语言学学名词解释

1)Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific or systematic study of (human) language.

a.The word language preceded by zero article in English implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English , Chinese , French and Japane se, but languages in general.

b.The word study does not mean “learn” but “investigate”.

c.The word scientific refers to the way in which

language is studied.

It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules,systems and principles of human languages. It deals with a wide range of linguistic phenomena,analyzes them,and makes general statements about them.

2)Linguistics is always guided by the 3 canons of science:(e c e)

exhaustiveness: it strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant materials;

consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement

economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex. (e c e)

3) The subject matter of linguistics is all natural language, living or dead.

4) Linguistics has 2 main purposes:

it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theory established.

It examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life linguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in 3 basic ways:

Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness. Linguists are interested in what is said. So they are often said to be descriptive.

Linguists regard the spoken language as primary. It is believed that speech came into being first for any human language and the writing system came along much later.

Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its ow n merits.

For a student of language, some knowledge of linguistics is of both interest and importance.

For a teacher of foreign languages, he will definitely a great deal from the knowledge of linguistics.

For a researcher, there is even more scope for displaying his abilities.

Why study linguistics ?

1.Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, and focus on

developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be applied to many fields.

2.It is an interdisciplinary subject.

3.Linguistics is a science that is still in its infancy but undergoing rapid development, and it

is “a pilot science”.

What and how linguists study language?

1.nature of language (focus on language itself)

2.nature of acquisition (focus on learners)

3.nature of teaching (focus on teachers)

The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows:

.First, certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;

.Next, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are tested by further observations;

.And finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.

General linguistics: The study of language as a whole. It deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.

Microlinguistics（微观语言学）includes 6 branches, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. It studies language itself.

Macrolinguistics （宏观语言学）studies language in use--- practical usage. macrolinguistics includes:

Sociolinguistics studies the relations between language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language. Another name for sociolinguistics is the sociology of language. Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension and production of language.Neurolinguistics or neurological linguistics is the study of language processing and language representation in the brain.

Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language, including literary texts, but it also investigates spoken language sometimes.

Discourse analysis, or text linguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used.

Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer.

Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.

Apart from the different branches of linguistics, there are some distinctions of linguistics, such as: functional linguistics vs formal linguistics; theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics.

Applied linguistics is primarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.

Phonetics（语音学）:Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.

It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. It is a pure science and examines speech sounds in general.

Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds.

Phonology（音系学/音位学）: The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. It can be seen as the functional phonetics of a particular language. Morphology（形态学，词法学）: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.

Morphology is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes.

Syntax（句法学）:The study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences.

Syntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction.

Semantics(语义学）is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in abstraction.

Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when they communicate with one another.

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

This definition is widely accepted because it includes some of the important characteristics of human language.

Language as system---The key word in the definition is "system". Language is systematic. Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently. Each language system contains two subsystems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.

Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles.

Language as arbitrary ---There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain language.

The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional.

The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary.

A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.

A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.

Romeo and Juliet

The relation between sound and meaning is almost always conventional

《荀子·正名》：“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。名无固实,约之以命实，约定俗成，谓之实名。名有固善，径易而不拂，谓之善名。”

《道德经》第一章

道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。

无名天地之始；有名万物之母。

Language as vocal ---By "vocal" we mean that the primary medium of all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing system might be.

Language as symbol---Language is just symbol for the thing it refers. Language is a symbolic system.

Language as human---Language is human-specific, it is very different from animal communication systems. No system of animal communication makes use of the design features of human language .

Language as communication ---Language is used for human communication. It allows people to say things to each other and express their communicative needs.

Design feature refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it form any animal system of communication.

Arbitrariness: there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the

meaning it is associated with.

Productivity or creativity: man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.

Duality or double articulation: this organization of language into two levels--a level of sounds, a level of meaning.

Displacement: Displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.

Cultural transmission Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.A human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire language. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into.

Interchangeability or reciprocity : man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.

Specialization: man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached manner.

Language functions as a principal means of communication.

It also functions as social control.

It is not only a psychological phenomenon, but also a social fact

The primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands,feelings and emotions. Language is a tool of communication.

“Communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. Here are some of the major categories:

The functions of language :

Phatic function/communion（寒暄功能）: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer. Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather serve this function.

Directive (指令) function : Language serves a directive function when it is used to get the hearer do something.

Most imperative sentences have this function. "Get out!" "Close the window, please.", "Walk slowly" are a few examples.

Informative(信息) function : Language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts or to reason things out. Informative function is met through declarative sentences. Such informative statements are either true or false. Interrogative(疑问)function:Language severs an informative function when it is used to get information from others. All questions that expect answers have this function, such as: "When will the meeting begin?"

Expressive(表达)function : Language serves an expressive function when it is used to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

Ejaculations like: "Good heavens!"

*to release inner feelings

Evocative(情感)function:The evocative function is the use of language to arouse certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please.

Performative (施为) function: Language is used to do things or to perform acts.

Manner of articulation refer to the manner in which obstruction is created,and the place of

articulation refers to the place where obstruction is created.

Classification of English consonants:stops(爆破音)，fricatives(擦音),affricates(塞擦音) Liquids（流音），nasals(鼻音)，glides（滑音），bilabial(双唇音)，labiodental(唇齿音) Dental（齿音），alveolar(齿龈音)，palatal(上颚音)，velar（软腭音），glottal(喉音) Monophthongs can be classified according to：

The Highest Part of the Tongue （舌高）

The Opening of the Mouth （口腔张开度）

The Shape of the Lips （唇形）

The Length of the Vowel （元音音长）

Most modern linguistics is descriptive. It attempts to describe what people actually say.

As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive.

Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while

prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language

When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics.

synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while

diachronic or historical linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than 2 states of language over decades or centuries.

To study language diachronically relies on the synchronic study of language.

Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics are correlated in the valid study of language. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary.

It is believed that speech came into being first for any human language and the writing system came along much later.

Language is primarily vocal.

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.

Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.

Langue is the social, conventional side of language.

Parole is individualized speech.

Langue is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, writing and reading.

Parole is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or writing.

Langue is relatively stable and systematic.

Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.

Langue is the code.

Parole is the message

Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations.

Performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is ,the actual use of this knowledge. Phonetics (语音学)

What’s Phonetics?

The scientific study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The task of phonetics is to identify what are speech sounds in a language,and then to study their characteristics.

The three main branches of phonetics

i)articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）

(ii)auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）

(iii)acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）

The phonic medium of language consists of individual speech sounds that are meaningful in human communication.

Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. It can be seen as the functional phonetics of a particular language.

Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.

But while both are related to the study of sounds,they differ in approach and focus.

Phonetics is of a general nature ;it is concerned with all the speech sounds used in all human languages:how they are produced,how they differ from each other,what phonetic features they possess,how they can be classified,etc.

Phone音素: the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.

A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.

Not all phones distinguish meaning.

Phoneme(音位): the phonological unit of language

Phoneme(音位) is an abstract unit that is of distinctive value.

Phoneme(音位) is not a sound that is pronounced,but a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

It is a basic unit in phonology.

When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature( a phonemic feature).

In addition to voicing(浊音化),

place of articulation(发音部位) and

manner of articulation(发音方式) are also the principal distinctive features of consonants. Minimal pairs are 2 words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. E.g. site & side

Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave.

Conceptual meanin g means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.

Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.

Social meaning is the meaning which an expression conveys about the contexts or social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning of an utterance

Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.

The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings.

Thematic meaning is this kind of meaning arises out of the way in which the writer or speaker organizes his message,

Chomsk defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his or her language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

Similar to Saussure, Chomisk thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s

competence ,because the speaker’s performance is too haphazard to be studied. The task of the linguists is to discover and specify the speaker’s internalized rules.

Difference is that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is matter of social conventions, while Chomsky looks at language form a psychological point of view and considers linguistic competence as a porperty of mind of a speaker.

Chapter3

Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language

Morphologyis devided into :inflectional and derivational or lexical morphology.

Free morphemes ,which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.

Bound morphemes,are those that connot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound ,to form a word.

A root is often seen as part of a word ; it can never stand by itself although it bears a clear, define meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical ategories such as number,tense,degree,and case.

Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.

Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.

Suffixes are added to the end of stem, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

语言学名词解释整理

Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法

胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照

语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3a5805968.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3a5805968.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.

语言学的名词解释

序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发

语言学名词解释

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语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出

语言学的名词解释

When I was preparing the postgraduate entrance examination of NNU(Nanjing Normal University),some of these following concepts had been tested,but there's no specific or clear explanation in the textbook required by the university.As in preparing the second-round examination I read them in other relevant books, I wrote down here for your reference.Hope they are useful to some of you. 1. Acculturation(同化过程）is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group. 2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）;a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange. 3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way. 4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.There is an agreement in number between boy and goes. 5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds. 6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体) 7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant. E.g. /p/ in the word pit. 8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation. 9. converstional implicature（会话含义）:meanings that are explicable in the light of converational maxims. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/3a5805968.html,municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriately in social situations. 11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause. 12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin. 13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence. 14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members. 15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words. 16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language. 17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units. 18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second)