毕业设计_英语专业论文外文翻译

1. Introduction

America is one of the countries that speak English. Because of the special North American culture, developing history and the social environment, American English has formed its certain unique forms and the meaning. Then it turned into American English that has the special features of the United States.

American English which sometimes also called United English or U.S English is the form of the English language that used widely in the United States .As the rapid development of American economy, and its steady position and strong power in the world, American English has become more and more widely used. As in 2005, more than two-thirds of English native speakers use various forms of American English.

The philologists of the United States had divided the English of the United States into four major types: “America n creating”; “Old words given the new meaning”; “Words that eliminated by English”;“The phonetic foreign phrases and the languages that are not from the English immigrates”[1].

Compared to the other languages, American English is much simple on word spelling, usage and grammar, and it is one of the reasons that American English is so popular in the world.

The thesis analyzes the differences between American English and British English. With the main part, it deals with the development of American English, its peculiarities compared to that of British English, its causes and tendency.

2. Analyses the Differences

As we English learners, when we learning English in our junior or senior school, we already came across some words that have different spellings, different pronunciations or different expressions, which can be represented by following contrasted words: spellings in "color" vs. "colour"; pronunciations in "sec-re-ta-ry" vs. "sec-re-try";

expressions in "first floor" equals to "the ground floor". With the above words, the former represents American English, and the latter represents British English. They are not errors but just the differences between the two languages.

To be consistent in the use of English, and more importantly, to be understood easily, there is a need for the nonnative speaker to know that which words have distinct meanings and pronunciations depending on whether they are used by a Briton or an American. This is necessary not only for the sake of communication, but also for avoiding embarrassment.

Many differences exist between American English and British English we have already knew. However, there are still many differences that we are not familiar with. In this part, the author will analyze the differences in several categories like spelling, pronunciation, grammar, usage and so on.

2.1 Spelling

There are many differences between British English and American English in terms of spelling. After analysis by some linguists, it is said that the American English has a different tendency in pronounce, according to economical and phonetic standards. American spelling tends to reflect pronunciation, and British spelling tends to reflect grammatical or historical implications as well. Letters that not needed are being kicked out, and words are spelled as how they sound. The following examples can explain this.

With "our" in words of British English like colour, humour, flavour, etc. are changed to "or" in the equivalent words of American English, like color, humor, flavor, etc. With the pronounce letter "u" being kicked out. Words ending with "-re" in British English are changed to "- er" in American English. According to its pronunciation, like "centre" and "metre" in British English, but "center" and "meter" in American English.

More examples are as follows: (with the former is American English and the latter is British English)[2]

center centre; check (money) cheque; color colour; curb kerb; gray grey; honor honour; inquire enquire; jail gaol; jewelry jewellery; labor labour; organization organization.

2.2 Pronunciation differences

There are of course great regional differences in pronunciation within both countries. For instance, basket，the word “a”in after、class and basket pronounce [?] in American English，but [ɑ:] in British English.(The following examples mentioned all come from Oxford Advanced Learner’s English –Chinese Dictionary)

(1) There is [hw] that correspond with [w] in American English. such as which，white，when，why. In British English :[wit∫]，[wait]，[wen]，[wai]，but in American English : [hwit∫]，[hwait]，[hwen]，[hwai].

(2)There is [r] behind the vowel in American English ，such as: far，poor. In British English: [fa:]，[pu]，but in American English: [far]，[pur]，[hir].

(3)In British English [l] pronounces surd before the vowel, (clearl)，and pronounces mix(混音) behind the vowel (darkl)；However,

in American English, no word pronounces [l]. For instance，like, filling, till，well.

(4) When the phonetic symbol [t] appears between the two vowels and behind the accentuation or between the voiced consonant and the vowel, it will pronounce [d]. Such as city: [`sidi].

2.3Vocabulary differences

The average use of the total English vocabulary, the number of words which are used only in one or the other country is very small, but the problem for learners of English is that these words are among the most

common in the language. There are many words that are used almost exclusively by Americans, which are understood by most Britons, and vice versa. But there are others that can cause difficulty. For example, most Britons know that Americans call biscuits cookies and flats apartments, but not so many know what an alumnus or a fender is. Similarly, Americans know that what they call their yard is called a garden in Britain and that trucks are Lorries, but common British English words like pistols or off-license may mean nothing to them.

2.3.1Same meaning, different words

The majority of the significance in glossary between American English and British English is identical, but there still exists some difference. For example, the same thing can be expressed by different words in both languages. The following examples are typical. American English: British English:

bathroom，toilet, W.C./or loo; closet, cupboard;

corn ,maize; drugstore, chemist's;

gas/ gasoline , petrol; line , queue; oven , cooker; round-trip ticket , return ticket; suspenders , braces; truck , lorry;

underpass , subway; undershirt , vest;

vacation, holiday; etc. [4]

2.3.2. Same words, different meaning

The identical word expresses the different meaning between British English and American English.

For example:

Word American English British English

rubber condom Tool used to erase

pencil markings

date appointment day

cupboard

dresser A wardrobe

assistant

2.4 Grammar

British English and American English grammar are the same in most sense; there are however some interesting variations. For example,

there are differences in certain verb forms. In American English, the

past tense of fit is fit; in British English, it is fitted. Americans

say I've gotten to know her well; while British: I've got to know her well.

Other differences involved the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and

yet.

British English:

I've just had lunch

I've already seen that film

Have you finished your homework yet?

American English:

I just had lunch OR I've just had lunch

I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.

Have your finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet?

As another example, Americans are much more likely to be technically correct in the agreement of collective noun and verb form than Britons.

So in standard American English it would be: The team is playing well

this season whereas in British English, it is common and acceptable

to say the team are playing well. Similar differences can be seen in

the use of words like government, committee etc.: The government is... (American English). The government are… (British English).

2.5 Usage

There are countless other small and interesting differences between American English and British English, which come under the heading of usage. Take the useful expression used in American English through, means up to and including. e.g. The exhibition is showing March through June. The equivalent expression in British English is from March to June, but this is ambiguous. Does the exhibition close at the end of May or the end of June? To avoid any misunderstanding, it is necessary to say something like: The exhibition is showing from March to the end of June.

As another example: for Americans, the number billion has 9 zeros (a thousand million); for most Britons it has 12 zeros (a million million). Zero itself is a more common word in American English than in British English, where naught is more widespread. Americans say the number 453 as four hundred fifty three, whereas in Britain it would be said four hundred and fifty three. Time expressing also is different, and may cause confusion like 4/12/1981(month first) in the USA and 12/4/1981 (day first) in the UK.

2.6 The causes of the differences

At first there were no distinctions between British English and American English known to us in the development of contemporary English. But later in the 20th century, America emerged to be a great power and began to participate the practice of the world affairs. During the World War II, America demonstrated a great strength in the leadership of the world in world various forums. And after the world war, America emerged to be one of the only two superpowers in the world. Thus and thus, the distinctive ways Americans spoken, wrote was being analyzed, studied or learned by the people of other countries, including even British. What are the causes that led to American English distinctive from British English? Or we may say exactly were there any changes in the

new environment that led to the formation of American English in the near or around 400 years after British colonist’s settlement i n the American land (which took place at the beginning of the 17th century)?

2.6.1 Old words, new meaning

Those who came to the new American environment had to use their own words to name or express the new things that are similar to the original thing.

For example, the word "corn”. In British English, it meant and still means the main cereal food "wheat". But in America then, the main cereal food was not wheat but maize, so they call this maize "corn". At that time, they add a word "Indian" before the "corn", so called "Indian corn" to point to maize. But later, for convenient, people in America just call it "corn" instead of using its full name "Indian corn”. So now we say "pop-corn" rather than "pop-Indian-corn". Americans speak "corn" to refer to wheat, while British still speak "corn" to refer to wheat. Of course, many other examples can also support this point.

2.6.2 Native Language to Express Something New.

These can be found in some names of places, of animals etc… Name of place: like Ohio (which originally means Ohio River), Mississippi (originally refers to Mississippi River which means Father of waters),

Kentucky (means and of tomorrow)[5]

Name of animals: like moose, raccoon, skunk etc.

Name of plants: hickory, sequoia, squash etc.

2.6.3 Brought in the Words of Other Languages.

America is known as a country of different peoples, one word

"melting-pot" can express this [6]. Even at the beginning of the 17th century when America became a colony of Britain, the people who settled in that land were not purely English or British. In fact, the total population of people from other countries of Europe or other part of world is far more than that of British. But all accept English that could understand as their language. But anyhow, inevitably, these populations other than British brought some words of their own languages in coexisted with the English.

Later, as America developed, more and more people from other countries like China began to immigrate to America to find some new life. One sentence can express that urge " all people are eagle to see the Status of Liberty". In this, some words of their own languages were also brought into American English. Following more examples: From American Indian: moose(驼鹿)，chipmunk(金花鼠)，raccoon(獾熊)，sachem(酋长).

From German: beer soup(啤酒汤)，semester(学期)，hex（符咒）.

From French: cent(分)，voyager(航海家)，chute(瀑布).

From Spanish: marijuana(大麻)， buckaroo（牛仔）， conch（海螺），poncho（披风）.

This is also one of the main reasons that caused the formation of American English. Another example,

Chop-suey,[7](a kind of American－Chinese food made by several sources like pork, rice, onion and so on) , word originally from the Guang Dong Hua language in China is taken by the Webster Dictionary. Expressions like "long time no see"(好久不见) imitate the way of Chinese saying and is taken by NIC's Dictionary of American English Phrases Essential American Idioms.[8]

3. The Peculiarities of American English.

The above section has described the causes of differences between British English and American English. Now this section will tell about the peculiarities of American English.

As compared to the British English, there are several obvious

features of American English. First, part of the American English is of still of old or have past. Second, American English develops rapidly. Third, American English are consistent, a singly, not various kinds of American English. The formation of American English is deeply connected to its social prevailing custom and the nation disposition.

3.1 Part of the American English is still of Old or having Past.

Both in pronunciation and in word-spelling, For example, in American English the words like "fast, path and half" are not the same as the British pronounce [a:] , which actually the same as that of the British in the 17th century or 18th century. But now , British has already changed its pronunciation in these words to [fa:st]，[pa:I]，[ha:f]

Another example like the words "sick" and "ill". [9] Originally these two words have the same meaning, no special different, but later in British English, "ill" means some soft discomfort, while "sick" means some tough disease, same with the feeling of sickness and disgusting. But in American English, now "ill " is rarely in use, and "sick " can be used to mean all kinds of discomforts or diseases both the little discomforts and the tough disease, which is the same as its original meaning.

Another example: I guess as I think, I suppose, I believe e.g.: I guess you are wrong.(我想你错了) It was used wildly in Britain in 17th, and now they seldom use this. But Americans had kept it down.

In this sense, American English is more close to the old English in some ways.

3.2 Quick Development

At the same time, American English developed very quickly, became so distinctive that can be divided from what we called "the standard English" (which refers to the British English).[10] So now we come to the second feature of the American English that is its quick development.

Now, in words amount, words of American English is bigger than that of British English. In structure, it's more complicated than that of British English. And thus, American English is more prepared to absorb more words, to change its spellings and pronunciations and it did do so. So now American English is different from the British English in many ways: like spelling, reading, meaning, tone grammar etc. For example, in spoken tone, American spoken English has much less ups and downs, unlike that of the British English. So American spoken- English is much simpler in tone, and easier to be understood, while the British English tone has many ups and downs, nice in hearing but harder in understanding.

3.3 Consistence and creating

The third feature of American English is its consistence and creating. For one thing, it has much more local accents or dialects than any other languages. And its local dialect does not have much effect on its national consistence. In the whole American country, people speak the same American English with the same standard. Among all the bigger countries in the world, no one has the similar language consistence as in America. For another, Americans have created new words and gave the new concepts by changing its form. For example: Pizzazz(时髦派头的人)，bellhop(俱乐部男侍)，debunk(揭露真相),cahoots(共谋)，taikonaut (太空人).

4. The History and Recent Development of American English

Hundreds years ago, Americans spoke the same kind of language that the British spoke. When they put words on paper, they use the same vocabulary and spelling. It is true that American English and British English grew from the same roots, but gradually the language came to be somewhat different.

4.1 Origin of the division

Historical Linguists say that spoken English was almost the same in the American colonies and Britain two-hundred years ago. Americans began to change the sound of their speech after the Revolutionary War in 1776[11]. They wanted to make it different to separate themselves from the British in language, and then American English was no longer a colonial variety of the English of London but had entered its national period. Political independence was soon followed by cultural independence, of which a notable Founding Father was Noah Webster [12]. As a schoolmaster, Webster recognized that the new nation needed a sense of linguistic identity. Accordingly he set out to provide dictionaries and textbooks for recording and teaching American English with American models. The need Webster sought to fill was twofold: to help Americans realize they should no longer look to England for a standard of usage and to foster a reasonable degree of uniformity in American English. To those ends, Webster's dictionary, reader, grammar, and blue-backed speller were major forces for institutionalizing what he called Federal English.

4.2 Noah Webster.

Webster recognized that the new nation needed a sense of linguistic identity. Accordingly, he set out to provide dictionaries and textbooks for recording and teaching American English with American models. The need Webster sought to fill was twofold: to help Americans realize they should no longer look to England for a standard of usage and to foster a reasonable degree of uniformity in American English. To those ends, Webster's dictionary published in 1828.

Webster's dictionary established rules for speaking and spelling the words used in American English. [13]

Webster wrote that all words should be said in the order of the letters that spell them. For example, “c-e-n-t-e-r,” instead of the

British “c-e-n-t-r-e.”Noah Webster said every part of a word should be spoken. That is why Americans say “sec-re-ta-ry” instead of “sec-re’try,” and many other examples.

4.3 The Immigration

The different languages of many people who came to the United States also helped make American and British English different. Many of their foreign words and expressions became part of English as Americans speak it. The first wave of English-speaking immigrants was settled in the North America in the 17th century, and then more and more settlers realized that they had to talk in new ways to communicate with their new neighbors. Moreover, the settlers had come from various districts and social groups of England, so there was a homogenizing effect: those in a given colony came to talk more like one another and less like any particular community in England. All these influences combined to make American English a distinct variety of the language.

4.4 Development

American English has developed in the change of the history and produced a great influence to the British English.

4.4.1 Up-to-Now Development and Its Tendency

In 20th Century, especially after the two world wars, because of American surprisingly rapid development, and while at the same time, an Imperialist Britain has its great influence in the 20th century become a history, American English as a different part of English then formed. Based on America's powerful politics, economy, culture, etc, American style of culture and living began to overwhelm the rest of the world, (Britain, with no exception) through its films, media and other things. An influential linguist Sir Ernest Gowers has confess

that in his famous English dictionary A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, using the words "symptoms of surrender by the older competitor to the younger and more vigorous".[14]

In the past fifty years, the United States has overtaken England as the primary disseminator of the English language.American Culture has influenced so many countries over the world. Food Corporations like McDonalds, KFC and Red Rooster are now found everywhere also American television programs like OC, Desperate housewives and Lost. American English is playing a big part in the world, and is affecting other languages in the world. This is also the same with American Music and films, which are constantly being promoted everywhere.

The influence of America has taken the American English to the whole world. As Otto Friedrich et al said: “It was the British Empire, on which the sun never set, that originally spread English around the globe, along with tea breaks, cuffed trousers and the stiff upper lip. But when the imperial sun finally set after World War II, the American language followed American power into the vacuum.”[15]

4.4.2 The Interfusion of both American and British English

Some linguists worried that the division between American English and British English would widen as time goes. But that's not true, as the increasingly developing of international media and communication; the gap between the two divisions of English has already tended to be minimized. Like the "fall", "OK" (All Right) in American English now used commonly in Britain. And the "lift" "sweets" in British English now also used by Americans often [16].

So as time goes to a more modern future, the division between the two although still exists, but would be understood almost wholly by two different language users. And the two languages are affecting each other.

5. Conclusions

There are many differences between American English and British English, which explain why there exist American English and British English. And indeed, American English has its own distinctive features, which have already been described in detail in this thesis. All this differences and distinctive features of American English make it a special different branch of English.

In author’s opinion,American English is full of human, plentiful ness ideas and unique. Since 20 century, with the affection of the movies, broadcasting and comic strips of the America, the speed of the broadcasting of the new words and phrases in England is as fast as in America. The British youth generation can speak American English very fluency. One magazine [17]in England even announced a series of articles exclusively, introducing the explanation of the meaning of the American slang, and the meaning of new phrase to educate the youth.

So there is no doubt that American English had made the great contribution to the English development. In other words, they are affecting and developing each other.

As English learners, when learning American English, and came across some words that have different spellings, different pronunciations or different expressions, we should be aware of using them. It is author’s sincere hope that this paper will serve for people to get more information about America English.

Bibliography

[1] Peter Trudgill & Jean Hannah. International English [M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2000:13-27

[2] 陆国强. 现代英语词汇[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000:44-70

[3] 李嘉玉陈永培. 英语语调[M]. 商务印书馆，1989:86-96

[4] 候维瑞. 英国英语与美国英语[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，1992:120-135

[5] 桂灿昆. 美国英语应用语音学[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，1985:88-95

[6] Lakoff.R. Language and Context [M]. Language: 75-82

[7] A.C.Gimson. “An Introduction to the pronunciation of English”. [M]. London: Edward Amold (publishers)Ltd: 64-78

[8]Fielnand*moser. 英语简史[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2000:90-106

[9] 钟道隆. 听遍全世界[M]. 北京：清华大学出版社，1995:75-95

[10] Oxford Advanced Lean’s Dictionary of Current English[S]. Oxford University Press, 1974:82

[11] 邓炎昌刘润清. 语言与文化[M]. 外语教学与研究出版社，1995:46-51

[12] 朱文俊. 现代英语语言与文化研究[M]. 北京：北京语言学院出版社:15-55

毕业设计外文翻译资料

外文出处： 《Exploiting Software How to Break Code》By Greg Hoglund, Gary McGraw Publisher : Addison Wesley Pub Date : February 17, 2004 ISBN : 0-201-78695-8 译文标题： JDBC接口技术 译文： JDBC是一种可用于执行SQL语句的JavaAPI（ApplicationProgrammingInterface应用程序设计接口）。它由一些Java语言编写的类和界面组成。JDBC为数据库应用开发人员、数据库前台工具开发人员提供了一种标准的应用程序设计接口，使开发人员可以用纯Java语言编写完整的数据库应用程序。 一、ODBC到JDBC的发展历程 说到JDBC，很容易让人联想到另一个十分熟悉的字眼“ODBC”。它们之间有没有联系呢？如果有，那么它们之间又是怎样的关系呢？ ODBC是OpenDatabaseConnectivity的英文简写。它是一种用来在相关或不相关的数据库管理系统（DBMS）中存取数据的，用C语言实现的，标准应用程序数据接口。通过ODBCAPI，应用程序可以存取保存在多种不同数据库管理系统（DBMS）中的数据，而不论每个DBMS使用了何种数据存储格式和编程接口。 1．ODBC的结构模型 ODBC的结构包括四个主要部分：应用程序接口、驱动器管理器、数据库驱动器和数据源。应用程序接口：屏蔽不同的ODBC数据库驱动器之间函数调用的差别，为用户提供统一的SQL编程接口。 驱动器管理器：为应用程序装载数据库驱动器。 数据库驱动器：实现ODBC的函数调用，提供对特定数据源的SQL请求。如果需要，数据库驱动器将修改应用程序的请求，使得请求符合相关的DBMS所支持的文法。 数据源：由用户想要存取的数据以及与它相关的操作系统、DBMS和用于访问DBMS的网络平台组成。 虽然ODBC驱动器管理器的主要目的是加载数据库驱动器，以便ODBC函数调用，但是数据库驱动器本身也执行ODBC函数调用，并与数据库相互配合。因此当应用系统发出调用与数据源进行连接时，数据库驱动器能管理通信协议。当建立起与数据源的连接时，数据库驱动器便能处理应用系统向DBMS发出的请求，对分析或发自数据源的设计进行必要的翻译，并将结果返回给应用系统。 2．JDBC的诞生 自从Java语言于1995年5月正式公布以来，Java风靡全球。出现大量的用java语言编写的程序，其中也包括数据库应用程序。由于没有一个Java语言的API，编程人员不得不在Java程序中加入C语言的ODBC函数调用。这就使很多Java的优秀特性无法充分发挥，比如平台无关性、面向对象特性等。随着越来越多的编程人员对Java语言的日益喜爱，越来越多的公司在Java程序开发上投入的精力日益增加，对java语言接口的访问数据库的API 的要求越来越强烈。也由于ODBC的有其不足之处，比如它并不容易使用，没有面向对象的特性等等，SUN公司决定开发一Java语言为接口的数据库应用程序开发接口。在JDK1．x 版本中，JDBC只是一个可选部件，到了JDK1．1公布时，SQL类包（也就是JDBCAPI）

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毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：软件开发概念和设计方法文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业： 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14

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参考文献 一、翻译理论与实践相关书目 谢天振主编. 《当代国外翻译理论导读》. 天津：南开大学出版社，2008. Jeremy Munday. 《翻译学导论——理论与实践》Introducing Translation Studies---Theories and Applications. 李德凤等译. 北京：商务印书馆，2007. 包惠南、包昂. 《中国文化与汉英翻译》. 北京：外文出版社, 2004. 包惠南. 《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 2001. 毕继万. 《世界文化史故事大系——英国卷》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2003. 蔡基刚. 《英汉汉英段落翻译与实践》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英汉写作对比研究》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英语写作与抽象名词表达》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2003. 曹雪芹、高鄂. 《红楼梦》. 陈定安. 《英汉比较与翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1991. 陈福康. 《中国译学理论史稿》（修订本）. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2000. 陈生保. 《英汉翻译津指》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 陈廷祐. 《英文汉译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2001. 陈望道. 《修辞学发凡》. 上海：上海教育出版社, 1979. 陈文伯. 《英汉翻译技法与练习》. 北京：世界知识出版社. 1998. 陈中绳、吴娟. 《英汉新词新义佳译》. 上海：上海翻译出版公司. 1990. 陈忠诚. 《词语翻译丛谈》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1983. 程希岚. 《修辞学新编》. 吉林：吉林人民出版社, 1984. 程镇球. 《翻译论文集》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2002. 程镇球. 《翻译问题探索》. 北京：商务印书馆, 1980. 崔刚. 《广告英语》. 北京：北京理工大学出版社, 1993. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1990. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译讲评》. 北京：对外贸易教育出版社. 1989. 邓炎昌、刘润清. 《语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1989. 丁树德. 《英汉汉英翻译教学综合指导》. 天津：天津大学出版社, 1996. 杜承南等，《中国当代翻译百论》. 重庆：重庆大学出版社, 1994. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集（1894-1948）》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集（1949-1983）》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. . 范勇主编. 《新编汉英翻译教程》. 天津：南开大学出版社. 2006. 方梦之、马秉义（编选）. 《汉译英实践与技巧》. 北京：旅游教育出版社. 1996. 方梦之. 《英语汉译实践与技巧》. 天津：天津科技翻译出版公司. 1994. 方梦之主编. 《译学辞典》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. 冯翠华. 《英语修辞大全》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1995. 冯庆华. 《文体与翻译》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2002. 冯庆华主编. 《文体翻译论》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2002. 冯胜利. 《汉语的韵律、词法与句法》. 北京：北京大学出版社, 1997. 冯志杰. 《汉英科技翻译指要》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 耿占春. 《隐喻》. 北京：东方出版社, 1993.

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