,the reactivation of older fault trends,and the timing of maturation for underlying source rocks.Many of these topics are discussed in greater detail in the other eight articles in this special issue.

AAPG Bulletin,v.90,no.4(April 2006),pp.445–477445

Copyright #2006.The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.All rights reserved.

Manuscript received February 17,2005;provisional acceptance June 10,2005;revised manuscript received September 28,2005;final acceptance October 11,2005.DOI:10.1306/10110505031

INTRODUCTION

Global Significance of Hydrocarbons of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico Sedimentary basins of the Gulf of Mexico and northern South America host a discontinuous belt of giant oil and gas fields that collectively contribute 5%of the ultimate hydrocarbon reserves of the world (BP,2002)(Figure 1A,B).Most of the hydrocarbons of northern South America occur onshore in Venezuela,with less sig-nificant deposits in the adjacent countries of Trinidad and Tobago and Colombia (Figure 1A).Shelf and deep-water exploration is ad-vanced in Trinidad and Tobago but much less advanced in the Ca-ribbean Sea north of Venezuela and Colombia.The giant hydro-carbon provinces of the Gulf of Mexico form a geographically distinct province from northern South America that is separated by the hydrocarbon-poor region of the Caribbean Sea,Central America,and the Greater Antilles (Figure 1A).Despite their present geographic separation by 2000–3000km (1242–1864mi),both the northern South America and Gulf of Mexico–eastern Mexico provinces were once contiguous prior to the breakup of Pangea and therefore share many similarities in their Late Jurassic structure and stratigraphy.

The Maracaibo Basin is located on the southwestern edge of the Caribbean Sea in western Venezuela near its border with Co-lombia (Figure 1A).Venezuela has the fifth largest hydrocarbon reserves in the world,with cumulative oil production of about 60billion bbl and proven oil reserves of more than 70billion bbl (Audemard and Serrano,2001;BP,2002;Horn,2003;Escalona and Mann,2006c).Most of the oil and gas produced in Venezuela is exported to the United States,with a much smaller amount being exported to hydrocarbon-poor nations in the circum-Caribbean and South America.In recent years,liquefied natural gas mainly pro-duced in the eastern offshore area of Trinidad has also become a major export to the United States.Objectives of This Issue

Unlike the more extensive Gulf of Mexico giant hydrocarbon prov-inces,the relatively small (50,000km 2;19,305mi 2)Maracaibo Basin makes an attractive target for the type of basinal synthesis presented in this special issue.We are particularly enthusiastic about the generous contribution of Petro ′leos de Venezuela,S.A.(PDVSA)to our study of regional,two-dimensional (2-D)seismic lines,along with merged three-dimensional (3-D)seismic data coverage that extends more than 30%of the total basin area (Castillo,2001;Escalona,2003).

The overall objective of this article and the special issue as a whole is to use a regional compilation of all these data types at a basinwide scale to reveal the basin’s 3-D structure and stratigraphy and its key tectonic stages during the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic.The regional study presented in this article introduces the more detailed articles in the issue that focus on particular areas of the basin.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The results presented in this overview and in the other articles in this special issue would not have been possible without the long-term coopera-tion,data contributions,and financial support of Petro ′leos de Venezuela,S.A.(PDVSA).All seismic,well,and other geologic information used in this issue is used with expressed permission from PDVSA.We give special thanks to William F.Fisher and Amos Salvador of the University of Texas at Austin Department of Geological Sciences for their steadfast encouragement,supervision,and financial support for University of Texas at Austin graduate student research on the Maracaibo Basin.At the University of Texas at Austin Bureau of Economic Geology,Noel Tyler,Edgar Guevara,Bill Ambrose,and H.Zeng began working closely with PDVSA in 1991on seismic stratigraphy and reservoirs,supervised and supported one University of Texas at Austin graduate student (J.Maguregui,M.S.,1990),and published three technical re-ports.At Rice University,Albert Bally supervised one Rice Ph.D.student (Felipe Audemard,Ph.D.1991)and served on the University of Texas at Austin https://www.wendangku.net/doc/305894443.html,mittee of Mar?′a Vero ′nica Castillo (Ph.D.,2001).Finally,we acknowledge all those University of Texas at Austin and Rice University graduate students whose work is not presented in this issue but whose research and related pub-lications were essential for creating the founda-tion for this basinwide synthesis:Jesu ′s Maguregui (University of Texas at Austin,M.S.,1990),Isaskun Azpiritxaga (University of Texas at Austin,M.A.,1991);Jairo Lugo (University of Texas at Austin,Ph.D.,1991),Felipe Audemard (Rice University,Ph.D.,1991),Johnny Pinto (University of Texas at Austin,M.A.,1991),Ramo ′n Go ′mez (University of Texas at Austin,M.A.,1995),Pedro Leo ′n (Uni-versity of Texas at Austin,M.A.,1997),Ronald Oribio (University of Texas at Austin,M.A.,1997),and Felix D?′az (University of Texas at Austin,M.Sc.,1998).We thank A.Bally,J.Blickwede,and D.Goddard for constructive reviews of this article.The authors acknowledge financial support for this publication provided by the University of Texas at Austin’s Geology Foundation and Jack-son School of Geosciences.University of Texas,Institute for Geophysics contribution 1777.

Editor’s Note

Color versions of figures may be seen in the online version of this article.

446Regional Geologic and Tectonic Setting of the Maracaibo Supergiant Basin

(2003)and plotted on a bathymetric and topographic basemap from Sandwell and Smith (1997).A giant oil field is considered to be one for which the estimate of ultimately recoverable hydrocarbons is greater than 500million bbl of oil;a giant gas field contains greater than 3tcf of gas.As of 2004,the Maracaibo Basin of northwestern South America (boxed area)contains 14individual giant oil fields.With a cumulative oil production of more than 50billion bbl since the early 20th century and proven reserves of more than 70billion bbl,the Maracaibo Basin is the most prolific,single supergiant basin in the Western Hemisphere.(B)Distribution of ultimate hydrocarbon reserves from BP (2002)showing that the Caribbean–Gulf of Mexico region contributes 5%of the world’s ultimate reserves.(C)Distribution of ultimate reserves in the Caribbean region showing that the relatively small Maracaibo Basin contributes 37%of the ultimate reserves in the Caribbean–Gulf of Mexico region.The much larger area of the Maturin foreland basin in eastern Venezuela contributes only about half of this amount to the reserves total.

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Our goal both in this article and the special issue as a whole is to show linkages between deformation,car-bonate and clastic depocenter formation,fault reactiva-tion,reservoir development,and sedimentation patterns and to relate these basinwide events to even larger,plate-scale tectonic events produced by interactions between the Caribbean and South American plates.We hope that this type of basinwide information will help focus future research and exploration efforts in the Maracaibo Basin.The remaining reserves of the Maracaibo Basin are equivalent in size to more than 100giant fields.TECTONIC SETTING OF THE MARACAIBO BASIN Plate Boundary Zone Deformation

The Maracaibo supergiant basin is situated in a wide and diffuse zone of seismically-active,plate boundary deformation produced by the present-day interaction of three plates:Caribbean,Nazca,and South America (Figure 2A).Global positioning system (GPS)-based geodetic studies carried out since the late 1980s and compiled in Figure 2B have constrained the

movement

Figure 2.(A)Tectonic setting of the Maracaibo Basin in north-western South America.Major plates in the Caribbean region and compilation of earthquake focal mechanisms are shown on a gravity map of the Carib-bean compiled by Sandwell and Smith (1997).Focal mechanisms shown in red are from earth-quakes from 0to 75km (0to 46mi)in depth,blue mecha-nisms are from 75to 150km (46to 93mi)in depth,and green mechanisms are greater than 150km (93mi)in depth.(B)Compilation of GPS results showing plate motions in the re-gion of northern South Ameri-ca.Sources of GPS vectors in-clude Freymueller et al.(1993);Pe ′rez et al.(2001);Trenkamp et al.(2002).Note the north-northeastward movement of the East Andean block (EAB)that encompasses the smaller,fault-bounded Maracaibo block (MB).Key to other abbrevia-tions:EPFZ =El Pilar fault zone;BFZ =Bocono ′fault zone;SCDB =South Caribbean deformed belt;SMBFZ =Santa Marta –Bucaramanga fault zone;EAFZ =Eastern Andean fault zone.

448

Regional Geologic and Tectonic Setting of the Maracaibo Supergiant Basin

of the three larger,bounding plates of the region,as well as smaller plates or blocks in their broad,plate boundary zones(Freymueller et al.,1993;Pe′rez et al., 2001;Trenkamp et al.,2002)(Figure2B).Geologic mapping,earthquake,and GPS studies show the pres-ence of an elongate,1400-km(870-mi)-long North An-dean block moving to the north-northeast along the right-lateral East Andean-Bocono′fault zones at rates of about6–9mm/yr(0.23–0.35in./yr)relative to sta-ble South America(Pennington,1981)(Figure2B).

Previously proposed tectonic mechanisms for north-eastward transport of the North Andean block include (1)Panama arc collision with northwestern South America(Pindell and Dewey,1982);(2)mantle flow from the Pacific into the Caribbean(Russo and Sil-ver,1992);(3)collision of the Carnegie Ridge with northwestern South America(Pennington,1981);and (4)oblique subduction along the Ecuador trench(Kel-logg and Mohriak,2000).Regardless of its mecha-nism,the motion of the North Andean block,which started during the late Miocene,has led to the super-position of strike-slip and convergent tectonics of late Neogene age on rocks previously deformed in the Late Cretaceous and early part of the Cenozoic.

Maracaibo Block

The northern area of the North Andean block can be further subdivided into the Maracaibo block,a trian-gular wedge of continental crust that includes the Mara-caibo Basin and is bounded to the east by the Bocono′right-lateral strike-slip fault,to the west by the left-lateral Santa Marta–Bucaramanga fault zone,and to the north by thrusts faults of the South Caribbean de-formed belt(Mann and Burke,1984;Taboada et al., 2000)(Figure2B).Total right-lateral(northward) displacement of the Maracaibo block relative to South America has been estimated to be in the range of 50–100km(31–62mi)(Stephan,1977;Escalona and Mann,2006a).Global positioning system measure-ments and earthquake studies to date are insufficient to show separate and kinematically distinct North Andean and Maracaibo blocks,although measurements by Trenkamp et al.(2002)support active left-lateral slip on the Santa Marta–Bucaramanga fault zone at the western edge of the Maracaibo block(Figure2B).

The2–6-km(1.2–3.7-mi)-thick petroliferous and sedimentary section of the Maracaibo Basin occupies a stable sag area of the interior of the Maracaibo block and is passively rafted northward by strike-slip faults that bound the Maracaibo block.To the east of the Maracaibo block(Figure2B),the right-lateral Bocono′fault zone abruptly curves to the east and transitions into the well-known El Pilar right-lateral strike-slip fault system (Schubert,1982;Audemard and Audemard,2002) (Figure2B).To the west of the Maracaibo block,the Panama arc continues to converge in an east-west direc-tion against the northwest corner of South America at rates of about20mm/yr(0.78in./yr)(Taboada et al., 2000;Trenkamp et al.,2002;Colmenares and Zoback, 2003).North of the Maracaibo Basin,a10–18-km(6–11-mi)-thick oceanic plateau and oceanic crust of the Caribbean plate is underthrusting northern South America as shown by a weakly active Benioff zone be-neath the Maracaibo Basin(Kellogg and Bonini,1982; Colmenares and Zoback,2003).This weakly active Benioff zone passes downdip into an approximately 600-km(372-mi)-long subducted slab imaged using seismic tomography(van der Hilst and Mann,1994; Taboada et al.,2000).The subducted slab can be traced to the surface at the South Caribbean deformed belt, where it is associated with recent accretion of off-scraped sediments at the South Caribbean deformed belt(Ladd et al.,1984).

REGIONAL GEOLOGIC SETTING OF NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA SUPERGIANT BASINS

Classification of Basins of Northern South America

The Maracaibo Basin forms a segment of an arcuate belt of foreland basins formed during the Cenozoic as a result of collision of a Pacific-derived Caribbean arc with the South American craton(Erlich and Barrett, 1990;Pindell and Barrett,1990;Lugo and Mann,1995; Escalona and Mann,2006a).The belt of foreland basins closest to the South American craton formed entirely on continental rocks of South America and includes, from west to east,the Llanos basin of eastern Colombia, the Barinas basin of western Venezuela,the Maracaibo Basin,and the Eastern Venezuela Basin.

Hydrocarbon Distribution in Northern South American Basins

As also seen in Figure1A,giant fields cluster in three of these basins:the Llanos(McCollough and Carver, 1992;Cooper et al.,1995),Maracaibo(Escalona and Mann,2006a,c),and Eastern Venezuela(Erlich and Barrett,1992;Di Croce et al.,1999).All three of these foreland basins are highly asymmetric,with thickening

Mann et al.449

of clastic fill toward a major thrust fault and with pro-nounced thinning of clastic sediments toward the cra-ton.These basins are underlain by north-and northwest-dipping carbonate rocks deposited on the passive margin of South America prior to the arrival of the Caribbean arc.Mann et al.(2003)classify these basins as continen-tal collision basins related to terrane accretion,arc collision,and/or shallow subduction to distinguish them from more familiar foreland basins that were produced in continent-continent collisional settings.

Sources and Traps in Foreland Basins

Source rocks in the LLanos,Maracaibo,and Eastern Venezuela basins include Upper Cretaceous black shale deposited during sea level highstands during the precol-lisional,passive-margin phase(Buitrago,1994;Talukdar and Marcano,1994;Erlich et al.,2003;Escalona and Mann,2006c).Traps include(1)normal or inverted fault traps on the flexed South American plate;(2)deeply buried thrusts and folds of the clastic foreland basin; and(3)younger structures and stratigraphic traps above the deformed interval that have received remigrated hydrocarbons from breached reservoirs derived from folded and thrusted rocks below.Reservoirs include fractured carbonate and sandstone that both predate and accompany the foreland basin history(Erlich and Barrett,1992).

A less hydrocarbon-rich,and less explored belt of hydrocarbon basins is found in the lower,middle,and upper Magdalena basin of Colombia,the Gulf of Ven-ezuela,the Falco′n basin of Venezuela,and the Carib-bean Sea area north and east of Trinidad and Tobago. These rocks are close to or overlie the abrupt structural contact between arc-related rocks of the Caribbean arc and continental margin rocks of South America.For that reason,their source rocks,structures,petroleum potential,and maturation history should not be as-sumed to be identical to that of the hydrocarbon-rich belt of foreland basins overlying continental crust(Es-calona and Mann,2006c).

Clustering of Giant Fields in Foreland Basins

More than30individual giant oil fields,each with ulti-mately recoverable reserves greater than500million bbl, are located in onshore Venezuela,with most of those fields in the more cratonward belt of foreland basins that include the Llanos,Maracaibo,and Eastern Ven-ezuela(Figure1).This belt of giant fields produces predominantly oil with only a few giant gas fields con-taining greater than3tcf of recoverable gas.Clusters of giants are found in those areas with the deepest clastic depocenters,indicating a linkage between deep burial and basin maturity(Escalona and Mann,2006c).

As of2004,the Maracaibo Basin(boxed area in Figure1A)contained14individual giant oil fields, with most occurring along the eastern coast of the lake and in the central lake areas where lower Cenozoic clastic sedimentary rocks are thickest.With a cumu-lative oil production of more than30billion bbl since the early20th century and estimated ultimate oil re-serves of more than40billion bbl,the Maracaibo Basin is the most prolific supergiant basin in the Western Hemisphere as a whole.Only giants of the Persian Gulf region,Alaska(Prudhoe Bay),and the Gulf of Mexico (Cantarell complex)can rival the magnitude of the cu-mulative production and proven reserves of the Mara-caibo Basin(Mann et al.,2003).

Hydrocarbon production in the Maracaibo Basin comes from a variety of reservoirs,including Tertiary and Cretaceous clastic and carbonate rocks.Tertiary reservoirs are composed of fluvial-dominated and tidal-dominated deltaic systems in the Eocene(Marguregui, 1990;Ambrose et al.,1995;Escalona,2006)and fluvial systems with associated incised alluvial valleys in the Miocene(Guzman and Fisher,2006).Cretaceous res-ervoirs consist of fractured and karstic carbonate res-ervoirs(Azpiritxaga,1991;Chacartegui et al.,1995; Nelson et al.,2000;Castillo,2001).Escalona and Mann (2006c)review the petroleum system of the Maracaibo Basin in detail.

FOUR MAJOR TECTONIC STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE MARACAIBO BASIN Approach to Tectonic Reconstructions

In this section,we use plate tectonic reconstructions of northern South America constructed using the soft-ware and methods of the University of Texas at Austin PLATES project(https://www.wendangku.net/doc/305894443.html,/research /projects/plates/).Reconstructions are shown at criti-cal times during the evolution of the Maracaibo Basin from80to5Ma.The positions of larger plates sur-rounding the Caribbean plate(North and South Ameri-ca and Africa)are reasonably well constrained going back to the Early Cretaceous and Late Jurassic,whereas the position of other plates forming the Pacific margin of the Caribbean are only known for the late Cenozoic (Mu¨ller et al.,1999).

450Regional Geologic and Tectonic Setting of the Maracaibo Supergiant Basin

For brevity,we illustrate only the Late Cretaceous to Holocene tectonic evolution of the Maracaibo Basin in Figure3A–F because the events most closely linked to its petroleum systems date from this period.Previous tectonic reconstructions that include the Late Jurassic period of rifting between North and South America include Pindell and Barrett(1990),Bartok(1993),and Mann(1999).

Tectonic Stages in the Evolution of Northern South America Most previous workers have recognized the impor-tance of tectonic stages in understanding the complex stratigraphic and structural evolution of the northern margin of South America.For example,Pindell and Dewey(1982),Eva et al.(1989),Pindell and Barrett (1990),Lugo and Mann(1995),and Mann(1999)all identified a Late Jurassic rift stage related to the open-ing of North and South America,a protracted Creta-ceous period of passive-margin formation following the rift event,a Paleogene period of oblique collision between a westward-moving Caribbean island arc and the passive margin of South America,and a Neogene period of strike-slip faulting and Andean uplift that is particularly intense and widespread in western Vene-zuela and Colombia.The timing of these four events, along with the positions of the larger plates known from marine magnetic anomalies in oceanic plates, provide the fundamental constraints on the tectonic models that we show in Figure3A–F.

On the left side of each reconstruction are the un-ornamented basement blocks as taken from the PLATES program.Each basement block has been defined on the basis of its radiometric age,lithologic composition,vol-canic geochemistry,and sedimentary facies.Gaps be-tween blocks represent areas of subsequent crustal shortening that have been estimated from outcrop and seismic reflection studies.Mismatched edges of blocks represent subsequent strike-slip displacements.These shortening and strike-slip estimates sometimes vary widely between individual authors,so we indicate the authors we have chosen to follow in these reconstruc-tions.On the right side of each reconstruction are inferred sedimentary cover sequences for the basement blocks that have been compiled from the literature. With the exception of Pindell et al.(1998),most authors display their inferred paleogeography on a basement of present-day geography.Instead,we show paleogeographic interpretations that were made in conjunction with the tectonic https://www.wendangku.net/doc/305894443.html,te Cretaceous,Approximately88Ma(Coniacian)

Prior to the Coniacian,Late Jurassic rifting between North and South America created a1800-km(1118-mi)-wide seaway between North and South America that is commonly referred to as the‘‘Proto-Caribbean seaway’’(Pindell and Barrett,1990;Bartok,1993;Mann,1999). The passive margin of northern South America is char-acterized by a broad,mixed carbonate-clastic shelf on which were deposited an extensive area of middle to outer shelf,fine-grained,organic-rich rocks that form the main source rocks for hydrocarbons in northern South America(La Luna–Querecual Formation)(Cooper et al.,1995;Escalona and Mann,2006c).Rocks of this formation are particularly widespread in the area west and southwest of present-day Lake Maracaibo,and for that reason,we have inferred an embayment of the pas-sive margin in that region(Figure3A).The passive mar-gin narrows in an eastward direction(Erlich and Barrett, 1992)and curves abruptly to the southeast in its eastern area near present-day Trinidad(Di Croce et al.,1999). Middle Paleocene,Approximately60Ma

By the Paleocene,the eastward-moving Great Arc of the Caribbean had begun to subduct Mesozoic oce-anic crust of the Proto-Caribbean seaway and to in-fluence sedimentary facies in the northern part of the Maracaibo Basin(Pindell and Barrett,1990;Lugo and Mann,1995;Escalona and Mann,2006b).The Great Arc sweeps in a diachronous manner from west to east across the passive margin,with its initial flexural subsi-dence in Venezuela recorded by Paleogene clastic sedi-mentation in the Maracaibo foreland basin.The Great Arc is a composite structure that includes a back arc, volcanic arc,forearc,and accretionary prism areas that are identified on the key in Figure3A(Mann,1999).

The South America–Great Arc collision marks the end of the passive-margin phase in the Maracaibo Basin and the beginning of the foreland basin phase that is of critical importance for the formation of reser-voir rocks and the maturation of the underlying source rocks of the passive margin(Escalona and Mann,2006c). Prior to this collision,most of the area of the Maracaibo Basin remained a stable,shallow carbonate platform. Collision of the Caribbean arc will bend the north-northeastern part of the platform area downward be-neath the encroaching thrust faults and tear faults and form a major foreland basin of late Paleocene–early Eocene age(Lugo and Mann,1995;Escalona and Mann,

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2006b).Sands filling the foreland basin both from the proto-Maracaibo River draining the continental area to the south and from the uplifted highlands associated with thrusting to the north will act as high-quality res-ervoirs for future hydrocarbons in the basin(Escalona et al.,2004).

Middle Eocene,Approximately44Ma

By about44Ma,a large area of proto-Caribbean oceanic crust had subducted beneath the northwest-ern corner of South America(indicated in Figure3C by the blue areas visible between crustal blocks).The present-day lake area had become the site of a coastal-deltaic complex that fed an extensive offshore area of deep-marine sedimentation that filled the forearc and back-arc areas of the passing Great Arc(Figure3C).

In the middle Eocene,parts of the Great Arc be-gan to overthrust the north-sloping passive margin.In the Maracaibo area,collision-related shortening led to thrust emplacement of the Lara nappes(Stephan,1977, 1985).This shortening culminated in the late Eocene–Oligocene uplift and erosion of the present-day lake area and the formation of the prominent Eocene un-conformity that is a highly angular contact in some locations(Escalona and Mann,2006b).

Oligocene,Approximately30Ma

During the Oligocene,the Great Arc continued its collision with the passive margin and began to form the Eastern Venezuelan foreland basin by the same tec-tonic process that formed the Maracaibo foreland ba-sin in the Paleogene(Pindell and Barrett,1990;Erlich and Barrett,1992)(Figure3D).In the Maracaibo Ba-sin,fluvial sedimentation of the proto-Maracaibo River was diverted by the uplift of the Colombian Andes,and the Orinoco River formed to carry most fluvial sedi-ments eastward along the margin(D?′az de Gamero, 1996;Escalona et al.,2004)(Figure3D).Regional up-lift in the Maracaibo–Falco′n area related to continued convergence and isostatic rebound shifted the position of the shelf edge far to the north(Guzman and Fisher, 2006).Uplift of the Sierra de Perija′west of the Mara-caibo Basin occured at this time and is recorded by a large clastic wedge filling the basin from the west. The uplift of the Sierra de Perija′may be related to the shallow subduction of the Caribbean crust and the for-mation of basement uplifts on the overriding South America plate(Kellogg,1984;van der Hilst and Mann, 1994;Taboada et al.,2000).Middle Miocene,Approximately14Ma

By about14Ma,the Eastern Venezuela foreland basin was undergoing maximum subsidence as a result of the oblique collision of the Great Arc and the formation of a fold-thrust belt in the Serran?′a del Interior(Erlich and Barrett,1992;Roure et al.,1997).Thrust-related defor-mational effects occurred as far east as Trinidad and pro-duced a major regional unconformity spanning the mid-dle Miocene interval over much of this area(Tyson, 1990).Sedimentation in the Maracaibo Basin shows the beginning of the uplift of the Me′rida Andes east of the lake(Castillo and Mann,2006;Guzman and Fisher,2006).

In this middle Miocene period,the Maracaibo Basin was filled by a fluvial-deltaic system related to the proto-Maracaibo River draining from the Andes to the south of the basin(Escalona et al.,2004).Guzman and Fisher (2006)discuss the narrow strait connecting the proto-Maracaibo River in the Maracaibo Basin to a more open-marine area.

Early Pliocene,Approximately5Ma

By the early Pliocene,the region looked very similar to its present-day appearance(Figure3F).Deformation was most intense in the far east near Trinidad,where the collision between the leading edge of the Caribbean plate and the passive margin continues to the present day (Babb and Mann,1999;Boettcher et al.,2003).Strike-slip faulting along the various faults bounding the edges of the Maracaibo block and along the El Pilar fault zone mark the terminal stages of plate convergence (Trenkamp et al.,2002).By the early Pliocene,all fluvial sedimentation was concentrated on the Orinoco River, which rapidly filled in the recently formed Columbus foreland basin east of Trinidad(Di Croce et al.,1999; Wood,2000).

OVERVIEW OF THE GEOLOGY OF

THE MARACAIBO BASIN

The purpose of this section is to provide a brief overview of the regional geology of the Maracaibo Basin,along with a summary of previous geologic studies that have led up to the basin synthesis presented in this issue.

The physiographic Maracaibo Basin occupies a 50,000-km2(19,305-mi2)triangular,intermontane ba-sin in western Venezuela(Figure4).Lake Maracaibo occupies about30%of the surface of Maracaibo Basin

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and forms a shallow topographic depression with a maximum water depth of 30m (98ft).

The geologic maps in Figure 4A–D show the dis-tribution of both outcrops and subcrops of rocks in the Maracaibo Basin region,whose structure and stratigraphy record four major tectonic events described and partly shown in the tectonic reconstructions in Figure 3A–F.A major point of these maps is to show that the phys-iographic Maracaibo Basin acts to preserve an approxi-mately 7-km (4.3-mi)-thick,relatively undeformed sec-tion of Jurassic–Holocene age that records all four of the major tectonic events described above (Figure 3A–F).Therefore,in addition to its importance as a super-giant hydrocarbon basin,the subsurface geology of the Maracaibo Basin provides an important record of the geologic and tectonic history of northwestern South America that would be much more difficult to reconstruct from more fragmentary and more de-formed outcrops in the surrounding mountain ranges (Figure

4A–D).

Figure 4.Present-day distribution of outcrops and subcrops of major megasequences in the area of the Maracaibo Basin.Outcrop data are from Maze (1984)and Borges (1984).(A)Outcrop (orange areas)and subcrop (brown stippled areas)of rift-related red beds of the Late Jurassic La Quinta Formation.Faults known or inferred to have been active during the rift phase are indicated.(B)Outcrop (dark green areas)and subcrop (dark green stippled areas)of Cretaceous passive margin-related carbonate rocks of various formations.Faults known or inferred to have been active during the passive margin phase are indicated.The Me ′rida arch from Salvador (1986)is shown as a dotted red line.(C)Outcrop (blue areas)and subcrop (blue stippled areas)of Paleogene foreland basin rocks of various formations.Faults known or inferred to have been active during the foreland basin phase are indicated.(D)Outcrop (yellow areas)and subcrop (yellow stippled areas)of Neogene basinal rocks of various formations related to Andean uplift and strike-slip motion of the Maracaibo block.Faults known or inferred to have been active during the Andean uplift and Maracaibo block strike-slip displacement are indicated.

456

Regional Geologic and Tectonic Setting of the Maracaibo Supergiant Basin

Tectonosequences of the Maracaibo Basin

Figure 5shows a regional-stratigraphic chart modified from Parnaud et al.(1995)and Castillo (2001)summa-rizing the main tectonosequences,formation names,and paleoenvironments across the Maracaibo Basin.These tectonosequences are bounded by major basin-wide unconformities that include the sub-Cretaceous unconformity,the Paleocene unconformity,the Eocene unconformity,and the lower Miocene unconformity (Figure 5).The unconformities are designated by the stratigraphic age of their hiatus (i.e.,Eocene uncon-formity).The inset map of Figure 5shows the total sedimentary thickness of the basin above the acoustic

Paleozoic basement and the line of section along which the stratigraphic chart was made.

These tectonosequences are defined by uncon-formities in outcrops and by major discontinuities on seismic reflection data (i.e.,downlaps,onlaps,and ero-sional truncations as defined by Mitchum et al.,1977;Vail et al.,1977).The subsurface discontinuities are also defined using well-log correlations tied to seismic data (Lugo and Mann,1995;Parnaud et al.,1995;Escalona,2006;Escalona and Mann,2006b).A general description of the tectonosequences in the Maracaibo Basin is summarized below using both outcrop and subcrop descriptions.More detailed descriptions of the tecto-nosequences at their type sections in outcrop

around

Figure 5.Chart of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic formations and their sedimentary facies of the Maracaibo Basin along the line of cross section shown on the inset map (modified from Parnaud et al.,1995).Formations to the left of the chart are found in the Sierra de Perija ′,formations in the middle are found in the Maracaibo Basin,and formations to the right are found in the Me ′rida Andes.We identify six unconformity-bound tectonosequences in the Maracaibo Basin that are numbered on the left side of the chart.Bounding unconformities include pre-Cretaceous unconformity,Paleocene unconformity,Eocene unconformity,and upper Miocene unconformity.The six tectonosequences are related to four major tectonic phases identified as I–IV on the left side of the chart.These tectonic phases include the following:I =pre-Cretaceous (Late Jurassic)rift phase;II =Cretaceous (Neocomian to Maastrichtian passive-margin phase);III =Paleogene foreland basin phase;and IV =late Oligocene–Holocene Andean uplift,strike-slip,and shortening phase.Total sediment thickness to the top of Paleozoic acoustic basement (kilometers)of the Maracaibo Basin is shown on the inset map.Modified from Parnaud et al.(1995).Mann et al.

457

the basin are provided by Sutton(1946),Gonza′lez de Juana et al.(1980),Audemard(1991),and Parnaud et al. (1995).

Tectonosequence1:Late Jurassic Rifting

Tectonosequence1represents the acoustic basement of the Maracaibo Basin and the lower limit of sesmic imaging and deep exploration drilling in the basin(Lugo and Mann,1995)(Figure5,inset).The sequence con-sists of upper Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks(Mucu-chach?′Formation)and overlying Upper Jurassic red beds of the La Quinta Formation derived from the ero-sion of Paleozoic metamorphic blocks rifted and exposed as highlands during the breakup of Pangea(Schubert et al.,1979;Maze,1984).Rift-related red beds are lo-cally sourced by pyroclastic material(La Ge′Group)that was deposited in elongate half grabens(Lugo and Mann, 1995;Parnaud et al.,1995).Rift-related half grabens containing the Jurassic rocks underlying the Maracaibo Basin have a north-northeast trend(Audemard,1991; Lugo and Mann,1995)but have also been proposed based on stratigraphic thickness variations in the moun-tain ranges surrounding the Maracaibo Basin(Schubert et al.,1979;Maze,1984)(Figure4A).

Tectonosequence2:Cretaceous Passive Margin

Tectonosequence2deposited on a broad passive mar-gin(Figure3A),includes Lower Cretaceous carbonate and clastic units and is bounded by the basal Cretaceous unconformity separating the Cretaceous carbonate plat-form from the underlying metamorphic basement rift features described above.The structural configuration of the basin during this period was characterized by paleo-highs,basins,and tectonic activity west of the Mara-caibo Basin,which most workers relate to the uplift of the Central Cordillera of Colombia(Renz,1981;Erlich et al.,1999;Macsotay et al.,2003).Renz(1981),using cross sections from outcrops along the mountain range bounding the Maracaibo Basin,interpreted a basement paleohigh,the Me′rida arch.Lugo and Mann(1995)in-terpreted the continuation of the Me′rida arch into the southern end of Lake Maracaibo,which affected the thickness of the Cretaceous passive-margin sediments (Figure3A).The top of the tectonosequence is defined by the Socuy Member of the Colo′n Formation(Figure5). Along with the Socuy Member,the Cretaceous passive-margin tectonosequence includes the following forma-tions shown on the chart in Figure5and described in detail from outcrop studies of the basin edges by the following authors:R?′o Negro(Hedberg,1931),Apo′n (Sutton,1946);Lisure(Rod and Maync,1954),Aguar-diente(Notestein,et al.,1944),La Luna(Garner,1926), and the Socuy Member of the Colo′n Formation(Sutton, 1946;Gonza′lez de Juana et al.,1980).

The Apo′n,Lisure,Aguardiente,and Maraca for-mations all make up the Cogollo Group(Gonza′lez de Juana et al.,1980).All carbonate rocks of the Cogollo Group were deposited on a shallow carbonate plat-form and are characterized by two main depositional styles:fining-upward cycles during the Aptian–middle Albian and coarsening-upward cycles in the upper Albian(Azpiritxaga,1991).The Upper Cretaceous La Luna Formation overlying the Cogollo Group forms a world-class source rock that is responsible for more than98%of the hydrocarbons generated in the Mara-caibo Basin(Talukdar and Marcano,1994;Nelson et al., 2000;Escalona and Mann,2006c)(Figure4B).The top of the organic-rich La Luna Formation is defined by carbonate rocks of the Socuy Member.This contact is characterized on seismic data by a prominent,continuous reflector produced by the acoustic impedance between underlying shale of the La Luna Formation and overlying carbonate rocks of the Socuy Member. Tectonosequence3:Campanian–Maastrichtian

Foreland Basin

Tectonosequence3formed by early effects of oblique collision between the Great Caribbean arc and north-western South America(Figure3B,C),is bounded at its base by the Socuy Formation and at its top by the Paleocene unconformity.The tectonosequence was de-posited in a foreland basin and is composed of clastic sedimentary rocks of the Upper Cretaceous Colo′n (Liddle,1928)and Mito Juan(Garner,1926)formations, along with the Paleocene Guasare Formation(Lugo and Mann,1995;Parnaud et al.,1995)(Figure5).Pelagic, clastic rocks of the Colo′n Formation are inferred to have been deposited in the distal region of a foreland basin that resulted from the Caribbean volcanic arc collision with northwestern South America(Cooper et al.,1995;Par-naud et al.,1995)(Figure3A).In the Maracaibo Basin, the Colo′n Formation is transitional into the overlying Mito Juan Formation that was deposited in brackish to marine environments(Sutton,1946).Paleocene rocks of the Maracaibo Basin consist of a shallow-marine,mixed clastic-carbonate platform section.The top of this sec-tion produces an extensive and continuous seismic re-flector beneath the Lake Maracaibo area(Lugo and Mann,1995;Castillo and Mann,2006).

458Regional Geologic and Tectonic Setting of the Maracaibo Supergiant Basin

Sandstone of the Cretaceous Colo′n Formation ex-hibits a major change in lithology from underlying Ju-rassic and Lower Cretaceous continentally derived quartz-rich,and continental stratigraphic units.The appearance of a belt of graywackes and subgraywackes in the Colo′n Formation in the western and southwestern quadrant of the Maracaibo Basin suggests the accretion of an arc terrane to the west and southwest of the Maracaibo Basin(Van Andel,1958).Audemard(1991)and Marcha (2004)interpret easterly and northeasterly dipping cli-noforms inferred from2-D and3-D seismic data in the northwestern parts of the basin to support this accretion event.Marcha(2004)concluded that the overlying Pa-leocene Guasare Formation was deposited on relatively flat topography and was not influenced by the earlier collision and event to the west.Lugo(1991)suggested that relative sea level drop during the Late Cretaceous–Paleocene is responsible for the regressive facies of the Colo′n Formation observed in the Maracaibo Basin at this time.The existence of an Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene foreland basin west of the Maracaibo Basin,therefore,remains controversial. Tectonosequence4:Paleocene–Oligocene

Foreland Basin Phase

Tectonosequence4is composed of lacustrine to fluvial-deltaic rocks defined by the Paleocene unconformity at their base and the Oligocene–Miocene unconformity at their top(Figure5).The sedimentary units in this tec-tonosequence record a sedimentary transition from pas-sive to active margin.This transition coincided with the southward thrust emplacement of the Lara nappes in the middle–late Eocene(Stephan,1985;Audemard, 1991;Lugo,1991;Parnaud et al.,1995)(Figure3C,D).

Formations included in this tectonosequence in-clude the well-studied,fluviodeltaic Misoa Formation (Marguregui,1990;Lugo and Mann,1995;Escalona and Mann,2006b),the more distal to deep-water sedimentary rocks of the Trujillo Formation(Mathieu,1989)and the shallow-marine Pauj?′Formation(Sutton,1946;Gon-za′lez de Juana et al.,1980;Mathieu,1989)(Figure5). Tectonosequence4is characterized by an overall regres-sive character defined by fluvial facies.The Eocene suc-cession is composed mainly of medium-to fine-grained, subangular to rounded quartz sandstone with subordi-nate shale(Lugo and Mann,1995).The Misoa Formation is the reservoir rock for most of the major oil fields of the Maracaibo Basin and is discussed in detail by Escalona and Mann(2006b,c).Tectonosequence5:Oligocene Uplift of the Sierra de Perija′

Tectonosequence5is bounded by the Eocene uncon-formity at its base and the upper Miocene unconfor-mity at its top(Figure5).Shallow-marine to conti-nental clastic deposits dominate this tectonosequence and include transgressive sands of the Icotea Forma-tion of late Oligocene age.The Oligocene clastic wedge was deposited during the main uplift of the Sierra de Perija′,which controlled subsidence as well as sediment dispersal into its associated depocenter(Audemard, 1991;Castillo,2001).

Tectonosequence6:Early Miocene to Quaternary Erosion of Adjacent Mountain Ranges Tectonosequence6is defined by the lower Miocene unconformity at its base and the present-day floor of Lake Maracaibo at its top and consists of clastic sedi-mentary rocks produced by erosion of the uplifted Sierra de Perija′and Me′rida Andes.Based on fission-track age determinations,pulses of uplift of the Sierra de Perija′and Me′rida Andes occurred during the late Miocene–Pliocene and Pliocene–Pleistocene(Kellogg, 1984;Kohn et al.,1984;Shagam et al.,1984;De Toni and Kellogg,1993).Lower–middle Miocene rocks con-sist of shallow-marine deposits that gradationally pass upward into late Miocene continental deposits(La Rosa and Lagunillas formations;Gonza′lez de Juana et al.,1980;Guzman and Fisher,2006).The Pliocene–Holocene part of the tectonosequence includes the Onia and El Milagro formations that were deposited in fluvial-deltaic and lacustrine environments(Gonza′lez de Juana et al.,1980;Audemard,1991).

PREVIOUS WORK ON THE OUTCROP AND SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE MARACAIBO BASIN

Early Studies

The search for hydrocarbons has been the main im-petus for geologic studies in the Maracaibo Basin since the beginning of the20th century and especially in the period after World War I(Sutton,1946).The pres-ence of hydrocarbons in the Maracaibo Basin has been known for centuries because oil seeps are plentiful along all the surrounding mountain fronts of the Maracaibo Basin(Sutton,1946;Link,1952;Escalona and Mann,2006c)(Figure6).Early exploration wells,

Mann et al.459

460Regional Geologic and Tectonic Setting of the Maracaibo Supergiant Basin

including those of the Bolivar Coast at the northeast-ern edge of Lake Maracaibo,were drilled adjacent to natural oil seeps,including the well-known Mene Grande,or Big Seep field(Link,1952).

Early geologic studies included systematic field mapping and compilation of subsurface data from ex-ploration wells(Hedberg,1931;Notestein et al.,1944; Van Andel,1958;Salvador,1961;Brondijk,1967;Feo-Codecido,1970;Van Veen,1972;Renz,1981).At the special request of the AAPG,Sutton(1946)compiled all existing knowledge of the first30yr of petroleum exploration and development geology in the Maracaibo Basin into a single special issue of AAPG Bulletin.

Private and Government Geological and Geophysical Studies(1960–1980)

The arrival of2-D seismic acquisition methods to the Maracaibo Basin in the1960s ushered in a new and productive phase of geologic studies that led to a greatly improved understanding of the subsurface geology of the basin.As a result of improved exploration and de-velopment methods,Venezuela became the world’s largest oil exporter in1970.An enormous amount of surface and subsurface geologic studies were performed but were dispersed among different national and inter-national oil companies working in the basin.

In1976,nationalization of the oil industry gave the Venezuelan government ownership of the entire oil infrastructure and database.This led to the creation of PDVSA and the Venezuela Petroleum Corporation. At the request of these organizations,a major com-pilation of the surface and subsurface petroleum ge-ology and stratigraphy of Venezuela was conducted by Gonza′lez de Juana et al.(1980).

Early Academic Studies and Student-Related Work

During the1980s,United States and French academic geologists,including Pindell and Dewey(1982),Burke et al.(1984),Kellogg(1984),Mann and Burke(1984),Stephan(1985),Salvador(1986),Ostos(1990),and Pindell and Barrett(1990)began to synthesize the geologic and tectonic information from the Maracaibo Basin.

By the1990s,petroleum exploration and produc-tion activities in the Maracaibo Basin led to the acqui-sition of thousands of kilometers of2-D and3-D seismic reflection data and the drilling of more than10,000ex-ploration wells(Figures7,8).Parts of this huge data set were made available for thesis studies by Venezue-lan geologists obtaining degrees at universities in the United States and France(Mathieu,1989;Audemard, 1991;De Toni and Kellogg,1993;Lugo and Mann,1995; Parnaud et al.,1995;Roure et al.,1997;Duerto,1998) (Table1).

Student Research Projects at the University of Texas at Austin and Other Universities

The three units of the University of Texas,Jackson School of Geosciences(Department of Geological Sci-ences,Institute for Geophysics,and Bureau of Eco-nomic Geology[BEG]),have been active in subsurface seismic-stratigraphic and well research in Venezuela since the late1980s.Much of this effort has been in the form of student M.S.and Ph.D.projects sponsored by PDVSA and supervised by W.Fisher,A.Salvador, N.Tyler,and P.Mann at the University of Texas at Austin(Table1).In addition,several major research projects and technical publications have been produced at the BEG(Ambrose et al.,1995,1998;H.Zeng, 2002,personal communication).

These studies have been primarily focused at the scales of individual exploration blocks.Figure7and Table1compile the location and name of all the master’s theses and Ph.D.dissertations completed at the University of Texas at Austin on the Maracaibo Basin over the last15yr.Figure8shows the location of the most relevant regional studies in the Maracaibo Basin done or published by institutions other than the Uni-versity of Texas at Austin.As seen in Figures7and8,

Figure6.Surface geologic map of the Maracaibo Basin region(modified from Borges,1984)combined with a seismic time slice from a merged3-D seismic data set at1s two-way traveltime(TWT)beneath the floor of Lake Maracaibo.Colors for outcrops and subcrops seen on the3-D seismic time slice indicate the age of rocks and are shown in the figure legend.The present-day topographic and geologic configuration of the Maracaibo Basin is controlled by uplift of the Me′rida and Sierra de Perija′mountain ranges and by formation of the Miocene–Holocene Maracaibo syncline with a roughly north-south–trending axial trace.Global positioning system velocity vectors from Pe′rez et al.(2001)and Trenkamp et al.(2002)indicate direction and relative rate of displacement of the Maracaibo block to the north-northeast relative to the stable South America plate to the east of the basin.North-northeast–striking,pre-Oligocene faults characterize the subsurface of central Maracaibo Basin.The Burro Negro fault bounds the present Maracaibo Basin along its northeastern boundary.

Mann et al.461

these combined studies cover most of the area of the Maracaibo Basin and include a large number of topics,ranging from reservoir characterization to basin evolu-tion.A common element of all these studies was a re-liance on 2-D seismic data and well correlation.Impact of 3-D Seismic Data on Basin Research

By the late 1990s,the availability of 3-D seismic data,shown as boxes in Figures 7and 8,began to impact the level of understanding of the structure and stratigraphy of the Maracaibo Basin.The 3-D seismic data were initially used for reservoir characterization and detail strucutral analysis of complex Eocene reservoirs that are widely distributed across the Maracaibo Basin (e.g.,Leo ′n et al.,1999;Link et al.,1999;Benkovics and Helwig,2001).Many of these early 3-D seismic studies exist only as internal,unpublished PDVSA reports that concentrate on the more intensively explored north-central and eastern parts of the basin.

In contrast to these specific exploration-related efforts,Castillo (2001),Escalona (2003),Escalona and Mann (2003),and Castillo and Mann (2006)made re-gional interpretations of time slices from merged 3-D seismic data sets provided by PDVSA and covering about 30%of the area of the basin (Figures 6,7).These 3-D data were augmented by regional 2-D seismic lines.In the following section,we summarize the main results of these more regional studies using both 2-D and 3-D seismic data and relate this information to the four main tectonic stages of the basin described above.

OVERVIEW OF THE SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY OF THE MARACAIBO BASIN USING REGIONAL 3-D SEISMIC DATA

Merge of Surface Geology with 3-D Subsurface Seismic Time Slices

Figure 6shows the present-day surface geology of the Maracaibo Basin from Borges (1984),merged with an interpreted time slice at 1.0s two-way traveltime be-neath the floor of Lake Maracaibo from Castillo (2001).The present-day topographic and geologic configura-tion of the basin is controlled by the uplift of the Me

′rida

Figure 7.Topographic map of the Maracaibo Basin showing location of PDVSA seismic data used by University of Texas at Austin master’s and Ph.D.graduate students during research projects in the period from 1987to 2003.Boxes indicate areas of 3-D seismic data.Note that 2-D and 3-D seismic data almost completely cover the area of Lake Maracaibo.

462

Regional Geologic and Tectonic Setting of the Maracaibo Supergiant Basin

Andes and Sierra de Perija ′along the mountain front fault zones described by Duerto et al.(2006).Global positioning system velocity vectors from Pe ′rez et al.(2001)and Trenkamp et al.(2002)indicate the direc-tion and relative rate of displacement of the Maracaibo block to the north and northeast relative to the stable South America plate (Figure 2B).

The Maracaibo Basin is a particularly complex sedimentary basin for two reasons.First,Late Jurassic rifting introduced a strong north-south grain to the floor of the basin that was subject to later reactivation (i.e.,Icotea,Pueblo Viejo,and Urdaneta faults);second,convergence directions varied from northeast-southwest in the Eocene to more east-west directions in the post-Eocene (Escalona and Mann,2006a);and third,the basin remained in a zone of active plate boundary deformation between the Caribbean,South American,and Nazca plates for a remarkably long period from Paleocene to Holocene.However,despite this complex tectonic setting and protracted structural history,regional 2-D lines and 3-D seismic time slices reveal that large areas of the central basin have remained remarkably stable and undeformed throughout the basin’s history.

The protracted history of faulting in the basin re-quires a stepwise approach to fault mapping because lumping of faults of all ages onto a single map can lead to the misperception of a high degree of structural complexity (Figure 4).In fact,most faulting in the central part of the Maracaibo Basin is confined to Eocene and older rocks and therefore is deeply buried by up to 5km (3.1mi)of little or undeformed sedimen-tary rocks (Figure 4).Regional 3-D seismic data,which can be viewed in horizontal time slices,are particularly useful for showing how most faults are confined to deeper levels of the basin.

1.0-s Time Slice from Regional 3-D Seismic Data

Subsurface deformation in the basin at the 1.0-s time slice (Figure 9)intersects the stratigraphic level from upper Miocene to Pleistocene or during the period of tectonosequence 6shown in Figure 5.These Neogene rocks dip into the north-south–trending Maracaibo syncline of Castillo and Mann (2006).The Maracaibo syncline,a previously unrecognized feature of the Maracaibo Basin prior to Castillo (2001),is inferred

to

Figure 8.Topographic map of the Maracaibo Basin showing tracks of PDVSA seismic data used by graduate students and researchers at other universities during the period of 1989–1999.Work by Parnaud et al.(1995)and Roure et al.(1997)was done as part of a collaborative study between the Institut Franc ?ais du Pe ′trole and PDVSA.Boxes indicated areas of 3-D seismic data.These studies are available publicly as M.S.theses or dissertations.Some have been summarized in published articles and abstracts.

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陕西师范大学个人简历模板-word版可编辑(一)

茉莉花应聘银行、金融保险业职位 电话：122000000000 邮箱：435454544565 重庆西南政法大学渝北校区籍贯：山西太原市万白 毕业院校西南政法大学 2011.09-2014.06经济学院金融保险专业硕士 2007.09-2011.07经济学院金融保险专业学士 资格证书获ISO9000质量管理体系内部审核员证书、 已参加证劵、银行从业资格考试、已参加证劵、银行从业资格考试、 保险精算师、已参加证劵、银行从业资格考试、 实践经历 2012-2012.04 中电投远达环保工程有限公司实习助理 ●负责整理档案，起草处理财务相关资料和文件等工作； ●经过对脱硫脱硝催化剂的整个生产环节的细致了解； ●测算生产工艺流程的产品耗用，计算出单位产成品的生产成本； 2011-2013.10 独立成立小型家教培训班代课老师 ●共培训学生30多名，受到学生和家长的喜欢； ●增加了自己与外界的沟通交流能力； ●曾因一个学生成绩一个月提升几十分，家长推荐给十几个同事； 2008-2008.09 农药推广员 ●主要负责山东省一个区域的农药推广 ●包括站店推广，下田技术服务等方式， ●一个月的时间共为公司创造了的5000元的销售额 校园任职经历 2011.09-至今学习委员西南政法大学2011-2014.02院学生会副主席经济学院2009-2013.07全国大学生创业计划大赛首席执行官 ●在团队中主要负责队员的工作协调、与外界的沟通联系及创业项目的战略规划 ●通过了院赛、校赛的初赛、复赛、决赛，最后获得校级银奖 基本技能获奖情况 ●语言技能：能进行日常的英语交流，●国家奖学金、校级学习优秀先进个人 ●计算机技能：熟练操作办公软件●国家奖学金、优秀学生干部、优秀毕业生 特长与兴趣自我评价 ●喜欢体育运动、音乐●有较好的组织与沟通能力，诚实守信； ●喜欢体育运动、音乐●热爱生活，喜欢一切有挑战的事物； ●喜欢体育运动、音乐●有较好的适应能力和心理承受能力；

陕西师范大学新闻与传播学院研究生导师简介

陕西师范大学新闻与传播学院 研究生导师简介 导师姓名个人简介专业招生方向 李震 教授，博士生导师，陕西师大新闻与传播学院院 长。兼任陕西省文艺评论家协会副主席、陕西省文化 传播学会副会长、陕西省新闻传播教育学会常务副会 长。主要从事诗学研究、文艺批评与文化传播研究， 1980年代中期以来发表论著及文化随笔达200余万 字，主持国家级和省部级项目多项，其中有代表性的 成果如下： （一）专著 1、《重塑西部之魂》，人民出版社2003年版 2、《母语诗学纲要》，三秦出版社2001年版 3、《中国当代西部诗潮论》，青海人民出版社1993年 版。 （二）主持科研项目 1、2005年承担国家哲学社会科学规划课题：西部文 艺资源与文化产业研究 2、2002年完成国家文化部重点课题：西部大开发的 文化战略研究 3、1997年完成陕西省政府课题：陕西经济社会发展 的文化心理障碍研究 （三）论文 在海内外发表文学批评和学术论文百余篇。主要代表 作有： 1、《神话写作与反神话写作》 《诗探索》（北京）1994年2期， 转载《非非》杂志（香港）1994年1期。 入选《最新先锋诗论选》、《九十年代文学评论选》等 多种选本。 2、《语言的神话——诗符号论》（上）： 《创世纪》（台湾）1994年冬季号， 入选《创世纪40年评论选》等多种选本。 3、《语言的神话——诗符号论》（下） 《当代文学评论》（台湾）1994年1期。 4、《文化夹缝中生长的诗歌》 《一行》（纽约）1994年2期， 转载〈诗探索〉（北大）1994年3期 5、《论纵向语言诗学》 《人文杂志》（西安）2001年3期。 6、《论20世纪中国乡村小说的基本传统》 文艺与文 化传播学 （博士） 文艺与文 化传播学 （硕士） 广播电视 艺术学 （硕士） 当代文艺 与文化传 播 当代文艺 与文化传 播 影视批评 学

陕西师范大学复试安排

陕师大政治经济学院2010年硕士研究生招生复试录取办法 复试是硕士研究生招生工作中进一步考察考生综合素质和能力的重要环节，是保证生源质量的关键环节，是录取工作的重要依据。根据教育部和陕西省招生委员会关于硕士研究生复试录取的相关文件精神，为了完善复试录取规则，规范复试录取程序，充分体现公平性、公正性和有效性，严格执行国家招生政策和规定，维护研究生招生工作的良好信誉，不断提高复试质量，促进我校研究生教育事业健康持续协调发展，特制定本办法。 一、复试录取、督查工作领导小组 学校成立以主管校长为组长、纪委书记为副组长的复试录取工作领导小组，复试录取工作领导小组成员包括研究生部主任、副主任、纪委监察处负责人、各招生单位主管研究生工作的领导。复试录取工作领导小组根据教育部规定负责制订学校研究生招生复试录取的工作办法、程序，组织开展学校研究生复试录取的各项工作以及监督、检查复试程序的执行情况等。各招生单位成立以主管研究生工作的院长为组长的复试录取工作小组，组长要对本单位的复试录取工作全面负责。研招办工作人员负责具体工作。 二、参加复试考生名单的确定原则 学校根据各招生专业初试情况等有关因素，将招生指标按专业分至各单位。复试名额按简章招生指标130%左右的范围确定，实行差额复试；由于艺术学、美术学、设计艺术学三个专业在初试时未进行术科考试，根据美术学院的申请，学校同意美术学院各专业的复试人数按招生指标200%以内的范围确定。复试名单根据复试名额从上线考生中按初试总成绩从高到低的顺序确定。每个招生单位应成立各学科专业的复试小组，每个复试小组最少由5人组成，包括复试小组组长和不少于4名导师，复试小组组长要对复试成绩负责。各复试小组应强化研究生导师在复试中的责任和权利，并接受学校监督。 三、复试内容和形式 1、在复试前，学院根据复试名单、复试考生信息库等，委派专人再次核查考生的照片和相关报名材料（均为原件）是否合格（应届毕业生为身份证、学生证、大学阶段学习成绩单，往届生为身份证、毕业证），其中同等学力考生的毕业证书原件及复印件由学院收齐后交至研招办。单位主管领导及审查人要在《陕西师范大学2010年硕士研究生复试资格审核登记表》上签名、盖章并对审查结果负责。对不符合教育部规定的考生，不予复试。 2、复试内容包括以下四部分： （1）综合素质考核（不量化）；（2）专业课笔试（总分150分）；（3）专业综合情况面试（总分100分）；（4）外语听力及口语测试（总分50分）。 ①综合素质考核包括思想政治素质和道德品质、本专业之外的学习科研社会实践情况、事业心和责任感、心理健康状况、人文素养、举止表达和礼仪等，其中思想政治素质和道德品质被列在第一位。 ②外语类专业考生须参加第二外国语口语及听力测试。 ③教育学、心理学、历史学一级学科内各专业的专业课笔试内容必须最少涵盖两门专业课程，涵盖的所有专业课程须闭卷考试，总分为150分。 ④在专业课笔试考核中，部分理工科专业可增加实验能力考核，此项考核成绩计入笔试成绩之内。

陕西师范大学英文简介

Overview of snnu The main campus of the SNU is located in the south suburbs of the historical city of Xi'an, the capital of Shaanxi Province in central-northwest China. As part of the new policy to enhance the overall education of the average Chinese, especially in rural regions, starting in September 2007 the Shaanxi Normal University is among six normal universities, which are directly affiliated with the State Educational Ministry of China, to exempt students from all tuition fees if they are in an approved educational degree program. The university is located in Xi’an, well-known for its cultural history, covering an area of more than 2,700 mu. It has two Campuses including Yanta Campus and Chang’an Campus. The two Campuses play different roles in fostering of students. Built in 2000, Chang’an Campus took the task of fostering junior, senior and postgraduate students. And Yanta Campus with 60-year-history takes mainly the tasks of not only teaching the foundation subjects and common courses of freshmen and sophomores, but also fostering teachers, students of further education, trainees and foreign students. Yanta Campus is next to famous scenic resort of the Great Wild Goose Pagoda, a fine environment possible to nurture talents; Chang’an Campus, located in “Enterprise Garden of University Education” at Guodu County, e njoying a grand scale, advanced equipment and modern facilities. Ministry of Education granted the university a title of “Civilized Campus” for its beautiful environment, with a famous reputation “the charm is in SNNU” among the universities in the city. The university contains 20 colleges and 2 foundation teaching departments, 62 majors, 10 doctoral mobile programs,6 postdoctoral centers of first rank discipline, 69 doctoral programs, 24 master centers of first rank discipline, 159 master programs, the authorized organization to issue diploma for educational masters and the masters of college teachers at work. Among the 12 authorized organizations with the rights of issuing diploma in our country, SNNU covers 11 authorized majors including philosophy，economics，laws，pedagogy，literature，history，science，engineering，administration，agriculture，and medicine. It also has three national key disciplines, one national key discipline on education, two excellent doctoral dissertations among 100 national doctoral dissertations, 2 national bases of fundamental learning and personnel cultivation,1 national key engineering laboratory, 1 State experimental teaching demonstration center,1 research base on human sciences under Ministry of Education， 1 sports sociology research base affiliated to State Sport General Administration, 3 key laboratory & engineering research centers affiliated to Ministry of Education, 6 key provincial laboratory and engineering research centers , 3 key provincial research bases on human sciences，5 provincial experimental teaching demonstration centers, 60 research centers of all lines. The university has College of Further Education, College o f Internet Education, College of Teaching Carders education, Vocational Education College of Higher Learning etc. Besides, there are also decades of academic societies and organizations such as Northwest Normal Teacher Training Center under Ministry of Education, Northwest Educational Administration training center under Ministry of Education,