语言学整理
1.①“哎，几点了”②“不好意思，打搅一下，请问您戴表了吗”1）the first is a direct speech act; in a casual way;
/a little impolite or even rude by using the word “哎”to attract my attention.
2）the second is an indirect speech act; inquires time by using the question“请问您戴表了吗”,denoting the implicature that what he wants to know is not whether I wear a watch but time.
/uses an appropriate pragmatic strategy and presents strong communicative competence. eg:不好意思，打搅一下
The crucial distinction in the use of these two types of speech acts is based on the fact that indirect commands or requests are simply considered more gentle or more polite in our society than direct commands.
2. Statement: In studying other cultures, we do so from the perspective of our own culture.
考点：language and culture. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
1) What this hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different language may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world.
2) Two important points could be captured in this theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand,
similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. Therefore, the hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.
3) The notion that language determines thought may be partially correct, in some extremely limited way, but it fails to take into account the fact that users of a language do not inherit a fixed set of patterns to use. They inherit the ability to manipulate and create with a language, in order to express their perceptions.
4) Therefore, we can say that in studying other cultures, we do so to some extent from the perspective of our own culture. 例子：cousin in English 对应中文的“表兄弟”“堂兄弟”“姐妹”“表姐妹”
wife in English 对应“妻子，老婆，内人”
3. Drills of the following sentences:
Do you know where my book is?
Do you know what time it is?
But the students still came up to the teacher and asked, Do you know where is Mrs. Smith?
What do you think is the reason for the misuse? Was the lesson a waste of time? Why or why not?
考点：Error Analysis
1)The reason for this misuse can be explained with structuralist view toward learning and error. The structuralist linguists follow the bahavioristic view that to learn is to change old habits and build new habits. In their opinion, errors occur when the learners fails to respond correctly to a particular stimulus in the second language because the features of the second language differ from those of the native language and the learner tends to carry over features of the native language into the second language. In other words, the learner fails to change his old habits so as to acquire new habits of the second language. Since an error may serve as a negative stimulus which reinforces bad habits, so it should not be allowed to occur.
2) Therefore, the student does not form the English habits to use indirect questions under the influence of his native language habits.
3) The disadvantages of the drill practice
Viewed as a kind of input and it plays an important role in the process of forming a new habit, so not a waste of time;
but it is performed out of real situation and fails to develop student’s communicative competence;
other approaches: communicative approach, grammar-translation; direct approach; etc
4. What do you think the differences between a good language learner
and a poor language learner? If we know what strategies good language learners use, does it follow that teaching so-called poor language learners to use those strategies will result in their successful language learning? Why or why not?
(Other than learning strategies, other factors that make a good language learner)
考点：
learning strategies of a good learner:小红书P171 一共14条
Other factors:
1）affective factors (empathy, anxiety, inhibition, risk-taking, motivation, attitude and personality)
2）cognitive factors (the mechanics of how an individual learns something)
3）social factors(instruction, environmental and feedback)
4）age differences
5）the role of the first language(inference)
5. The differences between linguistic competence and communicative competence
1) Linguistic competence originally comes from Noam Chomsky. It refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do with the actual use of language in concrete situations. However, it
did not, according to Hymes, account sufficiently for the social and functional rules of language.
2)
①Hymes’ communicative competence, then, is the aspect of competence that enables the speakers to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts.
②Communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved.
③Communicative competence includes not only the ability to form correct sentences but to use them at appropriate times.
④The basic idea of communicative competence is the ability to use language appropriately, both receptively and productively, in real situations.
eg. The two forms of “you” in Chinese, he may draw special attention to different contexts in which they are used.
3) Communicative competence can be defined, in terms of three components. The first is grammatical competence, which involves the accurate use of words and structures. The second is sociolinguistic competence, which enables the learner to know to speak properly according to the social context. The third is called strategic competence, the ability to overcome potential communication problems in interaction.
6. Sense, Denotation and Reference
考点：①小红书P71 Sense & Reference
②Sense has conceptual meaning. The distinction between sense and reference can be comparable to that between connotation and denotation. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, which the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties.
③To some extent, we can say every word has a sense; otherwise we will not be able to use it or understand it; but nor every word has a reference. Words like ghost or dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality.
7.给出六个句子，分成两组形成对比，即间接表达与直接表达的区别。Please explain what your understanding of politeness is in the Chinese culture.
1)According to Brown and Levinson and later Leech, indirect speech
acts were more polite and direct ones because they minimize the degree of face threatening acts and thus save the hearer’s face. Grice noticed that in daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. （接下来就是具体分析每个实例）2)In the Chinese culture, politeness can be expressed by many means.
1.different terms of address may be used to express politeness.(eg)
2.presented by using indirect speech acts (eg)
8. Differences between human language and other animal’s ways of
communicating
考点：
1) language is different from animal communication(阐述观点)
2) design features: the defining properties of human language that
distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The following are the frequently discussed ones:
3) arbitrariness, creativity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission (每个详述)
9. Cohesion
考点：语篇衔接问题，衔接是个语义概念，它指的是语篇中语言成分之间的语义联系，或者说是语篇中一个成分与另一个可以与之相互结识的成分之间的关系。当语篇中一个成分的含义依赖于另一个成分的解释时，便产生衔接关系。
Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. Ddiscoursal cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:
Conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, logical connection, substitution and so on.
10. Chunks
考点：举例；给chunk下定义；为什么中国学生用“in the campus”
而不是用“on campus”; the advantage of using chunks; pedagogical implications drawing from the mistake
1)eg. “for instance”“in terms of ”“in fact”“carry out”
2)Chunks, also known as routines, refer to a segment of language made
up of several morphemes or words which are used and learned as if they are a single item.
3)Reason: negative transfer of Chinese. In Chinese, they say “在校园
里” rather than “在校园上”. They usually translate “里” into English “in” rather than “on”
4)It will help you form a new pure speaking habit. The more chunks you
can use correctly, the more ability you have to speak a language.
5)This mistake is caused by negative transfer of mother tongue.
Consequently, a contrastive analysis of the learner’s native language and the target language has and this in turn determines what the learner has to learn and what the teacher has to teach. Since language learners have different mother tongues, the teaching has to vary accordingly. Chunks teaching can also help learners to remove negative transfer, and form a good habit of speaking a second language.
11. Reading strategies
考点：Rereading; predicting; verifying;
retelling; clarifying; motivating; eliciting
12.分析句子——为什么可以省略主语
a. Hope you like everything here.
b. Just imagine what has just happened here.
考点：
1)syntactic point of view, many subjects are possible, eg, he, we, people.
2)according to pragmatics, context plays a key role in communication.
（把两个句子具体结合语境分析，from speaker and hearer）
13. Entailment and Presupposition (并分析句子)
1）In pragmatics, entailment is the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (A) requires the truth of the other. Notice also that if (B) is false, then (A) must necessarily be false.
2) A presupposition is an implicit assumption about the world whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.
3) Entailment differs from presupposition in that in presupposition, the truth of what one is presupposing is taken for granted. A simple test to differentiate presupposition from entailment is negation. For example, both The king of France is ill and The king of France is not ill presupposes that there is a king in France. However, The president was not assassinated no longer entails The president is dead. Presupposition
remains under negation, but entailment does not.
4)具体分析实例，分析真假值
14. 分析一段简短话语，考点：礼貌原则的相关准则
1)According to Leech, the PP consists of six maxims, namely, Tact Maxim, Generosity Maxim, Approbation Maxim, Modesty Maxim, Agreement Maxim, and Sympathy Maxim. In this note, Tom has applied the PP and clearly shows his politeness.
2)具体分析语句，对应好一条条准则
15. 故事为题：几个中国女孩想要问路求助，they said “Hello”，当地人无视她们
考点：社会语言学中语言和文化的关系问题。答题时可以先就语言和文化各自的定义说明，再阐述两者之间的关系，然后具体分析例子1)Language is a system of arbitrary symbols used for human
communication. While culture is defined as a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.
2)Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better
representation through language use. In other words, there exists a close relationship between language and culture. According to the
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speaker s’ unique ways of understanding the world.
3)具体分析例子。Hello is an informal way. should say “Excuse me.”
16. Contrast between language learning and language acquisition
1) Language learning is sometimes contrasted with language acquisition on the assumption that these are different processes. The term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a language through exposure, whereas the term “learning” is used to refer to the conscious study of a language. In other words, “language acquisition”refers to the subconscious processes by which a language is learnt in a natural setting while “language learning” refers to the conscious processes by which a language is learnt in a tutored setting.
2) In the field of second language study, however, the term “second language acquisition” is a cover term to refer to both the subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural or a tutored setting.
17. Contrastive analysis and error analysis
1) contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs
to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language situation. The goal of contrastive analysis is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas will be difficult to learn.
2) The fact that not all errors are explicable by contrastive analysis resulted in a disillusionment with contrastive analysis. Gradually contrastive analysis was replaced by the error analysis movement, a major claim of which is that many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference. Corder claimed that errors are not just to be seen as something to be eradiated, but rather can be important in and of themselves. Errors often arise from the learner’s lack of knowledge, it represents a lack of competence. For example, the learner utilizes some L1 features rather than that of the target language itself, such as overgeneralization, which arises when the learner applies a rule in a situation where the rule does not apply.
18. we should “teach the language”, not “teach about the language”
考点：传统的语言教学—以教师为中心的语法翻译法为主
1)Teaching the language, means teaching the language as it is. In other
words, learners should only be taught how language is used, such as its meaning, pronunciation and context. That is , learners just need to do as what native speakers do with their language.
2)Teaching about the language, means that learners should know the
grammatical rules, word formation methods, how sentences are formed, etc. Namely, it refers to the traditional approach to language teaching which involves the presentation of numerous definition, rules and explanations. Usually a teacher-centered grammar-translation method is adopted. In the view of many modern linguists, such an approach is damaging to language learning. They argue that one should teach the language, not teach about the language. In communication, one should learn first to “speak” the language, not to “read” the language.
19. Distinguish between phonetics and phonology
1) Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonetic medium of languages; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view.
*speaker, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.
*hearer, how the sounds are perceived by the hearer
*it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. They are labeled as articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively.
2) Phonology, however, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sound are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone, phoneme, allophone, phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair, phonological rules, suprasegmental features, etc. are all to be investigated by phonoligists.
20. Distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes
1) is also known as the distinction between inflectional affix and derivational affix. The two types of affix have the following differences: a) inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes: they very often only add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem. They serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words.
b)Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might or might not. Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.
c) Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.
d) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.
21. Explain: Innateness Hypothesis
1) Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues that children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviorism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology. This is Chomsky’s “Innateness Hypothesis”.
2) Chomsky’s Innateness Hypothesis is based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately.
a)First, children learn their native language very fast and with little effort.
b)Second, children learn their mother tongue in very different environments. They may be good at different things, but in their first language acquisition, their difference is amazingly small.
c)Third, the child learns the total grammar of the language during a limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech. He can not only
produce and understand sentences he has heard, but also sentences he has never heard before. What he learns seems to be a set of rules rather than individual sentences. All these suggest that although babies are not born knowing a language, they are born with a predisposition to develop a language in much the same way as they are born with a predisposition to learn to walk.
3) But this is not the whole picture yet. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.
22. Speech Act Theory:“locutionary act”, “illocutionary act”and “perlocutionary act”, 实例分析：It is so hot in the room”.
1) A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
2) If somebody utters “It is so hot in the room”, he might be performing
three acts simultaneously. The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words “it”, “is”, “so”, “hot”, etc. and expressed what the words literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e., asking someone, for example , to turn on the air conditioner. The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to ask someone to turn on the air conditioner, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.
23. English is a second language or foreign language for Chinese learners?
考点：第二语言学习和外语学习之间的关系问题；
1)Second language (L2), in a broad sense, is a language learned or
acquired after the native language. The term has a narrow sense when it contrasts to the term “foreign language”(FL), in which “second language” functions as a recognized means of communication among members who speak some other language as their mother tongue, and the “foreign language” plays no major role in the community and is primarily learnt only in the classroom.
2)However, in language acquisition studies, second language (SLA)
acquisition is not intended to contrast with foreign language acquisition. SLA is used as a general term that embraces both untutored acquisition and tutored acquisition. It is, however, an open question whether the way in which acquisition proceeds in these different situations is the same or different.
3)So, there is some truth in the claim that for most learners of English in
China, English is a foreign language, not a second language. But, in the field of language acquisition, the term “second language” is used as a general term to refer to both “second language”and “foreign language; therefore, we can also say that English is a second language for most Chinese learners.
24. The relationship between linguistics and language teaching
1) Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language, or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. While language teaching is concerned with how language can be taught more effectively. Therefore, the relationship between linguistics and language teaching is quite obvious. Language teaching is part of applied linguistics and applied linguistics is part or a branch of linguistics.
2) Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the nature of language, but also help them better understand how to teach language. Theoretical views of language
explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. In fact, linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language. Language teachers should be concerned with how to teach language effectively, but not all of them know how.
25. Theories of Chomsky and Halliday
1) As to the question about how to understand different sentence structures, there are two important language theories, one is the transformational-generative grammar proposed by Noam Chomsky, and the other is the systemic-functional grammar proposed by Halliday.
2) Accordingly, Chomsky suggests us to make a distinction between two levels of structures: deep and surface structures. And the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar.
3) As the name suggests, systemic-functional grammar has two characteristics: systematic and functional. It explains the internal relations in language as systematic network, or meaning potential. It views language as a form of doing rather than a form of knowing, and it distinguishes linguistic potential from actual behavior.
4) Halliday’s theory paid more attention to paradigmatic relations than to syntagmatic relations which is the main concern of Chomsky.
26. Hyponym
Hyponymy is a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate, and the lower terms, the members, hyponyms. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. These members of the same class are co-hyponyms.
27. Competence and performance by Chomsky
1)The fundamental distinction between competence and performance is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.
2)And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.
3)Chomsky points out that this distinction is related to the langue—parole distinction of Saussure; but he does not accept the view of seeing langue as a mere systematic inventory of items. For him, competence is closer to the famous German linguist Humbold’s conception, that is, it should refer to the underlying competence as a system of generative processes.
28. How well does the word “communication” represent the function of
《语言学纲要》考研复习资料全
语言学纲要》练习题参考答案 导言部分 （一）名词解释 1 ?语言：语言是一个音义结合的符号系统，是人类独有的、最重要的交际工具，同时也是思维工具。 2 ?语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展 及其在社会生活中的运用以及语言研究成果的应用问题，等等。分理论语言学和应用语言 学两个领域。 3 ?语文学：人类最早的语言研究是从解释古代文献开始的，是为了研究哲学、历史和文学 而研究语言的。我们把这种依附于其他学科存在的语言研究成为语文学。 4?小学”：在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形（六书）、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。5?理论语言学：普通语言学的一个部分，与应用语言学相对。主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为主要的研究对象。 （二）填空 1 ?古印度、古代中国、古希腊具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2?文言是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为文言文。 3 ?文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学。 4 ?研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音、词汇、语法三个部分。 5 ?运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。 第一章语言的社会功能
一、名词解释 1. 语言的两个有限 任何一种语言都是一个音义结合的符号系统，其中作为基本符号的语素和词在数量上是有 限的，把语素或词组合起来构成词组或句子的规则也是有限的。语言的这两个有限性是区 别言语活动的基本特征。 2. 言语活动的两个无限 言语活动是以语言为工具展开的交际或思维活动，其中作为这个活动的最基本的单位一- 句子，在理论上可以是无限长的，在数量上可以是是无限多的。 3. 大脑左右半球分工 人类大脑左右半球分工不同，左脑主管语言、逻辑、书写及右侧肢体运动，而右脑主管色彩、空间感、节奏和左侧肢体运动。大脑两半球分工是人类特有的，但出生婴儿大脑两半球没有分工。 4. 非语言交际工具或副语言交际工具 人们在运用语言进行交际的时候，不但动嘴，而且脸部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都参加进来。我们这些非语言的交际工具称为副语言交际工具。副语言交际工具的使用范围非常有限，只能起辅助性的交际作用，以补充语言交际的某些 不足。 5. 辅助性交际工具 指的文字、旗语、电报代码等在语言的基础上产生的交际工具。这些交际工具若离开语言 就不能独立存在。其特点是：都有特殊的服务领域，使用的范围相当狭窄。
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
语言学答案整理
Q1：Give an elaborate account of the evolution of the models of the spoken language structure Language Structure…..pragmatics……use medium of transmission grammar meaning(semantics) phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics lexicon In first level One end is structure, the other use, and in the middle pragmatics. Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the meanings and effects that come from the use of language in particular situation. Meaning intended---- what you want to say Meaning realized---- what you actually say. If meaning realized matches meaning intended, you succeed in expressing your meaning. The present model shows the complexity of the language. We can see from the model how many different levels can be set up to explain the way the spoken language structure is organized. Q2：What do you know about the nature/characteristic of language? 1.purely human, for the possession of language distinguishes human beings from other animals. 2.systematic: meanings and sounds are linked into a system for the purpose of communication and social interaction. The use of language is a patterned behavior. It?s rule-governed. 3.spoken or written: 2 different channels of language 4.arbitrary and conventional: naming is arbitrary. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. In any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way. 5. a set of habits: like any other habits, it?s easily formed in an early age and difficult to change. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/415822796.html,plex, abstract and productive Q3：How do we justify the position that all languages and corresponding all dialects are equally good? Every language so far studied, no matter how …backward? or …uncivilized? the people speaking it, has proved on investigation to be a complex and highly developed system of communication. All languages and corresponding dialects are equally good, equally abstract, equally complex, equally productive and equally adequate to the communicative purposes. No language can be said to be …richer? than another: each is adapted to the characteristic pursuits of its users. Q4：What are major functions of language. (举例子) 1.phatic function: language is used to establish or maintain social contacts and to express sociability rather than specific meaning. You ask question for the sake of question. And the answer to the question is already known. Typical examples include greeting, farewell or comments on weather. 2: directive function: language is used to get the hearer to do something. Typical examples: the imperative sentence, would you please…, do you mind… 3: informative function: language is used to give or offer information. A typical example is the
语言学复习资料 精整版
1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。 3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。 4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。 5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。 6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。 7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。 8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。 9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。 10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。 11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。 12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。 13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。 14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。 15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。 16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。 17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。 18、复合词：复合词由两个或两个以上的词根复合构成。例：汉语中的“火车”、“心疼”，英语中的“black-board(黑板)”、“rail-way(铁路)”。 19、重叠词：是由相同的词根相叠构成。如：看看、试试、多多等。 20、语法：语法是音义结合的各结构单位之间的组织规则的汇集，它包括词的构词、构形的规则和组词成句的规则。 21、词组：词组是实词与实词的有机组合。词组在句子中具有相当于词的作用，但它是比词大的语法单位。 22、语法范畴：是把同一性质的语法意义进一步综合概括所形成的语法意义的类别，如词形范畴与词类范畴等。 23、语法手段：对语法形式再概括所得出的类别就是语法手段，也叫语法方式，一般包括内部屈折法、附加法、重叠法、异根法、重音法、词序、虚词、语调、冠词、前置词和后置词、助动词等。 24、直接成分分析法：指从句法结构的外部形式，特别是隐形形式入手，对句子的直接组成成分进行分析的方法。由于句子的直接成分与句子的层次性一致，所以也叫层次分析法。 25、意音文字：一部分字符是义符，一部分字符是音符的文字是意音文字。 26、字符：字符也就是文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
语言学整理
语言学模拟题（干明版） 一、填空题 1.语言是人类社会的（最重要的交际工具），而且也是思维的（最有效的工具）。 2.语言符号具有（任意性）和（线条性）特点。 3.语言的底层是一套（音位），上层是符号和符号的（序列），可以分为若干级，第一级是（语素），第二级是（词）， 第三级是由词构成的句子。 4.语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系是（组合关系） 和（聚合关系）。 5.（组合）关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系，（聚合）关系是指在线性序列的同一位置上不同结 构单位的替换规则。 6.从物理属性角度看，语音具有（音高）、（音重）、（音长）、（音质）四个要素，汉语的声调，就是由于（音高）的 变化形成的。 7.人类发音器官分（动力）、（发音体）、（共鸣器）三大部分，（共鸣器）部分主要作用是调节气流，许多不同的音 素，就是这一部分的变化形成的。 8.音素可分（元音）和（辅音）两大类，其区别的根本点是发音时气流在口腔中是否（受阻碍）。 9.元音的音质是由（舌位高低）、（舌位前后）、（嘴唇圆展）三个方面决定的，例如[A]是（舌位低）（舌面中）（不 圆唇）。 10.辅音的发音特征是由（发音部位）（发音方法）决定的。例如[p]是（双唇）（清）（塞）（不送气）。 11.具体语言中具有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小语音单位就是（音位）。 12.音位变体可分（条件变体）、（自由变体）两类，例如汉语某些方言中，声母“l”可以无条件地换成“n”，这两 个音位就是（自由变体）。 13.汉语音节可分（声母）（韵母）（声调）三部分，其中（韵母）又可分（韵头）、韵腹和（韵尾）。 14.汉语i和y 的区别是（圆唇与否）不同，其它两个方面都相同。 15.人们在说话时，常常把[toufu]（豆腐）说成[touf]，这种音变现象叫做（脱落）。 16.语法的（组合规则）和（聚合规则）构成一种语言的语法规则。 17.我们可以根据语素在词中的不同作用把它们分为三类，例如happinesses中，es是（词尾），ness是（后缀）， happi是（词根）。 18.合成词“发指”的结构方式是（陈述式）。 19.“西瓜大”和“大西瓜”的（词序）不同，结果语法意义也不一样。 20.词的组合有五种基本方式，例如“研究问题”是（述宾结构），“跑得很快”是（述补结构），“火速准备”是（偏 正结构），“我们努力”是（主谓结构）。 21.孤立语的主要特点是缺乏（词形变化）；屈折语的主要特点是有丰富的（词形变化）。 22.基本词汇具有（普遍性）、（稳固性）、（能产性）三个特点。 23.（一般性）、（模糊性）、(全民性)是词义概括性的三个重要的表现形式。 24.多义词有多项意义，最初的那项意义叫（本义），离开上下文人们就能知道的那项意义叫（中心意）。例如“老” 有“年纪大”、“经常”、“过去的”等意义，“年纪大”是（本义），其余的是（派生意）。 25.派生义的产生方式主要有（隐喻）和（换喻）两种。 26.反义词可分（相对反义词）和（绝对反义词）两类。例如“老年”与“少年”是（相对反义词）。 27.文字突出的作用是打破了有声语言的（时间）、（空间）的局限性，扩大了有声语言的使用范围。 28.文字包括（字形）、（字音）、（字义）三个方面，这三方面在文字中缺一不可。 29.在文字产生以前，人类使用（实物记事）和（图画记事）帮助记忆。 30.各种不同体系的意音文字都包含（表意字）、（表音字）和（形声字）三种不同类型的字形。 31.人类造字的方法主要有（表意）和（表音）两种。 32.（渐变性）和（不平衡性）是语言发展的两大特点。 33.语言的发展中，（词汇）的变化速度最快，（语音）次之，而（语法）的演变最为缓慢。 34.在一个多民族的国家中，各民族之间往往还需要一个共同的交际工具，这就是所谓的（国家共同语），我国的（普 通话）就是这样的一种共同语。
《英语语言学》答案完整版解析
《英语语言学概论》答案完整版 考核方法：闭卷考试 时间：100分钟 题型： I. 单项选择(15×1’=15’) II．判断(15×1’=15’) III．填空(10×1’=10’) IV．术语解释(5×2’ =10’) V．简答题(4×5’ =20’) VI. 分析题（30’） 重点掌握的术语： ? 1. Linguistics The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. ? 2. design features They are a series of features which are uniquely a part of human language and unlikely to be found in the communication system of other creatures. They are displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, discreteness and duality. ? 3. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are in the past, present or future, real or imagined,or in far-away places. ? 4. Duality It is generally the case that language is organized at two levels or layers which is known as the physical level and meaningful level simultaneously. ? 5. Arbitrariness It is generally the case that there is no ‘natural’ connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. ? 6. Manner of articulation It is the case that we describe the consonant sounds in terms of how they are articulated. ?7. Place of articulation It focuses on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. ?8. articulatory phonetics The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. And the study of how speech sounds are made, or ‘articulated’ is articulatory phonetics. ?9. Phonology The description of the systems and patterns of the speech sounds in a language. ?10. Assimilation It is the process when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or ‘copied’ by the other. For example, the word ‘can’ in the sentence ‘I can go.’may pronounce as [k??] instead of [k?n] because of the influence of the following sound [g]. ?11. Back-formation A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type. For example, the word ‘donation’ first came into use and then the verb ‘donate’ was created from it.
语言学复习资料
下定义 1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics. 2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication. 5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds. 6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. 8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers. 11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement. 12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word. 13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
语言学概论课堂试题答案整理
绪论及语言本质 1.我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。 2.“语言学概论”课程容在语言学学科分类中，属于理论语言学。 3.狭义的应用语言学一般是指语言教学。 4.17世纪，法国波瓦雅的修道院里有两位学者阿尔诺.兰斯洛合编了一本普遍唯理语法。 5.历史比较语言学的出现，标志着语言学走出传统语文学，成为一门独立的科学。 6.传统语文学一般主要指古代印度、古代希腊和古代中国三个地方的语文学。中国传统的语文学通常叫小学。 7.语言系统的两种基本关系是组合关系和聚合关系。它们是打开语言的两把钥匙。 8.1786年，英国的威廉琼斯在皇家亚洲学会宣读的论文《三周年演说》中指出有共同的结构特点。为了纪念这一新发现，这一年被认为是历史比较语言学诞生的一年。 9.历史比较语言学的奠基人是丹麦的拉斯克、德国的葆朴和格里木。 10.语言的分类一般从两个方面进行：第一，按照语言的（结构/形态）特点分类；第二，按照语言的（亲属/来源）关系分类。 11.著名语言学家瑞士的索绪尔的著作《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。 12.美国结构主义语言学的代表人物是布龙菲尔德，他的代表著作是《语言论》。 13.转换生成语言学的代表人物是乔姆斯基，他被称为“标准理论”的著作是《句法理论问题》。 14.根据语言的结构或者形态特点，一般把语言分为孤立语（词根语）、粘着语、屈折语和多式综合语（编插语）四种。 1.人类语言和动物的交际方式有着根本区别。 2.什么样的声音与什么样的意义相结合，取决于约定俗成的社会习惯。这里的“约定俗成”的容既有任意性，也有强制性。
语言学期末复习资料整理版
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period
《语言学纲要》(叶蜚声版)复习资料
《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵版）复习资料 一、语言学纲要期末复习要注意的几个问题 复习语言学概论课程，总的要求是：弄清楚基本概念的准确含义，抓住重点，全面复习。“语言学概论”是语言学方面的一门基础课，重点讲授语言学的基本概念、基础知识和基本理论，是我们今后进一步学习本科阶段的其它语言类课程和撰写语言方向毕业论文的理论基础，在整个专业中具有非常重要的地位。现在这门课的学习即将结束，要进行复习考试，弄清楚基本概念的准确含义自然是一个最基本的要求；这一点做到了，基础知识和基本理论的掌握也就不会有什么大的障碍。复习的时候应抓住重点，就是要根据我们的考核说明规定的重点进行复习；但“抓住重点”不是“只学重点”，而是要通过重点问题的复习达到全面复习的目的，不要自己从主观愿望出发来划定复习范围。复习的总要求可以从以下几个方面来理解： 第一，吃透内容要点 复习不但要掌握比较重大的要点，弄清楚各个章节的框架结构，对各个重点内容的要点也要非常熟悉，每个要点要求都能展开阐述，比如基本词汇的特点，什么是全民常用，什么是稳固，什么是有构词能力，这些特点相互之间是怎样影响的，都必须能结合实例说出个所以然来。如果复习不全面不细致，理解问题不深入透彻，遇到这样的问题恐怕就只能是干巴巴的条款了，那样是很难取得优异成绩的，也不符合本课程掌握基础知识、基本概念、基本理论的“三基”的要求。 第二，掌握常用的名词概念 专门就名词概念提出复习要求，这是因为两个方面的原因：一方面，名词概念是一门学科体系的重要组成部分，是学科知识的基础部分，学科体系在很大程度上是通过一系列的名词概念串连起来的。另一方面，期末试题名词解释题目还是一个考核重点，而且还占有非常重的分量。不但如此，而且在填空、选择、问答题里都要涉及重要的名词概念，至于占试题主要内容的分析题，更是离不开名词概念，否则就无从下手分析。例如：合成词、词与词的组合方式、词组的层次分析等，都涉及到名词概念。 名词概念分两个层次要求：一个层次是对名词概念要求理解其内涵，能结合问题进行分析、解释，能举例说明；一个层次名词概念主要是一些涉及到下位概念的名词，要求理解其内涵，能结合语言实际进行类别分析辨认。我们在中央电大编辑部发行的《期末复习指导》中列出了一些重点名词，复习可参考这部分内容，我们今天也重点介绍一下。 第三，弄清基本理论知识并能灵活地加以运用。 本课程是一门理论性很强的课程，因此，复习首先要注意把基本理论吃透。所谓吃透，就是能理解其内容，能灵活运用理论来分析问题，而不是死记硬背。当然，我们强调灵活运用，不是反对有关的记忆，一些基本知识，课程内容的框架，还是应该搞清楚，这样才能做到成竹在胸，所以复习时对所学的知识还要进行必要的梳理，比如像国际音标和元音辅音的发音特点，就必须强化记忆。 第四，加强实践练习。 本课程理论性比较强，内容比较抽象，理解、把握起来也有一定难度。要真正吃透理论
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
《语言学概论》作业参考答案
《语言学概论》作业参考答案 一、名词解释 1.音位：最小的可以区别意义的语音单位，通常由一簇互相不区别意义的音素构成。如|A|音位里就有前A、后A、央A等几个音素。 2.塞擦音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特点是发音时，两个发音部位紧靠在一起形成阻碍，在保持这个阻碍的同时，留出一个窄缝，让气流从窄缝中磨擦成声，最后除去这个阻碍。如：b‘ｐ‘ｋ‘就是。 3.递归性：语言的递归性是指，组合结构中的某个单位，可以不断地被一个同功能的短语替换，从而使基本结构里的某个扩展为非常复杂的结构，但其作用仍然等于原始项。也即语言的整体结构与基本框架不变。语法结构的这种性质，我们称之为语言结构的递归性。语言的递归性是语言结构一种非常重要的特性。如：人打倒了|敌人/凶恶的敌人/盘踞在中国大陆的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆的不可以一世的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆不可一世但最终被人民打倒的敌人 4.复综语：语言类型之一。这种语言的动词内有用不同的形态表示各种复杂的语法成分。多见于美洲印第安人的语言。举例。 5.自由变体：音位变体的一种类型。通常指对出现的组合条件没有硬性要求的音位变体。举例。 6.元音：音素的类型之一。即发音时气流在口腔中不受阻碍而形成的音。举例。 7.语法形式：表示语法意义方式与材料。举例。 8.词干：一个词的主要部分，词汇意义的承担者。举例。 9.音色：语音四要素之一，又叫音质，指声音的特色。由物体振动的不同形式所决定。举例。 10.塞音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特征发音时两个发音部位紧靠在一起，保持一段时间，然后突然除阻，爆破成声。也叫爆破音。举例。 11.共同语：随着社会政治经济集中，会以一种方言为基础形成共同语，以满足整个社会交际往来。共同语又叫天下通语、雅言。举例。 12.数：语法范畴之一。指是用一个词的不同形态表示出来的词语数的语法意义。在单数、复数、双数等。举例。 二、谈谈语言符号的特点 答案要点： 1.单位明晰性 2.任意性 3.结构二层性 4.开放性 5. 传授性 答：（1）.语言是一种工具，即交际工具和思维工具；而思维是一种能力和过程，即人脑能动地反映客观现实的能力和过程。 （2）.概念用词语表达，判断用句子表达，但概念按照逻辑规律构成的种种判断和词语按语法规则构成的啊、种种句子是有区别的。如：语言中的每个词不一定都表示一个概念，每个句子不一定都表示判断。 （3）.思维过程是运用概念按照逻辑规律构成种种判断，语言运用过程则是运用词语，按照句法构成各种句子。 （4）.语言是具有民族特点的，各民族都有自己的语言特点，世界上有许多种语言。但思维是各民族共同的，全人类具有共同的思维形式和思维规律。 三、试分析汉字跨越方言交际的特点与原因
语言学概论复习资料资料
语言学概论复习资料 1、人类的语言与动物的“语言”有何本质区别？ 动物之间也有相互用来交际的信号，但这跟人类的语言有本质的区别，人类语言具有如下特点： 1、功能开放：米、分米、厘米、微米、纳米 2、构造灵巧：音位，音节语素，词，句子 3、需要学习 2、人类语言构造灵巧的三个条件: 任意性：保证任何事物都能用语言表达 离散性：保证了语言单位自由拆装 层次性：电+影电影彩+色彩色 电影+彩色彩色电影 3、荀子说：“名无固宜，约之以命。约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。”你如何 理解？ 语言符号系统具有任意性，音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种人为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多动选择的可能性。因此说“名无固宜，约之以命”但命名一旦成立就具有强制性。因此说，“约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。” 4、什么是语言符号的任意性原则？你如何理解？请联系语言事实加以论述。 语言符号的任意性是指音义之间不具有内在的，本质的，必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高原则。1、形式内容的联系是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。如“马”“车”对这两个语素本身的例句，现代词源学还没有找到一致的认识，因此他们是任意约定的。2、一旦形成后对个人具有强制性。3、非本质的联系不意味
着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。人、鸡、鸭。布谷鸟。联系是成立的，但不是本质的。 5、关于幼儿是如何习得语言的有哪几种假说？试加评述。 1、模仿说：认为幼儿是通过摹仿听到的语句而学会说话的。通过成人的重复，更 正、赞许等反馈，正确的说法得到强化，由此而形成幼儿的说话习惯。 2、天赋说：以乔姆斯基为代表，认为有一种可遗传的“语言习得机制”，儿童在后 天具体语言输入刺激下，经过语言习得机制习得一种具体的语言。区分语言能力和语言行为，儿童习得母语学的是抽象的规则，即语言能力，虽然他们接触到的是具体的语言行为。 3、认知说：儿童的语言习得机制是伴随着认知能力而发展起来，语言习得能力仅 是认知能力的一部分。斯洛宾、皮亚杰认为，不能脱离智力发展的全局来考查语言习得。如先有判断事物大小的能力，然后才会有“狗比猫大”直螺纹ideas 语言表达。儿童学话的早期似有此种情况，但两者都比较发达后，关系就比较复杂，语言也可影响认知能力。 各学说局部真理，互相补充。 6、语言作为一个符号系统有哪些特性？ 1、任意性：音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的 联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高准则。 1）形式内容的恋歌是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。 2）一旦形成后对个人具有强制性 3）非本质的联系不意味着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。 2、线条性 3、层次性：语言单位具有层层“套装”的性质。小的组成大的，大的组成更大的： 我们学习语法。 4、系统性：语言符号相互联系、相互制约形成一个整体的性质。其中聚合关系和 组合关系是两种最重要最基本的关系。 7、简述语言和言语的关系？