A broad review of commercially important southern African medicinal plants
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 119(2008)342–355
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of
Ethnopharmacology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /j e t h p h a r
m
Review
A broad review of commercially important southern African medicinal plants
B.-E.van Wyk ?
Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology,University of Johannesburg,P.O.Box 524,Auckland Park 2006,South Africa
a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:
Received 8May 2008
Received in revised form 14May 2008Accepted 16May 2008
Available online 3June 2008Keywords:
Biosystematics Chemical variation
Commercial development Medicinal plants Southern Africa Taxonomy
a b s t r a c t
Aims of the study:Commercially important indigenous medicinal plants of southern Africa are reviewed in the context of fundamental knowledge about their ethnobotany,phylogeny,genetics,taxonomy,bio-chemistry,chemical variation,reproductive biology and horticulture.The aim is to explore the rapidly increasing number of scienti?c publications and to investigate the need for further research.
Materials and methods:The Scopus (Elsevier)reference system was used to investigate trends in the number of scienti?c publications and patents in 38medicinal plant species.Fifteen species of special commercial interest were chosen for more detailed reviews:Agathosma betulina,Aloe ferox,Artemisia afra,Aspalathus linearis,Cyclopia genistoides,Harpagophytum procumbens,Hoodia gordonii,Hypoxis heme-rocallidea,Lippia javanica,Mesembryanthemum tortuosum,Pelargonium sidoides,Siphonochilus aethiopicus,Sutherlandia frutescens,Warburgia salutaris and Xysmalobium undulatum .
Results:In recent years there has been an upsurge in research and development of new medicinal products and new medicinal crops,as is shown by a rapid increase in the number of scienti?c publications and patents.Despite the fact that an estimated 10%of the plant species of the world is found in southern Africa,only a few have been fully commercialized and basic scienti?c information is often not available.Conclusions:The limited available information indicates that some of the plants display remarkable regional variation in morphological,genetic and chemical characters that should be more thoroughly investigated.Basic biological information is needed to guide the rapidly accelerating commercialization process,especially the selection of superior clones,the development of new cultivars and the standard-ization of raw materials.
?2008Elsevier Ireland Ltd.All rights reserved.
Contents 1.Introduction (343)
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3811437437.html,mercialized indigenous plant species .........................................................................................................343
3.
Biosystematic and chemotaxonomic studies.......................................................................................................3433.1.Agathosma betulina (P.J.Bergius)Pillans (Rutaceae)-round leaf buchu.....................................................................3463.2.Aloe ferox Mill.(Asphodelaceae)-bitter aloe,Cape aloe.....................................................................................3473.3.Artemisia afra Jacq.ex Willd.(Asteraceae)-wild wormwood ...............................................................................3473.4.Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.)R.Dahlgren (Fabaceae)-rooibos tea...........................................................................3473.5.Cyclopia genistoides (L.)R.Br.(Fabaceae)-honeybush tea ...................................................................................3483.6.Harpagophytum procumbens (Burch.)DC.ex Meissn.(Pedaliaceae)-devil’s claw ..........................................................3483.7.Hoodia gordonii (Masson)Sweet ex Decne (Apocynaceae)-hoodia,ghaap .................................................................3483.8.Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch.&C.A.Mey.(Hypoxidaceae)-inkomfe,“African potato”.....................................................3483.9.Lippia javanica (Burm.f.)Spreng.(Verbenaceae)-fever tea..................................................................................3493.10.Mesembryanthemum tortuosum L.[syn.Sceletium tortuosum (L.)N.E.Br.](Mesembryanthemaceae)-sceletium,kougoed...............3493.11.Pelargonium sidoides DC.(Geraniaceae)-umckaloabo,rabas...............................................................................3493.12.Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.)B.L.Burtt (Zingiberaceae)-African ginger...........................................................3503.13.Sutherlandia frutescens (L.)R.Br.[syn.Lessertia frutescens (L.)Goldblatt &J.C.Manning](Fabaceae)-cancer bush,sutherlandia.........3503.14.Warburgia salutaris (Bertol.f.)Chiov.(Canellaceae)-pepperbark tree......................................................................3513.15.Xysmalobium undulatum (L.)W.T.Aiton (Apocynaceae)-uzara.............................................................................
351
?Tel.:+27114892412;fax:+27114892411.E-mail address:bevanwyk@uj.ac.za .
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B.-E.van Wyk/Journal of Ethnopharmacology119(2008)342–355343
4.Discussion (351)
Acknowledgements (351)
References (352)
1.Introduction
Africa,and especially southern Africa,has a rich diversity of plants.Recent statistics show that about25%of the total number of higher plants in the world is found in Africa south of the Sahara. According to the“African Plant Checklist and Database Project”(Klopper et al.,2006),a total of50,136angiosperm taxa occur in tropical Africa and southern Africa.This?gure is based on a recent merging of two major data bases—EPFAT(Enumération des plantes à?eurs d’Afrique)and FSA(Flora of southern Africa).The combined checklist shows a total of32,424taxa in tropical Africa and22,755 taxa in southern Africa.A useful reference book on the medicinal plants of the whole of the African continent(Neuwinger,2000) lists more than5400medicinal plant taxa and over16,300medic-inal uses.It is generally accepted(e.g.Geldenhuys and Van Wyk, 2002)that natural resources will play a major role in the socio-economic development of the African continent.The angiosperm species count for southern Africa(Germishuizen and Meyer,2003) is21,817and the count for the Cape Floristic Region(Goldblatt and Manning,2001)is8888.Van Wyk and Gericke(2000)estimated that about3000medicinal plants are regularly used in southern Africa.An annotated checklist of traditional medicinal plants of southern Africa(Arnold et al.,2002)gives a total of3481plant taxa,of which2942are administered to people only.Basic infor-mation about the most widely used species can be found in Van Wyk et al.(1997),Van Wyk and Gericke(2000)and Diederichs (2006).This diversity represents a very valuable resource,not only for commercial development but also for basic scienti?c study.
This paper is aimed at reviewing southern African medicinal plants that are currently of particular interest in new product development.Basic researches relating to15commercially highly relevant species in South Africa are brie?y reviewed.The aim is to show the potential value and application of fundamental knowl-edge,to explore the rapidly accelerating numbers of scienti?c publications and to highlight the need for further biosystematic research on southern African plants.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3811437437.html,mercialized indigenous plant species
Of the estimated3000medicinal plant species that are regularly used in traditional medicine in South Africa,only about38indige-nous species have been commercialized to some extent(i.e.they are available as processed materials in modern packaging and in various dosage forms as teas,tinctures,tablets,capsules or oint-ments).Several others are also produced for multi-million Rand informal markets(Cunningham,1988;Mander,1998;Williams et al.,2000).A useful review of various aspects of the commercial-ization process in South Africa is given by Diederichs(2006).The major commercialized species are listed in Table1,together with basic ethnobotanical information and some key references.The list includes indigenous species that are widely distributed in Africa and that have been extensively commercialized in other parts of Africa and/or in other parts of the world(e.g.Adansonia digitata, Centella asiatica,Kigelia africana,Prunus africana and Trichilia emet-ica).Also included are two famous and popular herbs of Ayurvedic medicine that have hitherto been of limited commercial interest in South Africa(Centella asiatica and Withania somnifera).Wild-harvested material of Merwilla plumbea(Lindl.)Speta(syn.Scilla natalensis Planch.),Bowiea volubilis Harv.ex Hook.f.and several other important medicinal plant species is traded in large volumes on local markets but have as yet only been formally commercial-ized to a limited extent.Several of the plants listed in Table1are endemic to southern Africa and some of them are treated in detailed reviews in this volume.
In order to gain some insight into the scienti?c and/or commer-cial interest in South African medicinal plants,a literature search was conducted with the well-known Scopus literature reference system maintained by https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3811437437.html,ing the scienti?c names of the species and the“quick search”option,varying numbers of“hits”were obtained for those species listed in Table1.The searches were carefully executed to include main synonyms and other commercial species of the same genus where relevant(e.g.Cyclopia).The results are summarized in Table2,which outlines the number of scienti?c publications and the number of citation in patents in recent years. The general trend is one of an increasing number of papers and citations since1995,although this is not true for all the species.The popularity of Centella asiatica and Withania somnifera in Ayurvedic medicine is re?ected in the large number of citations and publica-tions over many years.Relatively large numbers are also seen for those species that are well established in tropical Africa as impor-tant medicinal plants(e.g.Adansonia digitata,Kigelia africana and Prunus africana).These species have been of limited commercial interest in South Africa despite their popularity elsewhere.
Table2reveals a rapid increase in the number of publica-tions and patent citations for several indigenous species that were scienti?cally practically unknown and unstudied prior to 1995.Raw material of some species has only become available in commercial quantities in recent years,so that the number of ethnopharmacological studies has sharply increased since1995. This trend was discussed by Light et al.(2005,and references cited therein)and is also re?ected in review papers in this vol-ume.In several cases,the number of scienti?c papers published since2006(i.e.,a period of just over2years)already exceed those published in the preceding5-year periods of1995–2000and 2001–2005.Notable examples are Cyclopia genistoides,Euclea natal-ensis,Hoodia gordonii,Hypoxis hemerocallidea,Pelargonium sidoides and Sutherlandia frutescens.Rapid recent increases in the num-ber of patent citations are also evident,especially for Adansonia, Aspalathus,Cyclopia,Harpagophytum,Hoodia,Mesembryanthemum, Pelargonium and Sutherlandia.Well-known commercialized species such as Harpagophytum procumbens and Aloe ferox has been the subject of scienti?c investigation over many years.The decreasing trend in Mesembryanthemum tortuosum is due an early interest in the unique alkaloids of these plants and a rather slow pace of com-mercialization.Recent research and development activity is also re?ected in the data for some well-established commercial species, including Aspalathus linearis and Xysmalobium undulatum(both of which were?rst commercialized more than100years ago).
3.Biosystematic and chemotaxonomic studies
A summary of published information on a selection of15com-mercially relevant medicinal plants of South Africa(see Fig.1and Tables1and2)is given below.General information about these plants can be obtained from Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk(1962), Hutchings et al.(1996),Van Wyk et al.(1997),Van Wyk and Gericke (2000)and Van Wyk and Wink(2004).Each of the species is brie?y discussed,with emphasis on what is known about their ethnob-
344 B.-E.van Wyk/Journal of Ethnopharmacology119(2008)342–355
Table1
Indigenous South African medicinal plants of current interest in product development(locally and elsewhere)
Species Main traditional uses in South Africa(traditional uses elsewhere or modern
uses,if different,in brackets)Key references and monographs
Adansonia digitata L.Fever,diarrhoea,haemoptysis,hiccup remedy(urinary disorders)[1],[2],[3],[4] Agathosma betulina(P.J.Bergius)Pillans Stomach complaints,bitter tonic,wound-healing,traditional antiseptic and
cosmetic(diuretic,urinary tract disinfectant,?avourant)
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Aloe ferox Mill.Bitters:laxative,bitter tonic;gel:wound-healing(health drink,cosmetic)[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],
[6]
Artemisia afra Jacq.ex Willd.Colds and in?uenza,stomach ailments,bitter tonic,analgesic,anthelmintic,
traditional inhalant for a blocked nose
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Aspalathus linearis(Burm.f.)R.Dahlgren Antispasmodic,traditional milk substitute for infants prone to colic,health drink[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],
[6]
Athrixia phylicoides DC.Health tea,aphrodisiac[4],[6]
Bulbine frutescens(L.)Willd.Wounds,burns,rashes,itches[1],[2],[3],[4] Carpobrotus edulis(L.)L.Bolus Gargle for mouth and throat infections,dysentery,digestive ailments,
tuberculosis,diuretic,styptic;topical application against eczema,wounds,
burns
[1],[2],[3],[4]
Centella asiatica(L.)Urb.General tonic,leprosy,wounds and cancer(venotonic,prevention of scar tissue
formation,adaptogen,acne,allergies)
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5]
Cyclopia genistoides(L.)R.Br.Health drink,digestive,stomachic(antioxidant)[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Dodonaea viscosa(Jacq.)var.angustifolia(L.f.)Benth,Fever,colds,in?uenza,stomach ailments,measles,gargle for sore throat and
oral thrush,pneumonia,tuberculosis,topical anti-pruritic
[1],[2],[3],[4]
Elytropappus rhinocerotus(L.f.)Less.Indigestion,dyspepsia,ulcers,stomach cancer,fumigant against in?uenza;
appetite stimulant,bitter tonic
[1],[2],[3],[4]
Eriocephalus africanus L.Diaphoretic,diuretic,stomach ache[1],[2],[3],[4] Euclea natalensis A.DC.Bronchitis,chest ailments,pleurisy,asthma,urinary tract infections,toothache,
headache,toothbrush sticks
[1],[2],[4]
Eucomis autumnalis(Mill.)Chit.Urinary diseases,stomach ache,diarrhoea,enema for low back pain and healing
of fractures
[1],[2],[3],[4]
Gunnera perpensa L.Antenatal and postnatal medicine,uterotonic,stomach ailments,menstrual
pain,stomach bleeding,rheumatic fever,topical application for wounds and
psoriasis
[1],[2],[3],[4]
Harpagophytum procumbens(Burch.)DC.ex Meisn.Antirheumatic,anti-in?ammatory,weakly analgesic,bitter tonic,
wound-healing
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Heteropyxis natalensis Harv.Leaves for colds,weaning;roots for nose bleeds and bleeding gums,
menorrhagia
[1],[2],[3],[4] Hoodia gordonii(Masson)Sweet ex Decne Appetite and thirst supressant[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],
[6]
Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch.&Avé-Lall.Emetic to treat bladder disorders,dizziness and insanity,traditional tonic,
prostate hyperplasia [1],[2],[3],[4],[5], [6]
Kigelia africana(Lam.)Benth.Powdered fruit applied to treat sores,wounds and rheumatism;bark used to
treat dysentery and stomach ailments(skin care,cosmetic)
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Leonotis leonurus(L.)R.Br.Coughs,colds,in?uenza,asthma,bronchitis,high blood pressure,headache,
viral hepatitis;topcally applied to treat skin disorders and cramps
[1],[2],[3],[4],[6] Lippia javanica(Burm.f.)Spreng.Fever,cough,colds,bronchitis,in?uenza,measles,rashes,malaria,stomach
ailments,headache(insect repellent)
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Lobostemon fruticosus(L.)H.Buek.Wound-healing,traditional multi-purpose plaster,ringworm[1],[2],[3],[4] Mesembryanthemum tortuosum L.(syn.Sceletium tortuosum)Hypnotic,sedative[1],[4],[5],[6] Ocotea bullata(Burch.)Baill.Headache,diarrhoea;emetic for emotional and nervous disorders[1],[2],[3],[4] Olea europaea L.subsp.africana(Mill.)P.S.Green Anti-hypertensive,diuretic,tonic,diarrhoea,sore throat[1],[2],[3],[4] Pelargonium sidoides DC.Tuberculosis,diarrhoea(bronchitis,infections of the upper respiratory tract)[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],
[6]
Prunus africana(Hook.f.)Kalkman Chest pain,benign prostate hyperplasia[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Sclerocarya birrea(A.Rich.)Hochst.Stomach ailments,diarrhoea,dysentery,fever,malaria,general tonic(diabetes)[1],[2],[3],[4] Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen Cough,chest complaints,rheumatism,tootache,headache,wounds and sores,
rheumatism(traditional panacea,general tonic,antirheumatic,antitussive)
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5]
Siphonochilus aethiopicus(Schweinf.)B.L.Burtt Colds,cough,in?uenza,hysteria,pain,asthma,dysmenorrhoea,
anti-in?ammatory,bronchodilatory,traditional antimalarial [1],[2],[3],[4],[5], [6]
Sutherlandia frutescens(L.)R.Br.Adaptogenic tonic,traditional general tonic,traditional cancer tonic,skin
disorders,eye disorders,diabetes,numerous other ailments [1],[2],[3],[4],[5], [6]
Trichilia emetica Vahl Stomach ailments,dysentry,kidney ailments,indigestion,fever,parasites;
poultices for bruises and eczema;seed oil for rheumatism
[1],[2],[3],[4] Tulbaghia violacea Harv.Colds,fever,asthma,tuberculosis[1],[2],[3],[4] Warburgia salutaris(Bertol.f.)Chiov.Coughs,colds,chest ailments,in?uenza,rheumatism,malaria,venereal
diseases,headache,toothache,gastric ulcers(antibiotic,general tonic)
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] Withania somnifera(L.)Dunal Leaves:poultices to treat wounds,sores,abscesses,in?ammation,
haemorrhoids,rheumatism,syphilis;roots:asthma,tonic(sedative,
adaptogenic tonic)
[1],[2],[3],[4]
Xysmalobium undulatum(L.)W.T.Aiton Diarrhoea,dysentery,stomach cramps,headache,oedema,dysmenorrhoea;
topically to treat sores and wounds(anti-diarrhoeal,spasmolytic,
wound-healing)
[1],[2],[3],[4],[5]
Names of species treated in this review are shown in bold.General references:[1]=Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk(1962);[2]=Hutchings et al.(1996);[3]=Van Wyk et al. (1997);[4]=Van Wyk and Gericke(2000);[5]=Van Wyk and Wink(2004);[6]=reviews elsewhere in this volume.
346 B.-E.van Wyk /Journal of Ethnopharmacology 119(2008)
342–355
Fig.1.Southern African medicinal plants of current interest in product and crop development.1st row (from left to right):Agathosma betulina ,Aloe ferox ,Artemisia afra ,Aspalathus linearis ;2nd row:Cyclopia genistoides ,C.maculata ,Harpagophytum procumbens ,Hoodia gordonii ;3rd row:Hypoxis hemerocallidea,Lippia javanica,Mesembryanthe-mum tortuosum ,Pelargonium sidoides ;4th row:Siphonochilus aethiopicus ,Sutherlandia frutescens ,Warburgia salutaris and Xysmalobium undulatum .Photographer:B.-E.van Wyk.
otany,basic biology and especially their biosystematics,including taxonomic,genetic and chemical variation.
3.1.Agathosma betulina (P.J.Bergius)Pillans (Rutaceae)-round leaf buchu
Buchu is an important plant in the Khoi-San tradition (Van Wyk and Gericke,2000)and still enjoys a great reputation as a gen-eral health tonic,diuretic and mild urinary antiseptic.The essential oil is a valuable ?avour product (similar to cassis )and is probably responsible for the antispasmodic,antiseptic and diuretic activities (Wichtl and Bisset,2000;Lis-Balchin et al.,2001).Isomenthone and diosphenol are the major volatile compounds (Kaiser et al.,1975;Posthumus et al.,1996).
Buchu is a resprouting shrub endemic to the Cape.Revisions by Pillans (1950)and Spreeth (1976)clari?ed the taxonomy of Agath-
B.-E.van Wyk/Journal of Ethnopharmacology119(2008)342–355347
osma betulina and related species but no published biosystematic studies are available.The essential oil components are well known (e.g.Kaiser et al.,1975;Posthumus et al.,1996)but the chemotaxo-nomic study of Collins et al.(1996)was the?rst to provide details of a chemical distinction between Agathosma betulina and the closely related Agathosma crenulata(L.)Pillans(oval leaf buchu),as well as their putative hybrids.Agathosma crenulata is less desirable because of potentially harmful levels of pulegone,which occur as the main compound in Agathosma crenulata oil(more than30%)but less than 5%in Agathosma betulina oil.No information is available on the variation in the main?avonoids(diosmin and hesperidin)despite their importance in quality control of buchu products(El-Shafae and El-Domiaty,2001).Aspects of the autecology,genetics and chemical variation in Agathosma betulina are currently under inves-tigation.
3.2.Aloe ferox Mill.(Asphodelaceae)-bitter aloe,Cape aloe
Aloe ferox is one of only a few plants depicted in San rock paint-ings(Reynolds,1950).The bitter latex,tapped from the leaves by a traditional method and exported to Europe since1761(Marloth, 1915;Kruger and Beyers,1977;Robertson,1979;Forbes,1986), is known commercially as“Cape aloes”.It has a long history of use in Africa and Europe as laxative medicine and is considered to have bitter tonic,anti-arthritic and anti-in?ammatory prop-erties(Newall et al.,1996;Blumenthal et al.,1998;Wichtl and Bisset,2000;ESCOP,2003).The laxative effect is due to anthrone-C-glycosides,of which aloin(syn.barbaloin)is the main compound (Van Wyk et al.,1995).Aloin occurs in tapped and dried leaf juice of Aloe ferox(so-called“Cape aloes”)as a1:1mixture of aloin A and aloin B,at levels of about10–28%dry weight(Van Wyk et al.,1995). In recent years,the inner leaf parenchyma has become popular for skin care products and tonic drinks.
The taxonomy of Aloe ferox is well known(Reynolds,1950;Glen and Hardy,2000;Van Wyk and Smith,2003)and the species lim-its have been broadened to include Aloe candelabrum A.Berger, which is morphologically and chemically almost identical(Viljoen et al.,1996).Variation in the phenolic compounds is well studied (Van Wyk et al.,1995).The gel polysaccharides are known to be of the arabinogalactan and rhamnogalacturonan types(Mabusela et al.,1990)but hardly any research has been done on the leaf gel components or their claimed biological activities.Aloe ferox gel differs substantially from that of Aloe vera L.(notably in the absence of acetylated sugars)but limited details are available (O’Brien,2006;unpublished M.Sc.Thesis,University of Johan-nesburg).Only wildcrafted material is currently used,apparently without any damage to natural populations(Newton and Vaughan, 1996),but the situation may change if there is a strong increase in demand.It may be possible to develop selections and cultivars with superior growth and quality.Some genetic markers have been studied(Van der Bank et al.,1995a;Van der Bank and Van Wyk, 1996);markers such as RFPL,applied to gel identi?cation of Aloe species by Shioda et al.(2003),may be useful to guide selection work.
3.3.Artemisia afra Jacq.ex Willd.(Asteraceae)-wild wormwood
This plant is one of the oldest and best-known of all the indige-nous medicines in southern Africa and further north,up to Ethiopia. An exceptionally wide diversity of uses has been recorded(Dykman, 1908;Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962;Hutchings et al.,1996;Van Wyk et al.,1997;Neuwinger,2000;Von Koenen,2001),includ-ing the treatment of colds,in?uenza,cough,sore throat,asthma, pneumonia,blocked nose,stomach ailments,colic,?atulence,con-stipation,gastritis,poor appetite,heartburn,internal parasites,measles,headache,earache,gout,diabetes,malaria and wounds. The plant is a popular bitter tonic and appetite stimulant in the Cape region of South Africa(Dykman,1908;Rood,1994;Thring and Weitz,2006).
The volatile oil is exceptionally variable(Graven et al.,1990; Lawrence,1996;Viljoen et al.,2006),depending on the geograph-ical origin.It is considered to be a useful substitute for armois oil. Often present are1,8-cineole(eucalyptol),?-thujone,?-thujone, camphor and borneol,together with some sesquiterpenoids such as chrysanthenyl acetate.Ethiopean oil yielded yomogi alcohol and artemisyl acetate as dominant constituents(Worku and Rubiolo, 1996).Several sesquiterpene lactones(guaianolides and glaucol-ides)have been isolated from above-ground parts(Jakupovic et al.,1988).Non-volatile constituents also include triterpenes(?-amyrin,?-amyrin and friedelin)and alkanes(ceryl cerotinate and N-nonacosane)(Silbernagel et al.,1990),as well as sur-face?avonoids(methyl ethers of luteolin)(Wollenweber et al., 1989).
Artemisia afra has demonstrated antimicrobial(Graven et al., 1992;Gundidza,1993;Rabe and Van Staden,1997;Mangena and Muyima,1999;Huffman et al.,2002;J?ger,2003;Motsei et al., 2003;Van Vuuren and Viljoen,2006;Viljoen et al.,2006;Vagionas et al.,2007),antioxidant(Graven et al.,1992;Burits et al.,2001), antimalarial(Weenen et al.,1990;Kraft et al.,2003;Clarkson et al.,2004;Gathirwa et al.,2007),anti-nematodal(McGaw et al., 2000),cardiovascular(hypotensive)(Guantai and Addae-Mensah, 1999),cytotoxic(Jenett-Siems et al.,2002)and sedative(Nielsen et al.,2004;Stafford et al.,2005)effects.Acute and chronic toxic-ity was studied by Mukinda and Syce(2007),who recorded acute intraperitoneal and oral LD50values in mice of respectively2.45 and8.96g/kg of aqueous Artemisia extract(which represented10% of the herb,w/w).In rats,a low chronic toxicity potential was demonstrated over a period of3months,with daily doses of0.1 and1.0g/kg of aqueous extract.The chemotype of Artemisia and the level of thujone were not recorded.In humans,high doses of thujone can cause confusion,convulsions and coma but selected chemotypes(especially low thujone clones)are already grown on a small scale.The molecular genetics of Artemisia afra is currently under investigation in an attempt to gain insight into the regula-tory mechanisms of artemisinin biosynthesis.In a comparison of Artemisia afra and A.annua,Van der Kooy et al.(2008)showed the value of a metabolomics approach for quality control pur-poses.
3.4.Aspalathus linearis(Burm.f.)R.Dahlgren(Fabaceae)-rooibos tea
Rooibos tea is a traditional herbal tea of the Khoi-San people of the Cedarberg region of the https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3811437437.html,mercialization started in1904and in2003exports to Germany alone exceeded local consumption.Rooibos tea has become popular as a health drink (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962;Van Wyk et al.,1997;Burger and Wachter,1998;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000;Van Wyk and Wink,2004)and as an ingredient in cosmetics.There is increasing evidence of anti-mutagenic and antioxidant effects(Von Gadow et al.,1997;Standley et al.,2001;Joubert et al.,2003;Marnewick et al.,2003,2005).An animal study suggested the prevention of age-related accumulation of lipid peroxidases in the brain(Inanami et al.,1995).Effects on cell division(Lamoˇs ováet al.,1997)and der-matological conditions(Shindo and Kato,1991)suggest a rationale for the cosmetic use of rooibos tea extracts.See this volume for a more detailed review.
Aspalathus linearis is exceptionally variable in its morphology (Dahlgren,1968,1988)and phenolic chemistry(Rabe et al.,1994; Van Heerden et al.,2003).The chalcone aspalathin is the main
348 B.-E.van Wyk/Journal of Ethnopharmacology119(2008)342–355
phenolic compound and is used for quality control(Joubert,1996; Bramati et al.,2002,2003).The level varies greatly,from1mg/g for fermented tea up to50mg/g for green(unfermented)tea.The species is morphologically diverse and several different?avonoids are found in the main wild tea types.Considerable genetic diver-sity was detected by Van der Bank et al.(1995b).Only the so-called Red type or Rocklands type is cultivated,but there is a renewed interest in harvesting some of the wild types for niche markets (Van Wyk et al.,1997).In view of the large variation in the phe-nolic compounds of wild tea types(Van Heerden et al.,2003),the metabolomics approach may be useful in exploring the chemical rationale behind quality and?avour.Aspects of the seed biology, especially the relation between seed structure,dormany,germi-nation and early seedling growth,were studied by Kelly and Van Staden(1985,1987).Studies of the autecology and the role of?re in the regeneration of populations could be of value in further crop development.
3.5.Cyclopia genistoides(L.)R.Br.(Fabaceae)-honeybush tea
Honeybush tea is a health beverage that has been wild-harvested in parts of the Cape for centuries.The original product was made from Cyclopia genistoides(Marloth,1925),a small shrub with narrow lea?ets.The industry is small but is rapidly expanding, largely due to the work of De Lange(1997),who developed four species(Cyclopia genistoides,Cyclopia intermedia E.Mey.,Cyclopia subternata Vogel and Cyclopia sessilifolia Eckl.&Zeyh.)into crop plants.
A detailed revision of the genus Cyclopia(Schutte,1997)has resolved the species concepts but no biosystematic studies have yet been undertaken.As is the case with Aspalathus linearis,the ?re-survival strategy(Schutte et al.,1995)and reproductive biol-ogy of these fynbos plants needs further study.Some species and populations are resprouters(they survive?re and sprout from the woody base)while others are reseeders—they are killed by?re and re-establish from seed.The seed physiology and seed germination of Cyclopia have been studied in detail(Sutcliffe and Whitehead, 1995;Whitehead and Sutcliffe,1995)and some of the principles are already applied in commercial propagation.The phenolic con-stituents of honeybush tea were?rst studied by De Nysschen et al. (1996),who identi?ed mangiferin and two?avonoids as the main compounds in practically all the species.Further work by Ferreira et al.(1998)described the total phenolic complexity in more detail, including the polyphenols in Cyclopia intermedia(Kamara et al., 2003).Metabolomics may be a useful approach to learn more about the relation between chemical compounds,?avour pro?les,pro-cessing methods and tea quality.
3.6.Harpagophytum procumbens(Burch.)DC.ex Meissn. (Pedaliaceae)-devil’s claw
Devils claw is an important traditional medicine and tonic of the indigenous people of the countries surrounding the Kala-hari region of southern Africa(Angola,Botswana,Namibia,South Africa and Zimbabwe)but there is a surprising lack of histori-cal records(Van Wyk et al.,1997;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000). Dried secondary roots of this widely distributed perennial are used,mainly against arthritis,painful joints,dyspepsia and loss of appetite(Newall et al.,1996;Blumenthal et al.,1998;Wichtl and Bisset,2000;ESCOP,2003).Clinical studies,reviewed by Wegener (2000),Chrubasik et al.(2003)and Gagnier et al.(2004)have con?rmed the mild analgesic and anti-in?ammatory properties, usually ascribed to the iridoid glycosides(mainly harpagoside,with smaller amounts of harpagide and procumbide).Commercial prod-uct contains between0.5%and3%harpagoside.Other compounds (such as phytosterols and sugars)may also play a role,as total extracts are more active than the individual iridoids(Fiebich et al., 2001;Kaszkin et al.,2004).A paper by Stewart and Cole(2005) gives details about all aspects of the product and its commercial harvesting.
The basic taxonomy of Harpagophytum is known(Ihlenfeldt and Hartmann,1970),but there is a need for biosystematic studies.The circumscription of some of the species and infraspeci?c taxa is not clear and the full morphological and chemical diversity remains to be explored.The taxa described by Ihlenfeldt and Hartmann (1970)include two species and?ve subspecies:Harpagophytum procumbens subsp.procumbens,Harpagophytum procumbens subsp. transvaalensis Ihlenf.&H.Hartm.,Harpagophytum zeyheri Decne. subsp.zeyheri,Harpagophytum zeyheri subsp.schijf?i Ihlenf.& H.Hartm.and Harpagophytum zeyheri subsp.sublobatum(Engl.) Ihlenf.&H.Hartm.Studies in our laboratory showed that harpago-side may be completely absent from some populations of H.zeyheri despite the fact that this species is regarded as an acceptable alter-native to Harpagophytum procumbens(Czygan and Krüger,1977). Chemical variation at population level should be studied over the entire distribution range of the various taxa.Several studies have focused on the sustainability of harvesting and propagation meth-ods but a deeper understanding of the autecology and reproductive biology of Harpagophytum species will be of considerable value as a source of basic information to guide ongoing crop development and propagation protocols.Recently there has been a considerable amount of tissue culture work done on Harpagophytum by the Plant Research Centre,University of KwaZulu-Natal in Pietermaritzburg, as well as crop development work by the University of Munster, Germany.
3.7.Hoodia gordonii(Masson)Sweet ex Decne
(Apocynaceae)-hoodia,ghaap
The use of Hoodia species to suppress hunger and thirst appears to be an ancient and widespread practise of the Khoi-San people that was?rst recorded by Marloth(1932).The appetite-suppressant effect is due to a patented pregnane compound known as P57(Van Heerden et al.,1998).Hoodia has become an interesting test case for the idea of?nancial compensation to rural communities for intellectual property rights(in this case,bene?t-sharing with Khoi-San communities).The USA-based company P?ser has announced that they are not proceeding with clinical trials to develop an anti-obesity drug but large-scale commercial developments are nevertheless underway.
The genus Hoodia has been taxonomically revised by Whyte and Sloane(1937)and more recently by Bruyns(1993),with contri-butions on the nomenclature published by Plowes(1992,1996). The species are beautifully illustrated and described in a recent book on the Stapelieae(Bruyns,2005).Hoodia species are known to have small and widely dispersed populations that make them vul-nerable to overexploitation.The distinct morphological differences between populations may also be re?ected in chemical patterns but no chemotaxonomic or biosystematic information has hitherto been published.A detailed review is published elsewhere in this volume.
3.8.Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch.&C.A.Mey.
(Hypoxidaceae)-inkomfe,“African potato”
The so-called African potato(a recent name created for com-mercial reasons)is a well-known Sotho and Zulu medicinal plant but surprisingly little traditional knowledge has been documented. Weak infusions and decoctions are taken as tonics against wast-ing diseases,including tuberculosis and cancer(Van Wyk and
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Gericke,2000).Hypoxis has been used traditionally for benign prostatic hypertrophy and urinary tract infections,and as a laxa-tive and vermifuge(Van Wyk et al.,1997).The traditional use for benign prostatic hypertrophy is ascribed to sitosterols(mainly?-sitosterol),which decrease testosterone levels through inhibition of5-?reductase,or by decreasing the binding of dihydrotestos-terone within the prostate(Bruneton,1999).The so-called“African potato”or inkomfe(Hypoxis hemerocallidea)has become a house-hold name(Drewes and Horn,1999)but extracts of the plant, including rooperol(Drewes et al.,1984)are no longer used for its patented(Drewes and Liebenberg,1983)application against can-cer.Likewise,the phytosterols used in immune-boosting products are no longer obtained from Hypoxis hemerocallidea(Pegel,1973, 1997)but the corms of the plant are nevertheless processed on a small scale for various traditional tonics.
Taxonomic studies of Hypoxis are underway(Singh,2003,cited in Germishuizen and Meyer,2003)but the morphological,chemi-cal and genetic diversity in Hypoxis hemerocallidea(formerly known as H.rooperi)remains unexplored.The plant is easy to grow but dif?cult to propagate,so that fundamental studies relating to the reproductive biology and seed physiology are obvious priorities.
A considerable amount of work has already been done on tis-sue culture and seed germination(Page and Van Staden,1984, 1986,1987;Hammerton and Van Staden,1988;Hammerton et al., 1989).
3.9.Lippia javanica(Burm.f.)Spreng.(Verbenaceae)-fever tea
Lippia javanica is widely used as a tea to treat fever,coughs,colds and bronchitis(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962;Smith,1966; Hutchings et al.,1996;Van Wyk et al.,1997;Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000).Other traditional uses that have been recorded include stom-ach problems,in?uenza,measles,malaria and headache(Hutchings and Van Staden,1994;Van Wyk et al.,1997;Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000).Strong infusions are also used topically to treat rashes, scabies and lice.Hot leaf infusions(sometimes with milk)are taken as a general health tea.A review of the traditional uses, chemistry and pharmacology was presented by Pascual et al. (2001).
This highly aromatic plant is rich in volatile oil that contains carvone,myrcene,myrcenone,caryophyllene,linalool,p-cymene, piperitenone,ipsenone and ipsdienone(e.g.Neidlein and Staehle, 1974;Mwangi et al.,1992;Chagonda et al.,2000;Manenzhe et al., 2004;Viljoen et al.,2005).The oil composition varies consider-ably within and between populations and?ve different chemotypes were identi?ed by Viljoen et al.(2005),with myrcenone,carvone, piperitenone,ipsenone or linalool,respectively as main com-pounds.The related Lippia scaberrima Sond.is also used in much the same way but the oil contains mainly carvone,1,8-cineole and limonene(Combrinck et al.,2006).Iridoid glycosides(Rimpler and Sauerbier,1986)and toxic triterpenoids(icterogenins)such as lan-tadene A and icterogenin have been detected in some Lippia species (Barton and De Mayo,1954).
The essential oil of Lippia javanica shows moderate antimi-crobial activity against respiratory pathogens(Manenzhe et al., 2004;Viljoen et al.,2005)and promising anti-in?ammatory activ-ity(Frum and Viljoen,2006).It may be interesting to study the possible role of non-volatile components,especially in terms of fever-reducing and possible pain-relieving activities.Animal poisoning and photosensitisation have been ascribed to the ictero-genins(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962;Van Wyk et al.,2002; Kellerman et al.,2005).The oil has moderate repellent activity against mosquitoes(Omolo et al.,2004).The paper by Viljoen et al. (2005)has highlighted the need for chemotaxonomic and biosys-tematic studies.3.10.Mesembryanthemum tortuosum L.[syn.Sceletium
tortuosum(L.)N.E.Br.](Mesembryanthemaceae)-sceletium, kougoed
Kougoed,kanna,channa or sceletium is a traditional sedative of the Khoi-San people of the dry western regions of South Africa. The uses and properties of the plant have been known ever since it was?rst documented by the Cape Governor,Simon van Stel,in 1685(Hartwich,1911;Zwicky,1914;Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;Watt,1967;De Wet and Pheiffer,1979;Forbes,1986;Smith et al.,1996a;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000;Van Wyk and Wink, 2004;Scott and Hewett,2008)but it is only recently that crop and product development have been initiated.The activity of the plant is ascribed to mesembrine and other alkaloids,which have been shown to act as serotonin reuptake inhibitors(Gericke and Van Wyk,1997).
The plant is a small,short-lived perennial succulent with?eshy leaves that become papery and sceletonised in the dry season, hence the scienti?c name Sceletium.A large number of doubtful species have been described but a detailed taxonomic revision is available(Gerbaulet,1996).At the generic level,the relationships and age of basal lineages within the family(and speci?cally the subfamily Mesembryanthemoideae)have been reported by Klak et al.(2004).A recent study has shown that the entire subfamily rep-resents a single genus(Klak et al.,2007)and all the existing genera were formally subsumed under the genus Mesembryanthemum.A survey of alkaloids in the family(Smith et al.,1996a;Gaffney,2006) showed that several genera and species produce alkaloids.The species of commercial interest is Mesembryanthemum tortuosum, a highly variable plant with a wide distribution range(Gerbaulet, 1996).It differs from the seven close relatives in having straight secondary veins,prominent idioblasts,incurved leaf tips and imbri-cate leaves(Gerbaulet,1996).Variation studies in our laboratory has shown that some populations of Mesembryanthemum tortu-osum are practically devoid of mesembrine-type alkaloids,while others have high yields of up to2.4%of dry weight.As with so many African plants,the full morphological,chemical and genetic diver-sity of the species remains unknown,despite commercial interests.
A more detailed review of Mesembryanthemum tortuosum can be found elsewhere in this volume.
3.11.Pelargonium sidoides DC.(Geraniaceae)-umckaloabo,rabas
Traditional knowledge about this commercially important plant is poorly recorded(Smith,1895;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000).The ethnobotanical and commercial history of the plant is reviewed by Brendler and Van Wyk(this volume).The tuberous roots are the raw material for an important German phytomedicine used mainly to treat acute bronchitis and infections of the upper respiratory tract (e.g.Matthys et al.,2003;Agbabiaka et al.,2008).Various biolog-ical activities have been reported,including immune stimulation (Kayser et al.,2001),NO-induction and antibiotic effects(Kayser and Kolodziej,1997;Kolodziej et al.,2003).Recent studies showed clinically signi?cant effects on nasal epithelial cells(Neugebauer et al.,2005)and activity against mycobacteria(Seidel and Taylor, 2004;Mativandlela et al.,2007).
The medicinal properties are ascribed to at least eight differ-ent coumarins,of which umckalin and5,6,7-methoxycoumarin are useful marker compounds(Kayser and Kolodziej,1994,1995,1997; Kolodziej and Kayser,1998;Kayser et al.,2001).Also present in the roots are gallic acids and methyl esters of gallic acids,as well as?avonoids(quercetin),?avan-3-ols(catechin,gallocatechin)and phytosterols(sitosterol-3-gluoside).
The plant is a small perennial herb with tuberous rhizomes, rounded to heart-shaped and slightly silky leaves on long peti-
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oles,and small tubular?owers that are dark maroon red to almost black(Van der Walt,1988;Dreyer and Marais,2000; Van Wyk and Wink,2004).The closely related Pelargonium reni-forme is morphologically very similar but has pink?owers(Van der Walt,1977;Dreyer and Marais,2000).Morphological distinc-tion of the dried product is extremely dif?cult,so that chemical analysis is the only reliable method.The major constituents in Pelargonium sidoides are umckalin and its7-O-methylether(=5,6,7-trimethoxycoumarin)but these compounds are characteristically low or absent in Pelargonium reniforme(Kolodziej and Kayser, 1998).Aspects of the micropropagation and morphological diver-sity of the species were reported by Lewu et al.(2006,2007).
A detailed study by White et al.(2008)has given valuable new insights into the effects of environmental stimuli on the level of umckalin in roots of wild and cultivated plants.No published infor-mation is as yet available on the basic biology,biosystematics and genetic diversity of Pelargonium sidoides and its relation with Pelargonium reniforme despite the commercial importance of these plants.
3.12.Siphonochilus aethiopicus(Schweinf.)B.L.Burtt (Zingiberaceae)-African ginger
African ginger is one of the most important and most pop-ular of all traditional medicinal plants of southern Africa(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962;Van Wyk et al.,1997;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000;Van Wyk and Wink,2004).The rhizomes and roots are used for a variety of ailments,including coughs,colds,asthma, headache,candida and malaria(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962; Van Wyk et al.,1997;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000;Crouch et al., 2000).
African ginger is a deciduous geophyte with large,hairless leaves,a cone-shaped rhizome and spectacular pink?owers.Most plants are bisexual,and they have much larger?owers than female plants.The small,berry-like fruits are borne below or above the ground(Kam,1980;Gordon-Gray et al.,1989;Smith,1998; Van Wyk et al.,1997;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000;Crouch et al.,2000;Van Wyk and Wink,2004).The plant is morphologi-cally uniform but genetically very polymorphic(Makhuvha et al., 1997).
No comprehensive taxonomic studies have yet been done on the genus Siphonochilus and related genera and available knowl-edge comes mainly from Flora treatments(Smith,1998).The exact distribution of the species in Africa remains poorly known and no comprehensive distribution maps have yet been published.The main commercial species,Siphonochilus aethiopicus,is relatively well known as a result of its popularity in traditional medicine and concerns about it conservation status.It is often quoted as being locally extinct in some parts of South Africa as a result of over-exploitation.However,the plant is exceptionally easy to propagate and cultivate,so that small-scale cultivation is already underway. Aspects of the reproductive biology were studied by Gordon-Gray et al.(1989)but much interesting work remains to be done.The major chemical constituents are sesquiterpenoids of the furanoid type(Van Wyk et al.,1997;Holzapfel et al.,2002)and chemical vari-ation studies are ongoing.The composition of the essential oil was described by Viljoen et al.(2002).It contains high concentrations (up to0.2%of dry weight)of a single compound loosely referred to as Siphonochilus sesquiterpenoid or siphonochilone(Van Wyk et al., 1997;Holzapfel et al.,2002;Viljoen et al.,2002).Extreme genetic diversity was observed in a natural population(Makhuvha et al., 1997),allowing for genetic?ngerprinting at the clonal level.Further work showed that most of the southern provenances represent a single clone(Makhuvha et al.,unpublished results)con?rming tra-ditional knowledge(C.Mutwa,personal communication to BEvW)that African ginger(isiphephetho in isiZulu)is an ancient Zulu crop plant of tropical African origin.
3.13.Sutherlandia frutescens(L.)R.Br.[syn.Lessertia frutescens (L.)Goldblatt&J.C.Manning](Fabaceae)-cancer bush,
sutherlandia
The traditional claim that cancer bush“can be used for almost any disease”is perhaps the reason why this plant has never in the past received the serious attention that it deserved.The wide diversity of historical uses has been documented by Smith(1895), Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk(1962)and in more detail by Van Wyk and Albrecht(this volume).The plant is widely used by many cul-tural groups for fever,poor appetite,unspeci?ed wasting diseases, indigestion,gastritis,oesophagitis,peptic ulcer,dysentery,cancer tonic(prevention and treatment),diabetes,colds,in?uenza,cough, asthma,chronic bronchitis,kidney and liver conditions,rheuma-tism,heart failure,urinary tract infections and stress and anxiety. Recent clinical anecdotes suggest dramatic improvements in the quality of life in HIV/AIDS patients,apparently by counter-acting the muscle-wasting(cachexia)effect of AIDS.A detailed safety study has been completed by the Medicine Research Council of South Africa,showing no signs of toxicity in more than50param-eters tested(Seier et al.,2002).Like-wise,a clinical(phase I)study (Johnson et al.,2007)found that800mg/day was well tolerated, with no indications of toxicity.
Chemical compounds isolated from the plant include pinitol, triterpenoid saponins(e.g.SU1),?avonoids and several free amino acids,including l-canavanine and GABA.Canavanine is a potent l-arginine antagonist and has documented anticancer(Swaffar, 1995;Crooks and Rosenthal,1994)and antiviral activity,includ-ing inhibition of the in?uenza virus and retroviruses(Green,1988). Canavanine is also an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase and has potential for the treatment of septic shock.Pinitol is a known anti-diabetic agent that may have an application in treating wast-ing in cancer and AIDS(Ostlund and Sherman,1996).Possible anti-diabetic uses have been reviewed by Sia(2004).GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that could partly account for the use of Sutherlandia for anxiety and stress(Moteetee and Van Wyk,2007).Recent studies have reported anti-cancer and anti-mutagenic effects(Tai et al.,2004;Reid et al.,2006;Stander et al.,2007),anti-HIV activity(Harnett et al.,2005)as well as stress-relieving properties(Prevoo et al.,2004;Smith and Myburgh, 2004).The complex mixtures of saponins and?avonoids are the subject of ongoing studies.
Sutherlandia represents an intricate species complex with countless regional forms,genotypes and chemotypes.The basic taxonomy of Phillips and Dyer(1934)was revised by Moshe (1998),who recognized only two species,with several subspecies. Goldblatt and Manning(2000)reduced the genus into synonymy under Lessertia,and made the new combination Lessertia frutescens (L.)Goldblatt&J.C.Manning.This may be correct,but there are as yet no convincing morphological or molecular systematic stud-ies to show that Sutherlandia is indeed nested within the genus Lessertia as the proposed new classi?cation system suggests.Both names(Sutherlandia frutescens and Lessertia frutescens)are there-fore widely used for the same plant.
Genetic diversity in Sutherlandia was explored using enzyme electrophoresis(Moshe et al.,1998).It was found that the dis-tinct morphological diversity(especially in fruit characters)is not re?ected in the enzyme patterns.However,the idea that some hairy forms of Sutherlandia frutescens resulted from introgression with Sutherlandia tomentosa Eckl.&Zeyh.was supported by the study.The complexity in terpenoid and?avonoid patterns was?rst reported by Moshe(1998)and further work is ongoing.
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3.1
4.Warburgia salutaris(Bertol.f.)Chiov.
(Canellaceae)-pepperbark tree
Knowledge about this traditional medicine is surprisingly poorly recorded considering its obvious importance and popularity.It is one of the great tonics and panaceas of southern Africa—the speci?c name salutaris means“salutory to health”.The bark is usually taken orally in a powdered form,or as infusions and decoctions.Warburgia is used as a tonic for all health condi-tions,including fever,malaria,colds,in?uenza,venereal diseases, abdominal pain,constipation,cancer,rheumatism,stomach ulcers, headache,as an expectorant in coughs,and as a natural antibi-otic to treat chest infections(Hutchings et al.,1996;Van Wyk and Gericke,2000).Tablets made from the leaves are used as a natu-ral antibiotic,thought to be effective against oral and oesophageal thrush.
The basic taxonomy of Warburgia species was revised by Verdcourt(1955,1990)and Codd(1976)but the relationships between the species and subspecies have remained poorly known. The described taxa are Warburgia elongata Verdc.,Warburgia salu-taris,Warburgia stuhlmannii Engl.,Warburgia ugandensis Sprague subsp.ugandensis and Warburgia ugandensis subsp.longifolia Verdc. There are no modern studies exploring the circumscription and status of these taxa,but work is underway at the University of KwaZulu-Natal to study the genetic variation in Warburgia.Prelim-inary results revealed genetic differences in support of the idea of three taxa.
The bark contains drimane sesquiterpenoids such as warbur-ganal and polygodial,both of which are known to be active against candida.Polygodial is potentially useful in clinical medicine as an adjuvant to treatment with antibiotics and antifungals that have poor membrane permeability(Iwu,1993).The compounds found in Warburgia salutaris(Mashimbye et al.,1999)include warbur-ganal,mukaadial,salutarisolide,polygodial and isopolygodial,as well as muzigadial(Rabe and Van Staden,2000).There are numer-ous phytochemistry reports based on single samples but possible differences between populations and species have hardly received any attention.Kioy et al.(1990)found no consistent differences in the sesquiterpenes and leaf volatile oils between Warburgia ugan-densis and Warburgia stuhlmannii.A thorough biosystematic study of the genus Warburgia over its entire distribution range in Africa would clearly yield useful results.
3.15.Xysmalobium undulatum(L.)W.T.Aiton
(Apocynaceae)-uzara
This important medicinal plant has a long history of traditional and commercial use,not only in South Africa(where it has been cul-tivated since1904),but also in Germany,where it was introduced into the pharmaceutical market in1911(Ghorbani et al.,1997). The traditional uses have been recorded by Thunberg(Forbes, 1986),Watt(1935),Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk(1962),Pujol(1990), Hutchings and Van Staden(1994),Hutchings et al.(1996),Van Wyk et al.(1997)and Von Koenen(2001).Decoctions of the bitter roots have been used since early times for stomach cramps,diarrhoea, colic and afterbirth cramps,while powdered root is sniffed to treat headache and hysteria or applied to wounds and abscesses.In Ger-many,extracts are used commercially against non-speci?c,acute diarrhoea.
The active ingredients are cardenolide glycosides,the struc-tures of which were?nally elucidated by Ghorbani et al.(1997). Uzarin and xysmalorin are the major compounds,with smaller amounts of allouzarin and alloxysmalorin.These glycosides are known for their inhibitory effect on intestinal motility and their digitalis-like effects on the heart at high doses(e.g.Wichtl and Bisset,2000).Recent investigations focused on antibacterial and antifungal activity(Buwa and Van Staden,2006),possi-ble CNS-activity(Stafford et al.,2005),antibacterial,antioxidant and?broblast growth stimulation activities(Steenkamp et al., 2004),serotonin reuptake inhibition(Nielsen et al.,2004)and antiplasmodial activity(Clarkson et al.,2004).The extent of vari-ation in the main cardiac glycosides is not yet known.A paper dealing with Xysmalobium undulatum is included in this vol-ume.
4.Discussion
The commercialization of southern African medicinal plants is a process that has been rapidly gaining momentum during the last 10years.Before1995,only nine of the15plants reviewed here have been developed to any extent.These are Agathosma betulina, Aloe ferox,Aspalathus linearis,Cyclopia species,Harpagophytum procumbens,Hypoxis hemerocallidea,Lippia javanica,Pelargonium sidoides and Xysmalobium undulatum).The remaining six(Artemisia afra,Hoodia gordonii,Mesembryanthemum tortuosum,Siphonochilus aethiopicus,Sutherlandia frutescens and Warburgia salutaris)are newcomers to the formal pharmaceutical market.The recent com-mercial interests in these species have also sparked a rapid increase in scienti?c research.Twelve years ago,there were hardly any sci-enti?c papers on the pharmaceutical activity of these plants,as is shown in Table2.
The need for fundamental studies,and speci?cally the biosys-tematics of commercially relevant species,was discussed by Van Wyk(1996)who proposed that“biosystematics can play an impor-tant role to ensure that we grasp the commercial opportunities provided by our genetically diverse?ora”.These sentiments were echoed by Smith et al.(1996b),who provided a list of activities of the Plant Systematics Stimulation Programme(later the Working Group for Plant Systematics)to promote systematics research and concluded that“With its unsurpassed botanical diversity,southern Africa holds natural resources of global signi?cance”.The devel-opment of medicinal plants species into new products and new crops is a complicated process that requires a multidisciplinary approach,involving biosystematics,ethnobotany,organic chem-istry,pharmacology and horticulture.There is a need for taxonomic and systematic studies of the plants and their relatives in order to better understand the full genetic and metabolic diversity at pop-ulation and clonal levels,ethnobotanical studies to document and explore the socio-cultural context of the medicinal plants,chemi-cal studies to identify the active chemical compounds or marker compounds,pharmacological studies to determine the mode of action,horticultural or autecological studies to?nd out if the plants are suitable for large-scale production or sustainable harvesting and?nally,studies of the reproductive biology of the plants to develop propagation protocols and to guide crop development. The starting point for new innovations in the future will be fun-damental biological knowledge about the species,including their phylogeny,taxonomy,genetics,chemical variation and reproduc-tive biology.
Acknowledgements
This review is based on a lecture presented at a symposium on African plants during the2005Annual Meeting of the Botanical Society of Japan in Toyama,organized by Prof Toshiya Muranaka (RIKEN Plant Science Center and Yokohama City University).Fund-ing by the National Research Foundation of South Africa and the University of Johannesburg for ethnobotanical and chemosys-tematic studies of South African medicinal plants is gratefully acknowledged.
352 B.-E.van Wyk/Journal of Ethnopharmacology119(2008)342–355
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尊重的素材
尊重的素材（为人处世） 思路 人与人之间只有互相尊重才能友好相处 要让别人尊重自己，首先自己得尊重自己 尊重能减少人与人之间的摩擦 尊重需要理解和宽容 尊重也应坚持原则 尊重能促进社会成员之间的沟通 尊重别人的劳动成果 尊重能巩固友谊 尊重会使合作更愉快 和谐的社会需要彼此间的尊重 名言 施与人，但不要使对方有受施的感觉。帮助人，但给予对方最高的尊重。这是助人的艺术，也是仁爱的情操。—刘墉 卑己而尊人是不好的，尊己而卑人也是不好的。———徐特立 知道他自己尊严的人，他就完全不能尊重别人的尊严。———席勒 真正伟大的人是不压制人也不受人压制的。———纪伯伦 草木是靠着上天的雨露滋长的，但是它们也敢仰望穹苍。———莎士比亚 尊重别人，才能让人尊敬。———笛卡尔 谁自尊，谁就会得到尊重。———巴尔扎克 人应尊敬他自己，并应自视能配得上最高尚的东西。———黑格尔 对人不尊敬，首先就是对自己的不尊敬。———惠特曼
每当人们不尊重我们时，我们总被深深激怒。然而在内心深处，没有一个人十分尊重自己。———马克·吐温 忍辱偷生的人，绝不会受人尊重。———高乃依 敬人者，人恒敬之。———《孟子》 人必自敬，然后人敬之；人必自侮，然后人侮之。———扬雄 不知自爱反是自害。———郑善夫 仁者必敬人。———《荀子》 君子贵人而贱己，先人而后己。———《礼记》 尊严是人类灵魂中不可糟蹋的东西。———古斯曼 对一个人的尊重要达到他所希望的程度，那是困难的。———沃夫格纳 经典素材 1元和200元 （尊重劳动成果） 香港大富豪李嘉诚在下车时不慎将一元钱掉入车下，随即屈身去拾，旁边一服务生看到了，上前帮他拾起了一元钱。李嘉诚收起一元钱后，给了服务生200元酬金。 这里面其实包含了钱以外的价值观念。李嘉诚虽然巨富，但生活俭朴，从不挥霍浪费。他深知亿万资产，都是一元一元挣来的。钱币在他眼中已抽象为一种劳动，而劳动已成为他最重要的生存方式，他的所有财富，都是靠每天20小时以上的劳动堆积起来的。200元酬金，实际上是对劳动的尊重和报答，是不能用金钱衡量的。 富兰克林借书解怨 （尊重别人赢得朋友）
那一刻我感受到了幸福_初中作文
那一刻我感受到了幸福 本文是关于初中作文的那一刻我感受到了幸福，感谢您的阅读！ 每个人民的心中都有一粒幸福的种子，当它拥有了雨水的滋润和阳光的沐浴，它就会绽放出最美丽的姿态。那一刻，我们都能够闻到幸福的芬芳，我们都能够感受到幸福的存在。 在寒假期间，我偶然在授索电视频道，发现(百家讲坛)栏目中大学教授正在解密幸福，顿然引起我的好奇心，我放下了手中的遥控器，静静地坐在电视前，注视着频道上的每一个字，甚至用笔急速记在了笔记本上。我还记得，那位大学教授讲到了一个故事：一位母亲被公司升职到外国工作，这位母亲虽然十分高兴，但却又十分无奈，因为她的儿子马上要面临中考了，她不能撇下儿子迎接中考的挑战，于是她决定拒绝这了份高薪的工作，当有人问她为什么放弃这么好的机会时，她却毫无遗憾地说，纵然我能给予儿子最贵的礼物，优异的生活环境，但我却无当给予他关键时刻的那份呵护与关爱，或许以后的一切会证明我的选择是正确的。听完这样一段故事，我心中有种说不出的感觉，刹那间，我仿拂感觉那身边正在包饺子的妈妈，屋里正在睡觉的爸爸，桌前正在看小说的妹妹给我带来了一种温馨，幸福感觉。正如教授所说的那种解密幸福。就要选择一个明确的目标，确定自已追求的是什么，或许那时我还不能完全诠释幸福。 当幸福悄悄向我走来时，我已慢慢明白，懂得珍惜了。 那一天的那一刻对我来说太重要了，原本以为出差在外的父母早已忘了我的生日，只有妹妹整日算着日子。我在耳边唠叨个不停，没想到当日我失落地回到家中时，以为心中并不在乎生日，可是眼前的一切，让我心中涌现的喜悦，脸上露出的微笑证明我是在乎的。
爸爸唱的英文生日快乐歌虽然不是很动听，但爸爸对我的那份爱我听得很清楚，妈妈为我做的长寿面，我细细的品尝，吃出了爱的味道。妹妹急忙让我许下三个愿望，嘴里不停的唠叨：我知道你的三个愿望是什么?我问：为什么呀!我们是一家人，心连心呀!她高兴的说。 那一刻我才真正解开幸福的密码，感受到了真正的幸福，以前我无法理解幸福，即使身边有够多的幸福也不懂得欣赏，不懂得珍惜，只想拥有更好更贵的，其实幸福比物质更珍贵。 那一刻的幸福就是爱的升华，许多时候能让我们感悟幸福不是名利，物质。而是在血管里涌动着的，漫过心底的爱。 也许每一个人生的那一刻，就是我们幸运的降临在一个温馨的家庭中，而不是降临在孤独的角落里。 家的感觉就是幸福的感觉，幸福一直都存在于我们的身边!
关于我的幸福作文八篇汇总
关于我的幸福作文八篇汇总 幸福在每个人的心中都不一样。在饥饿者的心中，幸福就是一碗香喷喷的米饭；在果农的心中，幸福就是望着果实慢慢成熟；在旅行者的心中，幸福就是游遍世界上的好山好水。而在我的心中，幸福就是每天快快乐乐，无忧无虑；幸福就是朋友之间互相帮助，互相关心；幸福就是在我生病时，母亲彻夜细心的照顾我。 幸福在世间上的每个角落都可以发现，只是需要你用心去感受而已。 记得有一次，我早上出门走得太匆忙了，忘记带昨天晚上准备好的钢笔。老师说了：“今天有写字课，必须要用钢笔写字，不能用水笔。”我只好到学校向同学借了。当我来到学校向我同桌借时，他却说：“我已经借别人了，你向别人借吧！”我又向后面的同学借，可他们总是找各种借口说：“我只带了一枝。”问了三四个人，都没有借到，而且还碰了一鼻子灰。正当我急的像热锅上的蚂蚁团团转时，她递给了我一枝钢笔，微笑的对我说：“拿去用吧！”我顿时感到自己是多么幸福！在我最困难的时候，当别人都不愿意帮助我的时候，她向我伸出了援手。 幸福也是无时无刻都在身旁。 当我生病的时候，高烧持续不退时，是妈妈在旁边细心
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重，这就是尊重的力量! 尊重，是—种修养，一种品格，一种对别人不卑不亢的平等相待，一种对他人人格与价值的的充分肯定。任何人都不可能尽善尽美，完美无缺，我们没有理由以高山仰止的目光审视别人，也没有资格用不屑一顾的神情去嘲笑他人。假如别人在某些方面不如自己，我们不能用傲慢和不敬去伤害别人的自尊;假如自己在有些地方不如他人，我们不必以自卑或嫉妒去代替理应有的尊重。一个真正懂得尊重别人的人，必然会以平等的心态、平常的心情、平静的心境，去面对所有事业上的强者与弱者、所有生活中的幸运者与不幸者。 尊重是一缕春风，一泓清泉，一颗给人温暖的舒心丸，一剂催人奋进的强心剂。它常常与真诚、谦逊、宽容、赞赏、善良、友爱相得益彰，与虚伪、狂妄、苛刻、嘲讽、凶恶、势利水火不容。给成功的人以尊重，表明了自己对别人成功的敬佩、赞美与追求;表明了自己对别人失败后的同情、安慰与鼓励。只有要尊重在，就有人间的真情在，就有未来的希望在，就有成功后的继续奋进，就有失败后的东山再起。 尊重不是盲目的崇拜，更不是肉麻的吹捧;不是没有原则的廉价逢迎，更不是没有自卑的低三下四。懂得了尊重别人的重要，并不等于学会了如何尊重别人，从这个意义上说，尊重他人也是一门学问，学会了尊重他人，就学会了尊重自己，也就学会和掌握了人生的一大要义。 2 / 7
感受幸福作文600字叙事 感受幸福作文600字初二
感受幸福作文600字叙事感受幸福作文600字初二 对于我们来说，什么是幸福？幸福就是一家人整整齐齐的坐在一起吃一顿饭，幸福就是自己在乎的人没病没痛，健健康康的.....今天小编和同学们分享几篇关于感受幸福的作文，希望帮到有需要的同学们。感受幸福作文600字【1】有人说，幸福是一种感觉，幸福是一种心境，幸福是一种体验，幸福，更是一种品格。忧伤时，贴心好友的一个拥抱是幸福；思乡时，电话那头响起的家人声音是幸福；听着音乐，啜着咖啡，悠然自在地写点感想是幸福……那么，朋友，你感受到了幸福了吗？幸福，有些人看来很渺远，有些人看来却近在咫尺。其实，世界并不缺少幸福，而是缺少发现幸福的眼睛。“猫吃鱼，狗吃肉，奥特曼打小怪兽”各求所需，心满意足，这，就是所谓的“幸福”。年轻的父母在逗弄牙牙学语的孩童；亲密爱人在携手漫步；父母端上热腾腾的饭菜；孩子熟睡后嘴角的微笑……这点点滴滴不都是幸福的剪影吗？幸福无处不在……有一次，妈妈烧了红烧鱼，刚要端上桌，我贪婪的目光就随着鱼的移动而移动。妈妈忙把好吃的鱼肚子夹给我，说：“来，吃吧！”“咦？你不是最爱吃这个吗？”我反问道。“现在不爱吃了，你吃吧！”妈妈说道。我拗不过妈妈，只好吃了。刹时间，幸福的感觉洋溢全身。只有在菜里放入了爱，才能让人感受到幸福。平凡的红烧鱼，不平凡的味道，不平凡的爱……幸福，往往是一个瞬间，只有有爱的人，才能发现幸福，感受幸福。朋友，感受你身边的幸福吧！幸福，无处不在……感受幸福作文600字【2】 人生若是一夜星空，幸福便是那耀眼的星星，琳琅满目。当你仔细观察时，你会发现，每一颗都独一无二。——题记 抬头仰望星空，看着那琳琅满目的星星，每一颗都独一无二。当我的眼神扫到最亮的那一颗时，我的思绪立马随着那颗星星穿越到过去。“神经病啊你，我都说过几百遍几千吧几万遍了，我的东西你别碰，你为什么就是讲不通听？好了，现在玻璃球打碎了，可以了吧？你舒服了吧？”扯着嗓子喊的是一个七岁的小女孩，她的对面站着一个五六岁的小女孩，那小女孩有着圆圆的脑袋，一头乌黑发亮的头发下有一双水灵灵的大眼睛，高挺的鼻梁下一张樱桃小嘴，模样甚是可爱。只是那眼眶湿润着，泪水如断了线的珍珠，不断地往外涌。她的小嘴蠕动了好几次，却始终没有说话，小女孩颤颤巍巍地向前走去，用颤抖的小手慢慢地拾起地下的玻璃碎片，转身离开。第二天清晨，当那个七岁的小女孩睁开眼时，就看到桌上有一个玻璃球和小纸条。纸条上写着歪歪扭扭的小字：姐姐对不起，我不是故意的，我只是觉得玻璃球很漂亮。现在我又帮你重新买了一个一模一样的玻璃球，希望姐姐不要生气了。童年的易满足心，那个小女孩果真没有生气了，她和那个小妹妹和好如初了。但偶然的一天，她却发现，玻璃球不是小妹妹打破的……原来是邻居的两岁小弟弟，看到那个玻璃球很漂亮，在伸手拿它时，因为太滑，玻璃球滚了下来……于是，她拿着自己最爱的零食和棒棒糖去和小妹妹道歉。没想到妹妹却如小大人一般说：“都过去了，你依旧是我的好姐姐，我永远是你的调皮妹妹……”回想到这里，我的眼眶早已红润。那个七岁的小女孩不就是我吗？那个小妹妹不就是自己的妹妹吗？顿时明白了妹妹的用意，顿时发现：幸福就像空气，无时无刻萦绕在我们身边，只是我们未曾发觉罢了。现在的我发觉了，也感受到了。人生若是一夜星空，幸福便是那耀眼的星星，琳琅满目。当你仔细观察时，你会发现，每一颗都独一无二。感受幸福作文600字【3】 什么是幸福？幸福是空气，它普遍的你随处都可以感受到它的存在；幸福是小鸟，它调皮的你怎么也抓不住它；幸福又是一杯水，平平淡淡才是真。幸福无时没有，幸福无处不在。儿时，你的幸福就是当你跌倒失声痛苦时，母亲抱起你，拍打着你背时的那句“别哭。”；成年时，你的幸福就是在你结婚时你身旁的那位拉起你的手问你的那句“你愿意吗？”；老年时，你的幸福就是在椅子背后孙子的那句“奶奶我帮你敲背！”。家庭中，幸福是一家子的和乐融融；学校里，幸福是同学间的互相竞争；赛场上，幸福是队友间的默契配合。然而，幸福不全然是唾手可得的，想不付出任何代价而得到幸福，那是神话。张x新说；“苦换来的是知识真理，坚持真理，就应自觉的欣然接受痛苦，那时，也只有那时，痛苦才将化为幸福。”
感悟幸福作文(精选10篇)
感悟幸福作文（精选10篇） 在日常生活或是工作学习中，大家都经常接触到作文吧，作文是由文字组成，经过人的思想考虑，通过语言组织来表达一个主题意义的文体。那么，怎么去写作文呢？以下是小编收集整理的感悟幸福作文（精选10篇），仅供参考，希望能够帮助到大家。 感悟幸福作文1 幸福是“临行密密缝，意恐迟迟归”的牵挂；幸福是“夜来风雨声，花落知多少”的恬谈；幸福是“先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐”的胸怀。 记得那是一个宁静的夜晚，家家户户家家户户都关了灯，可我家的灯却依旧工作着，因为我的作业还没有写完，懊恼的我使劲的捶打着桌子。妈妈听到了响声走了进来，亲切的说到：“怎么了乖女儿？”“都六点半了，我的作业还没有写完，我怎么不着急”，我气急败坏的回答。妈妈看到我无助的状态安慰到“孩子不要着急，妈妈会在这一直陪着你，直到你写完作业……”此刻我忽然感觉到，其实有母亲的陪伴就是我最大的幸福！ 还有一次，我和同学们一起在小区的花园里玩，正当我们玩游戏玩的不亦乐乎的时候，我被重重的摔了一跤，腿被摔破了。当时情不自禁的哭了起来，同学们听到我的哭声纷纷赶来，大家纷纷帮忙把我搀扶回家里。那时我又深深的感觉到，来自朋友的关心其实也是一种幸福。 记得那是一个风雨交加的下午，由于我的粗心来学的时候忘记了带雨伞。放学后我只能站在教室的窗口默默的看着外面的漂泊大雨……忽然，一个高大而熟悉的身影出现在我的眼前，忽然感觉双眼酸涩：“爸爸……”我一下子扑倒了爸爸的怀里，父亲的爱是无言的，这也正是我幸福的源泉！ 幸福就是有母亲的陪伴，朋友的关怀，父亲的关爱！每个人都向往幸福追求幸福，其实幸福就是一种感觉，是一种心态，它源于你对事与物的的追求与理解！ 感悟幸福作文2 著名作家海伦凯勒曾说过：“我一直在哭，一直在哭，哭我没有鞋穿，直到有一天，我知道有人没有脚…我由此知道了幸福的真正内涵。”幸福是什么？ 许多年前，当人们提出这个问题时，个个都两目相对，哑口无言。是啊，幸福是什么？幸福是那禾苗晃动稚嫩的身躯，昂首向天际发出的无声的诉说吗？幸福是蚕宝宝咀嚼着香脆的桑叶奏出的“沙沙沙沙”的乐曲吗？幸福是雏燕展翼穿过鹅黄的柳梢剪出的一片春色朝向母亲的回眸吗？幸福是梅花“已是
高考作文素材关于文明的作文素材
2015年高考作文素材：关于文明的作文素材 高考作文素材点拨及运用思路：文明 一、素材链接: 言语类 (一)名人名言 1.礼仪的目的与作用本在使得本来的顽梗变柔顺，使人们的气质变温和，使他尊重别人，和别人合得来。约翰?洛克 2.善气迎人，亲如弟兄;恶气迎人，害于戈兵。管仲 3.天下有大勇者，猝然临之而不惊，不故加之而不怒。苏轼 4.我们应该注意自己不用言语去伤害别的同志，但是，当别人用语言来伤害自己的时候，也应该受得起。刘少奇 5.礼貌使人类共处的金钥匙。松苏内吉 6.讲话气势汹汹，未必就是言之有理。萨迪 7.火气甚大，容易引起愤怒底烦扰，是一种恶习而使心灵向着那不正当的事情，那是一时冲动而没有理性的行动。彼得.阿柏拉德 8.青年人应当不伤人，应当把个人所得的给予各人，应当避免虚伪与欺骗，应当显得恳挚悦人，这样学着去行正直。夸美纽斯 9.礼貌是儿童与青年所应该特别小心地养成习惯的第一件大事。约翰.洛克 10.不论你是一个男子还是一个女人，待人温和宽大才配得上人的名称。一个人的真 11.正的英勇果断，决不等于用拳头制止别人发言。萨迪 12.礼貌使有礼貌的人喜悦，也使那些授人以礼貌相待的人们喜悦。孟德斯鸠 13.坏事情一学就会，早年沾染的恶习，从此以后就会在所有的行为和举动中显现出来，不论是说话或行动上的毛病，三岁至老，六十不改。克雷洛夫 14.礼貌经常可以替代最高贵的感情。梅里美 15.礼貌是最容易做到的事，也是最珍贵的东西。冈察尔 16.脾气暴躁是人类较为卑劣的天性之一，人要是发脾气就等于在人类进步的阶梯上倒退了一步。达尔文 17.蜜蜂从花中啜蜜，离开时营营的道谢。浮夸的蝴蝶却相信花是应该向他道谢的。泰戈尔
感受幸福作文650字
感受幸福作文650字 第1篇感受幸福作文650字 什么是幸福？幸福是各种各样的，不同的人对幸福的感受也各不相同。假如我们不会说话，那就不能表达自己内心的想法，不能向朋友倾诉自己的喜悦与烦恼，那是一种不幸，反之就是一种幸福。假如我们听不见，就不能感受到一切美妙的声音，如叮叮咚咚的琴声，哗哗的流水声，以及父母、老师、同学的说话声，那也是一种不幸，反之也是一种幸福。假如我们看不见，就不能欣赏到这个大千世界形形色色的样子，看不见斑斓的色彩，更看不见那美丽的太阳和月亮……这也是一种不幸，反之，，也是一种幸福。父母爱着我，就是一种幸福，别人帮助我，是一种幸福，能吃到美味的食物，也是一种幸福，快乐地生活着，更是一种幸福。被人信任是一种莫大的幸福。我平时有个坏习惯，不喜欢洗脸，一般都要妈妈督促着才勉强去洗。可有一次，妈妈回家比较晚。她到家时，我们都已经在吃晚饭了，正吃得津津有味时，妈妈回来了，她的第一句话就是“你今天有没有洗过脸？”，我赶紧回答：“我洗过了”。妈妈半信半疑：“你到底洗过没有？”，并盯着我，脸上的表情十分严肃。她这样做，其实是测试我有没有说谎。于是我更加坚定并大声地说：“我真的洗过了！”这次，她不再问了，并且笑了，我知道她相信了我的话，这时，我真的感受到了一种从未有过的幸福！其实，幸福还有很多很多，如爷爷奶奶的宠爱，父母亲的关怀，亲戚朋友们的赞美，老师们的期盼，同学们的友爱…。.都值得我们去好好珍惜，让我们常怀一颗感恩的心，时刻感受生活中的幸福吧！ 第2篇感受幸福作文650字 欧文曾说过,“人类的一切努力的目的在于获得幸福。幸福是什么？幸福是一种感觉，感动就是一种幸福。幸福就像作家毕淑敏说的：世上有预报台风的，有预报蝗虫的，有预报瘟疫的，有预报地震的，但没有人预报幸福，其实幸福和世界万物一样，有它的征兆。清晨，旭日东升，温柔的阳光洒向人间，抚摸着我的脸，心，感觉暖暖的。这，就是幸福的征兆。当我们在写作业时，一边写，一边贪婪地记下知识的结晶。这时，笔尖沙沙的响声，就是幸福的征兆。走在小河边，两岸的杨柳随风摆动，鱼儿和鹅卵石正在编制着充满活力的动态画面。这时，小河潺潺的流水声就是幸福的征兆。幸福的感觉是美好的，幸福的味道是甜美的。只不过它比玫瑰更芬芳，比棒棒糖更甜蜜，比巧克力更浓郁，比咖啡更香醇......幸福是什么？“幸福是贫困中相濡以沫的一块糕饼,患难中心心相印的一个眼神,父亲一次粗糙的抚摸,女友一个温馨的字条......这像一粒粒缀在旧绸子上的红宝石,在凄凉中愈发熠熠生辉。”幸福在哪里？当我们与家人一起散步时，幸福就在那温馨的眼神里；当我们和朋友们一起玩耍时，幸福就在那灿烂的笑容里；当我们与同学在一起探讨难题时，幸福就在那激烈的争辩里；当我们想象着自己的未来时，幸福就在那美好的憧憬里。幸福有时不一定是甜的，快乐有时也不一定就是幸福。快乐只是表面的开心，而幸福是发自内心的快乐和欣慰。因此，只要你是幸福的，那你一定是快乐的。让我们一起追求幸福吧！在生活中快乐成长，在成长中感受幸福。 第3篇感受幸福作文650字 幸福是什么？幸福对于每个人，都是不一样的！其实幸福可以很小，很简单，它时刻陪伴在我们的身边，也许是因为人们平时没有去在意，身边的那些本可以让人暖心的普通点滴，只要我们好好的去感受幸福！ 幸福就好比如这样：天悄悄拉下夜幕，同学们渐渐散了，不知什么时候，课室里只剩下我和她，她的画，也终于画好了。而我还是差一些才能搞定，她便开始收拾起来，时间更加紧迫，因此，我的心更加紧张，一滴晶莹的汗滴在了画纸上，我觉得实在画不下去了：小姨妈（外号），你觉得我的画还有有救吗！她凑过脑袋：来，我看看，当然有啦，快画吧！我看她望了望校门口，她一定是在找寻来接她回家的爸爸，我看看空空的课室：小姨妈，很晚
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