The neural architecture of discourse compression

Neuropsychologia48 (2010) 873–879

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Neuropsychologia

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e:w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m/l o c a t e/n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i

a

The neural architecture of discourse compression

L.M.Lillywhite a,b,M.M.Saling a,c,?,A.Demutska c,R.Masterton a,b,S.Farquharson a,G.D.Jackson a,b,d

a Brain Research Institute and Florey Neuroscience Institutes,Austin,Australia

b Department of Medicine,University of Melbourne,Melbourne,Australia

c Department of Psychology,University of Melbourne,Melbourne,Australia

d Department of Radiology,University of Melbourne,Melbourne,Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received4November2008

Received in revised form29October2009 Accepted5November2009

Available online 13 November 2009

Keywords:

Language

MRI

Repetition

Mental representation

Right hemisphere a b s t r a c t

Re-telling a story is thought to produce a progressive re?nement in the mental representation of the discourse.A neuroanatomical substrate for this compression effect,however,has yet to be identi?ed.We used a discourse re-listening task and functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI)to identify brain regions responsive to repeated discourse in twenty healthy volunteers.We found a striking difference in the pattern of activation associated with the?rst and subsequent presentations of the same story relative to rest.The?rst presentation was associated with a highly signi?cant increase in blood oxygen level dependent(BOLD)signal in a bilateral perisylvian distribution,including auditory cortex.Listening to the same story on subsequent occasions revealed a wider network with activation extending into frontal,parietal,and subcortical structures.When the?rst and?nal presentations of the same story were directly compared,signi?cant increments in activation were found in the middle frontal gyrus bilaterally, and the right inferior parietal lobule,suggesting that the spread of activation with re-listening re?ected an active neural process over and above that required for comprehension of the text.Within the right inferior parietal region the change in BOLD signal was highly correlated with a behavioural index of discourse compression based in re-telling,providing converging evidence for the role of the right inferior parietal region in the representation of discourse.Our?ndings demonstrate,for the?rst time,the existence of a neural network underlying discourse compression,showing that parts of this network are common to re-telling and re-listening effects.

? 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

According to current linguistic views discourse processing is hierarchical(Graesser,Singer,&Trabasso,1994;Greene,McKoon, &Ratcliff,1992;Kintsch&van Dijk,1978).Microstructure is formed through the initial extraction of propositions which are organized into a multileveled network,operating at the level of word mean-ings,syntactic rules,and local cohesion within sentences through mechanisms such as substitution and ellipsis.Memory constraints dictate that only a subset of propositions is retained,forming a macrostructural representation of the message.Re?nement of the macrostructural representation occurs through processes such as deletion,generalization and constitution,and most important in the present context,can be facilitated by re-telling(Bloom,1994).

The mental representation of discourse is not simply a func-tion of the text itself,but is shaped and determined by a variety of cognitive,sociolinguistic,and situational factors including repeti-

?Corresponding author at:Department of Psychology,University of Melbourne, Parkville,Victoria3010,Australia.Tel.:+61383446359;fax:+61393476618.

E-mail address:mmsaling@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4b3491173.html,.au(M.M.Saling).tion(Johnson-Laird,1983;Van Dijk&Kintsch,1983;Xu,Kemeny, Park,Frattali,&Braun,2005).Re-telling progressively produces a more compact and concise narrative.This is seen as a decrease in speaking time and word count,as well as the duration and distribu-tion of pauses across repeated cycles(Goldman-Eisler,1968).These changes will be referred to here as the compression effect.A simi-lar effect is seen on tasks of discourse comprehension where silent reading of the same passage of text is associated with a decrease in reading time(Levy&Burns,1990).In theoretical terms,re?ne-ment through repetition re?ects the progressive loss of direct links between the microlinguistic aspects of the text or language output and the overarching mental representation.Failure to compress a message with repetition might be general marker of inef?cient discourse representation,as suggested by the absence of a com-pression effect on re-telling in neurologically impaired individuals, such as those with temporal lobe epilepsy(Field,Saling,&Berkovic, 2000).

The cerebral organization of discourse compression is of con-siderable interest.To the extent that compression is a marker of effective representation,the existence of a neural network that is progressively recruited on repeated engagement with narrative, either in re-listening or re-telling,could be hypothesized.We are

0028-3932/$–see front matter? 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.11.004

874L.M.Lillywhite et al./Neuropsychologia48 (2010) 873–879

aware of only one neuroimaging study that throws some light on this issue.While not designed to isolate a cerebral network underlying the compression effect,a PET activation study on com-prehension and memory of discourse conducted by Maguire,Frith, and Morris(1999)showed recruitment of the left middle frontal gyrus and medial parietal cortices when a second hearing of a story was compared with a?rst hearing.

The aim of the present study was to study the functional neu-roanatomy of compression using functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI),and an activation task in which subjects listened to a story presented in on three consecutive occasions.Our major contrast of interest was the change in blood oxygen level depen-dent(BOLD)signal between the?rst and?nal presentations of the story.To establish if the regions identi?ed in this way were speci?-cally associated with discourse changes on re-telling,we conducted correlational analyses between fMRI data and performance on an established,out-of-scanner measure of the compression effect (Goldman-Eisler,1968).

2.Methods

2.1.Participants

Twenty healthy volunteers(10male;1left handed),who were native English speakers and had begun or completed a tertiary education,participated in the study. The mean age of the participants was29.9years(SD1.5years;range18–48years), and performance for all subjects on standard language testing was within normal limits:the mean number of words generated on the Controlled Oral Word Associ-ation Test(COWAT)(Spreen&Strauss,1991)was42.2(SD=7.4;range31–55),and the mean score on the Boston Naming Test(BNT)(Kaplan,Goodglass,&Weintraub, 1983)was58.1(SD2.3;range53–60).Participants were screened to exclude the presence of any psychiatric or neurological disorders and provided informed writ-ten consent prior to taking part.The study received approval from the Austin Health Human Research Ethics Committee and was conducted in accordance with the eth-ical standards speci?ed in the1964Declaration of Helsinki.

2.2.MRI scanning

2.2.1.Story activation paradigm

The in-scanner stimuli consisted of three newspaper stories(A,B,and C)of comparable complexity and length(30s)recorded by the same female speaker.Par-ticipants were scanned in a darkened room and the stories were presented through custom made headphones,designed to minimize scanner noise.The task was pre-sented in a standard block design with30s task blocks alternating with20s of rest (total time7min50s).Each story was presented in its entirety on three consecutive occasions(A1,A2,A3,B1,B2,B3,C1,C2,C3).During the rest period subjects were exposed to continuous white noise to control for basic auditory sensation.Contrasts between the?rst and?nal presentations of the same story allowed for the identi?-cation of brain activity responsive to changes in discourse processing brought about by re-listening.To encourage attention during the task,participants were informed that they would be asked about each story at the end of the scanning session.The participants recalled the details of each story easily.

2.2.2.Image acquisition

Imaging was performed on a3-T Siemens Trio scanner(Siemens,Erlanger, Germany)equipped with a Siemens body coil and a twelve-channel head coil.A gradient-echo,echo-planar T2*-weighted sequence was used to acquire data sen-sitive to the BOLD signal(repetition time=3000ms;echo time=30ms;?eld of view=216mm×216mm;72×72imaging matrix;44contiguous slices;Grappa iPAT acceleration factor of2).A total of170volumes were collected in8min41s. Resolution was3mm×3mm in-plane,with3-mm thick axial slices.

2.2.

3.fMRI data processing and analyses

Pre-processing of fMRI data was performed using Statistical Parametric Map-ping software(SPM2;Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience,University College London,London,UK)and included;slice-timing correction;rigid-body realignment to correct for subject motion(Friston et al.,1995);registration to SPM standard space(“MNI space”;Montreal Neurological Institute,McGill Univer-sity,Quebec,Canada)using non-linear spatial normalization(Ashburner&Friston, 1999);re-sampling into2mm×2mm×2mm voxels;and spatial smoothing with an isotropic Gaussian kernel(FWHM=8mm).

Statistical analysis was performed using a two-level random effects analysis in SPM2.At the?rst-level,each subject’s SPM design matrix contained three regres-sors of interest,modeling the hemodynamic response to the?rst,second and third presentation of the stories,respectively.We also included the six motion correc-tion parameters as regressors of no interest to model variability in the BOLD signal due to subject motion(Friston,Williams,Howard,Frackowiak,&Turner,1996).We speci?ed a high-pass?lter with a cut-off of128s and pre-whitening to correct for autocorrelation in the data.The?ve outputs of the?rst-level analysis were contrasts of parameter estimates for each presentation of the story against rest(?rst-minus-rest,second-minus-rest,and third-minus-rest)and contrasts for the?rst relative to the?nal story presentation(?rst-minus-third and third-minus-?rst).At the second-level we performed one-sample t-tests across each of the?ve contrasts of interest from the?rst-level analyses.

In order to distinguish between the effects of re-listening(that is,the same narrative on three occasions)from the effects of exposure to a number of different narratives,in an MRI scanner,each presentation of story C(C1,C2,and C3)was also compared to rest.This analysis generated three further contrasts(C1-minus-rest, C2-minus-rest,and C3-minus-rest).

All contrasts were thresholded at a voxel-wise p value less than0.001and we report on clusters that exceeded a spatial extent of50contiguous voxels.The SPMs were reviewed overlaid upon the group mean fMRI image in neurological convention (left side of the image=left hemisphere).

2.2.4.Behavioural measures of discourse compression

Samples of discourse were elicited out-of-the-scanner in sixteen subjects using an eight frame,black and white cartoon(Joanette&Goulet,1990).The cartoon, depicting a story about a cowboy and his horse,was presented on a single sheet of cardboard.Each participant was asked to explore the entire sequence of cartoon frames before relating the story to the examiner.The cartoon remained in front of the subject during the entire procedure to minimize memory load.The task was com-pleted on three immediately consecutive occasions(cycles).Elicited narratives were digitally recorded and later transcribed for further analysis using the free software program AUDACITY(https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4b3491173.html,).

Three indices of the compression effect were calculated from the transcribed data(Field et al.,2000;Goldman-Eisler,1968).These were the percentage change in (1)speaking time(DURATION),(2)number of words(WORDS),and(3)the number of words uttered per second(FLUENCY),between the?rst and third cycles.

2.3.Correlational analyses between fMRI and behavioural measures

To identify regions anywhere in the brain where the change in BOLD signal between the?rst and?nal presentation of the same story was signi?cantly corre-lated with the out-of-scanner indices of the compression effect,simple correlational analyses were conducted using SPM2.For these analyses each of the three out-of-scanner indices of the compression effect(DURATION,WORDS,and FLUENCY)were separately regressed against the SPM generated from the third-minus-?rst contrast (p<0.001uncorrected at the voxel level,spatial contiguity criterion of50voxels).

3.Results

3.1.fMRI

3.1.1.Contrasts between each presentation of the story and rest

There was a striking difference in the pattern of activation asso-ciated with the?rst and subsequent presentations of the same story relative to rest(Fig.1).The?rst presentation of a story relative to rest was associated with a highly signi?cant increase in BOLD signal in perisylvian cortex bilaterally.The second and third presentations of the same story relative to rest were also associated with bilateral activation of perisylvian areas.In addition,activation extended to frontal,parietal,and subcortical structures,indicating that the story repetition engaged a wider network than did listening to the story for the?rst time.On the second presentation of the story relative to rest,a signi?cant increase in activation extended to the supe-rior frontal region.The third presentation of the story relative to rest was associated with signi?cant increases in activation into the superior frontal gyrus,the right middle frontal gyrus,and the left basal ganglia(Table1).

When focusing only on story C our results were consistent with those obtained when the stories were combined(Fig.2).That is, the?rst presentation of story C relative to rest was associated with activation predominately in a bilateral perisylvian distribu-tion,similar to the pattern obtained for the combined story contrast of?rst-minus-rest.Subsequent presentations of story C relative to rest were associated with more widespread cortical recruitment, similar to the pattern observed for the combined story contrasts of second-minus-rest and third-minus-rest.These?ndings suggest that the active cerebral network was once again initialized to a

L.M.Lillywhite et al./Neuropsychologia 48 (2010) 873–879

875

Fig.1.Orthogonal maximum intensity projection maps showing the spread of activation with each presentation of the story relative to rest (images thresholded at a voxel level of p <0.001uncorrected for multiple comparisons).

Table 1

Areas of signi?cant increases in BOLD signal for each presentation of the story relative to rest and between the ?rst and ?nal presentations of the story (p <0.001uncorrected at the voxel level,spatial contiguity criterion of 50voxels).Contrast Region

Coordinates (x ,y ,z )(mm)Cluster size (voxels)Z score First-minus-rest L perisylvian (a)(?48,?32,8)4355 6.41R perisylvian (a)(58,?18,2)3563 6.44Second-minus-rest

L perisylvian (a)(?56,?24,6)6874 6.72R perisylvian (a)(52,?18,4)4332 6.63Midline SFG (a)(2,?14,72)385 4.77Third-minus-rest

L perisylvian (a)(?48,?30,8)6398 6.20R perisylvian (a)(58,?14,4)3793 6.41Midline SFG (a)(2,?20,70)263 3.97L basal ganglia (a)(?24,?4,?2)111 4.16R MFG (a)

(40,12,44)

110

3.90

First-minus third

No suprathreshold clusters of activation Third-minus-?rst

R MFG

(44,18,42)121 4.50R Inferior parietal lobule (40,?60,36)112 4.70L MFG (a)

(?30,4,32)

64

3.63

(a)Additional peaks in same anatomical region not listed.Coordinates indicate local maxima in approximate MNI coordinates.L =left;R =right;SFG =superior frontal gyrus;MFG =middle frontal gyrus.

bilateral perisylvian pattern when a new narrative (story C)was ?rst presented,despite the prior exposure to stories A and B.The ?ndings are consistent with the central tenet of this study that the

imaging changes seen over repetitions were driven by the content of the story rather than repetition per se .

3.1.2.Contrasts between the ?rst and ?nal presentations of the story

Listening to the story for the third time when compared with listening to the same story for the ?rst time was associated with a relative increase in BOLD signal in three regions (Fig.3).The clusters

of 64,121,and 112contiguous voxels were located in the left and right middle frontal gyri and the right inferior parietal region.There were no signi?cant clusters of increased activation observed on the reverse contrast (?rst-minus-third story presentation).3.2.Behavioural indices of discourse compression

The behavioural results of the current study replicated the com-pression effect ?ndings of Field et al.(2000)and Goldman-Eisler (1968).As expected,participants produced an increasingly con-cise version of the story with each repetition cycle on the Cowboy

Fig.2.Orthogonal maximum intensity projection maps showing the spread of activation with each presentation of story C relative to rest (images thresholded at a voxel level of p <0.001uncorrected for multiple comparisons).

876L.M.Lillywhite et al./Neuropsychologia

48 (2010) 873–879

Fig.3.Results of the random effects group analysis showing signi?cant increases in activation between the ?rst and ?nal presentation of the story in the left and right middle frontal gyri,and the right inferior parietal lobule (images thresholded at p <0.001uncorrected at the voxel level,spatial contiguity criterion of 50voxels).

cartoon task (Table 2).This was re?ected as a signi?cant decrease in speaking time [Wilks’Lambda =0.61,p =0.03]and a trend for a reduction in the number of words used to convey the story [Wilks’Lambda =0.86,p =0.34],as well as a signi?cant increase in ?uency over the three task cycles [Wilks’Lambda =0.35,p =0.001].The average change in speaking time,number of words used,and ?u-ency between the ?rst and third task cycles was 16%,2%,and 18%,respectively.

3.3.Correlational analyses between fMRI and behavioural data An out-of-scanner index of the compression effect,WORDS,was signi?cantly correlated with the change in BOLD signal between the

?rst and ?nal presentations of the in-scanner story within the right inferior parietal region (local maxima coordinates [58,?40,18]:r =0.83;p <0.001;cluster size =124voxels)(Fig.4).The remain-ing out-of-scanner measures of the compression effect (DURATION,FLUENCY)were not signi?cantly correlated with the change in BOLD signal between the ?rst and ?nal presentations of the in-scanner story.4.Discussion

Our ?ndings point to the existence of a functional neuroanatom-ical substrate underlying the compression effect,parts of which are common to the effects of re-telling and re-listening.The study

Table 2

Mean performance over each cycle on the out-of-scanner discourse production task.

Word count X (SEM)

Speaking time X (SEM)Fluency X (SEM)Cycle 1142.25(21.5)64.25(10.7) 2.36(0.2)Cycle 2139.56(19.8)56.06(10.3) 2.75(0.2)Cycle 3

135.75(19.3)54.25(9.5) 2.74(0.2)Compression index

(%change between cycles 1and 3) 1.68(6.2)

16.27(4.8)

?17.70(3.5)

X,mean;SEM,standard error of the mean.

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Fig.4.The correlation between an out-of-scanner index of the compression effect(WORDS)and the SPM generated from the contrast between the?rst and?nal presentations of the in-scanner task(third-minus-?rst contrast)in the right inferior parietal region(voxel coordinates58,?40,18).

demonstrated a neural network that was elicited and modi?ed in response to repeated engagement with narrative.On each presen-tation of the story relative to rest,perisylvian cortex was activated bilaterally.The second and third presentations of the same story relative to rest activated the same perisylvian areas,but in addition, activation extended to frontal,parietal,and subcortical regions. When the patterns of activation associated with the?rst and?nal presentations of the same story were directly compared,signi?-cant increases in BOLD signal were found in middle frontal gyrus bilaterally,and in the right inferior parietal lobe.This?nding sug-gests that the spread of activation with repeated presentations of the story re?ects the recruitment of an active neural process over and above that required for basic comprehension of the text.Within the right inferior parietal region the difference in percentage BOLD signal change between the?rst and?nal presentation of the same story was highly correlated with a behavioural index of discourse compression in re-telling.

4.1.Recruitment of an active network

Discourse is processed on a number of levels(Graesser et al., 1994;Greene et al.,1992;Kintsch&van Dijk,1978).We suggest that the spread of activation into extrasylvian cortex with repetition re?ects a meaningful progression from simple comprehension to the construction of a mental representation of the comprehended message.During the?rst presentation of the story,symmetrical activation was observed in the temporal lobes,in a perisylvian dis-tribution,indicating that the participant was actively engaged in listening.The contribution of the perisylvian cortex to basic lan-guage processing is well established.Perisylvian areas are involved in phonological(Binder,1997;Mazoyer et al.,1993)and lexical(Xu et al.,2005)processing,as well as fundamental aspects of discourse processing(Robertson et al.,2000;St George,Kutas,Martinez,& Sereno,1999;Xu et al.,2005).The perisylvian activation reported in the current research is likely to re?ect initial registration of the details of the text,and extraction of the micropropositional base.

During the second and third presentations of the same story, listeners retain essential topical information,rather than detailed textbase schema,relating the comprehended message to prior knowledge.That is,they are actively engaged in the construc-tion of a compact,summarized macrostructural representation (Ulatowska&Chapman,1994).Our?ndings show that this is under-pinned by recruitment of a wide-spread extrasylvian network. 4.2.Right hemisphere involvement

Involvement of right hemisphere is consistent with the broader literature on discourse processing.Repetition of a text is not a necessary pre-condition for activation of higher order language processes:macropropositional base and mental representations are formed each time the text is comprehended.Wide-spread patterns of activation are reported using a variety of single pre-sentation discourse paradigms(Ferstl&von Cramon,2001;Ferstl &von Cramon,2002;Fletcher et al.,1995;Kuperberg,Lakshmanan, Caplan,&Holcomb,2006;Maguire et al.,1999;Mazoyer et al.,1993; Robertson et al.,2000;St George et al.,1999;Xu et al.,2005).Sev-eral studies also highlight a speci?c role for the right hemisphere in global,context-dependent processes(Robertson et al.,2000; St George et al.,1999).The right hemisphere becomes increas-ingly active towards the end of an epoch in discourse,suggesting its involvement in coherence,synthesis,and macrolevel discourse processing(Xu et al.,2005).

These neuroimaging converge on previous lesion-based studies showing patients with right hemisphere damage often experi-ence dif?culty integrating information at the macrostructural level. While processing at a word and sentence level is often intact in these cases,patients with right hemisphere damage have spe-ci?c macrolevel discourse dif?culties such as extracting story gist (Bloom,1994;Bronwell&Martino,1998),and appreciating jokes (Bihrle,Brownell,Powelson,&Gardner,1986),metaphors and indirect requests(Weylman,Brownell,Roman,&Gardner,1989). Consistent with these data it has been suggested that the left and right hemisphere support different linguistic processes.While the left hemisphere supports a?nely coded network narrowly driven by contextually relevant,speci?c meanings,the right hemi-sphere supports a diffuse and wide processing network,playing an important role in establishing a discourse context and linguistic and epi-linguistic contributions to message formulation(Beeman, 1993,1998).

4.3.Repetition versus compression effects

It might be argued that the difference in activation between the third and the?rst story presentations is simply a conse-quence of repetition,re?ecting an aspect of cognitive processing other than the elaboration of a mental representation of dis-course.Repetition studies at a single word or sentential level, however,tend to show decremental activation,rather than the progressive recruitment seen in our data.For example,repeti-tion priming used in various word-level tasks,was characterized by a decrease in brain activity(Bookheimer,2002).Brain acti-vation was also shown to decrease with sentence repetition (Dehaene-Lambertz et al.,2006),and with repetition of pic-ture stimuli(Wagner,Desmond,Demb,Glover,&Gabrieli,1997). Repeated engagement with discourse appears to be necessary for recruitment of a wider brain network,as opposed to the

878L.M.Lillywhite et al./Neuropsychologia48 (2010) 873–879

habituation-like effects seen with linguistic paradigms below the message level.

4.4.Delineating speci?c cortical regions

On the basis of lesion studies(Bihrle et al.,1986;Bloom,1994; Bronwell&Martino,1998;Davis,O’Neil-Pirozzi,&Coon,1997; Weylman et al.,1989)the right hemisphere in general has been implicated in discourse processing.Our?ndings re?ne this pic-ture by delineating a more circumscribed region of the right hemisphere,the inferior parietal lobe,involved in discourse rep-resentation.Our correlational analyses suggest that this region might be important for the re?nement of the mental represen-tation of discourse at both the input comprehension and output production level.A common neural substrate supporting compres-sion effect on re-listening and re-telling is generally consistent with other activation studies showing that discourse production and comprehension tasks recruit similar brain areas(Demonet, Thierry,&Cardebat,2005;Heim,Opitz,Muller,&Friederici,2003; Mar,2004;Ojemann,1991;Papathanassiou et al.,2000;Xu et al.,2005).In addition,discourse production employs micro-and macrostructural level processes akin to those required for discourse comprehension.To start speaking,the individual needs to create a general message of what he or she intends to say(Bock,1996),or to create a macrostructural representation of the intended story based on the situational model(Van Dijk,1985).The speaker then proceeds to the more speci?c microstructural level(Van Dijk,1985), for example grammatical and phonological encoding(Bock,1996). When telling a visually presented story or re-telling a story,the speaker is constrained by the presented information.The speaker needs to retrieve the macro and micropropositional base and to reproduce the fragments of the situational model of the original story.

The right inferior parietal region is unlikely to function in iso-lation.Our data also highlight the middle frontal gyri bilaterally in the complex cortical network underpinning discourse processing. Frontal brain regions have previously been implicated in discourse production(Chapman et al.,1992,2001)as well as on tasks requir-ing macrolevel processing(Nichelli et al.,1995).Bilateral activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortices is associated with the gener-ation of inferences across sentences(Kuperberg et al.,2006;Mason and Just,2004)and from a mental representation(Friese et al., 2008).The contrast between the?rst and?nal presentations of the story produced a similar pattern of bifrontal activation in our study.We suggest that the frontal activation re?ects the selection, manipulation,and monitoring of information in working memory (Fletcher and Henson,2001)required for the re?nement of men-tal representation with repetition.Establishing a coherent mental representation involves holding information online while it is men-tally manipulated and a transformed,integrated version is recoded (Barnes and Dennis,2001;Singer and Ritchot,1996;Van Dijk, 1995).The macrostructural representation of a narrative is corre-lated with working memory in clinical populations(Chapman et al., 2006).Similarly,working memory limitations are known to have a detrimental effect on inferential abilities(Worling et al.,1999). 5.Conclusion

Our?ndings reveal a neurofunctional basis for the compression effect,a phenomenon only previously described in the psy-cholinguistic literature.The compression network involves regions beyond the classical left hemisphere perisylvian language axis encompassing the left and right middle frontal gyri as well as the right inferior parietal region.The right inferior parietal region might represent a key co-ordinating hub in a wider discourse processing network since it not only responds to re-listening,but activity in this region is strongly and speci?cally correlated with the effects of re-telling.These?ndings are likely to be of considerable interest to researchers investigating the neurofunctional basis of anomalies and disorders of discourse processing.

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The way常见用法

The way 的用法 Ⅰ常见用法： 1)the way+ that 2)the way + in which（最为正式的用法） 3)the way + 省略（最为自然的用法） 举例：I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. Ⅱ习惯用法： 在当代美国英语中，the way用作为副词的对格，“the way+ 从句”实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰整个句子。 1)The way =as I am talking to you just the way I’d talk to my own child. He did not do it the way his friends did. Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are—all we have to do is to clean and peel them. 2）The way= according to the way/ judging from the way The way you answer the question, you are an excellent student. The way most people look at you, you’d think trash man is a monster. 3）The way =how/ how much No one can imagine the way he missed her. 4）The way =because

The way的用法及其含义(二)

The way的用法及其含义（二） 二、the way在句中的语法作用 the way在句中可以作主语、宾语或表语： 1.作主语 The way you are doing it is completely crazy.你这个干法简直发疯。 The way she puts on that accent really irritates me. 她故意操那种口音的样子实在令我恼火。The way she behaved towards him was utterly ruthless. 她对待他真是无情至极。 Words are important, but the way a person stands, folds his or her arms or moves his or her hands can also give us information about his or her feelings. 言语固然重要,但人的站姿,抱臂的方式和手势也回告诉我们他(她)的情感。 2.作宾语 I hate the way she stared at me.我讨厌她盯我看的样子。 We like the way that her hair hangs down.我们喜欢她的头发笔直地垂下来。 You could tell she was foreign by the way she was dressed. 从她的穿著就可以看出她是外国人。 She could not hide her amusement at the way he was dancing. 她见他跳舞的姿势，忍俊不禁。 3.作表语 This is the way the accident happened.这就是事故如何发生的。 Believe it or not, that's the way it is. 信不信由你, 反正事情就是这样。 That's the way I look at it, too. 我也是这么想。 That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. 那就是少数民族在旧中

(完整版)the的用法

定冠词the的用法： 定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸 或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way...

“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法

“tｈｅwａｙ+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子: Ｒead the foｌloｗｉnｇpassagｅａnd talkａbout ｉt wi ｔh your classmaｔes．Try tｏｔeｌl whaｔyｏu thiｎk ｏf Tom aｎd ｏｆｔhe ｗay the chiｌｄrenｔrｅated ｈim. 在这个句子中，ｔhe waｙ是先行词,后面是省略了关系副词that或in whｉch的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the ｗaｙ+从句”结构的用法。 1.tｈe wａy之后，引导定语从句的关系词是tｈat而不是hoｗ,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典＞＞中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：Ｔhｉs is ｔｈeｗayｈowｉtｈａppened. This is the way how he ａlwａｙs treats me. 2．在正式语体中,thaｔ可被in which所代替;在非正式语体中，ｔhat则往往省略。由此我们得到theｗay后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) tｈe ｗaｙ＋ｔhａt-从句２）the way +ｉn whiｃh－从句3) the ｗay +从句 例如：Ｔｈe way(in whiｃh ，thａt) ｔhｅｓｅｃomｒade ｓloｏｋａｔｐrobｌems is wrong．这些同志看问题的方法

不对。 Ｔｈｅｗａy(that ,ｉn ｗhiｃh)yoｕ’ｒe doinｇit is comple ｔeｌy crａzy.你这么个干法,简直发疯。 Wｅａdmiｒｅd him for thｅｗay ｉｎｗhｉch he fａｃeｓdiｆficultieｓ． Waｌlａｃe ａｎd Ｄarwiｎｇreed ｏn the way ｉｎwhi ｃh ｄｉfｆｅrｅnt forms ｏf life had ｂegｕn.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 Thｉs is ｔｈe ｗaｙ（tｈａｔ) hｅdｉd it. I lｉkeｄｔhe waｙ(ｔhat) ｓｈeｏｒganized ｔhe ｍeetｉng． 3.theｗay(tｈat)有时可以与hｏw(作“如何”解）通用。例如： That’s tｈe ｗaｙ(tｈaｔ) shｅspoke. = Tｈat’s how shｅspoke.

way 用法

表示“方式”、“方法”，注意以下用法： 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式，通常用介词in(此介词有时可省略)。如： Do it (in) your own way. 按你自己的方法做吧。 Please do not talk (in) that way. 请不要那样说。 2.表示做某事的方式或方法，其后可接不定式或of doing sth。 如： It’s the best way of studying [to study] English. 这是学习英语的最好方法。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 做这事有不同的办法。 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句，但是其后的从句不能由how 来引导。如： 我不喜欢他说话的态度。 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way that he spoke. 正：I don’t like the way in which he spoke. 误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4.注意以下各句the way 的用法： That’s the way (=how) he spoke. 那就是他说话的方式。 Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. 没有人像我这样爱你。 The way (=According as) you are studying now, you won’tmake much progress. 根据你现在学习情况来看，你不会有多大的进步。 2007年陕西省高考英语中有这样一道单项填空题： ——I think he is taking an active part insocial work. ——I agree with you_____. A、in a way B、on the way C、by the way D、in the way 此题答案选A。要想弄清为什么选A，而不选其他几项，则要弄清选项中含way的四个短语的不同意义和用法，下面我们就对此作一归纳和小结。 一、in a way的用法 表示：在一定程度上，从某方面说。如： In a way he was right.在某种程度上他是对的。注：in a way也可说成in one way。 二、on the way的用法 1、表示：即将来(去)，就要来(去)。如： Spring is on the way.春天快到了。 I'd better be on my way soon.我最好还是快点儿走。 Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way.无线电预报说将有六级大风。 2、表示：在路上，在行进中。如： He stopped for breakfast on the way.他中途停下吃早点。 We had some good laughs on the way.我们在路上好好笑了一阵子。 3、表示：(婴儿)尚未出生。如： She has two children with another one on the way.她有两个孩子，现在还怀着一个。 She's got five children，and another one is on the way.她已经有5个孩子了，另一个又快生了。 三、by the way的用法

The way的用法及其含义(一)

The way的用法及其含义（一） 有这样一个句子：In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. 1770年，这间琥珀屋按照她的要求完成了。 the way在句中的语法作用是什么？其意义如何？在阅读时，学生经常会碰到一些含有the way 的句子，如：No one knows the way he invented the machine. He did not do the experiment the way his teacher told him.等等。他们对the way 的用法和含义比较模糊。在这几个句子中，the way之后的部分都是定语从句。第一句的意思是，“没人知道他是怎样发明这台机器的。”the way的意思相当于how；第二句的意思是，“他没有按照老师说的那样做实验。”the way 的意思相当于as。在In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted.这句话中，the way也是as的含义。随着现代英语的发展，the way的用法已越来越普遍了。下面，我们从the way的语法作用和意义等方面做一考查和分析： 一、the way作先行词，后接定语从句 以下3种表达都是正确的。例如：“我喜欢她笑的样子。” 1. the way+ in which +从句 I like the way in which she smiles. 2. the way+ that +从句 I like the way that she smiles. 3. the way + 从句(省略了in which或that) I like the way she smiles. 又如：“火灾如何发生的，有好几种说法。” 1. There were several theories about the way in which the fire started. 2. There were several theories about the way that the fire started.

way 的用法

way 的用法 【语境展示】 1. Now I’ll show you how to do the experiment in a different way. 下面我来演示如何用一种不同的方法做这个实验。 2. The teacher had a strange way to make his classes lively and interesting. 这位老师有种奇怪的办法让他的课生动有趣。 3. Can you tell me the best way of working out this problem? 你能告诉我算出这道题的最好方法吗？ 4. I don’t know the way (that / in which) he helped her out. 我不知道他用什么方法帮助她摆脱困境的。 5. The way (that / which) he talked about to solve the problem was difficult to understand. 他所谈到的解决这个问题的方法难以理解。 6. I don’t like the way that / which is being widely used for saving water. 我不喜欢这种正在被广泛使用的节水方法。 7. They did not do it the way we do now. 他们以前的做法和我们现在不一样。 【归纳总结】 ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，如表示“以……方式”，前面常加介词in。如例1； ●way作“方法，方式”讲时，其后可接不定式to do sth.，也可接of doing sth. 作定语，表示做某事的方法。如例2，例3；

the-way-的用法讲解学习

t h e-w a y-的用法

The way 的用法 "the way+从句"结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 一.在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮.

way的用法总结大全

way的用法总结大全 way的用法你知道多少，今天给大家带来way的用法，希望能够帮助到大家，下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 way的用法总结大全 way的意思 n. 道路,方法,方向,某方面 adv. 远远地，大大地 way用法 way可以用作名词 way的基本意思是“路,道,街,径”,一般用来指具体的“路,道路”,也可指通向某地的“方向”“路线”或做某事所采用的手段,即“方式,方法”。way还可指“习俗,作风”“距离”“附近,周围”“某方面”等。 way作“方法,方式,手段”解时,前面常加介词in。如果way前有this, that等限定词,介词可省略,但如果放在句首,介词则不可省略。

way作“方式,方法”解时,其后可接of v -ing或to- v 作定语,也可接定语从句,引导从句的关系代词或关系副词常可省略。 way用作名词的用法例句 I am on my way to the grocery store.我正在去杂货店的路上。 We lost the way in the dark.我们在黑夜中迷路了。 He asked me the way to London.他问我去伦敦的路。 way可以用作副词 way用作副词时意思是“远远地,大大地”,通常指在程度或距离上有一定的差距。 way back表示“很久以前”。 way用作副词的用法例句 It seems like Im always way too busy with work.我工作总是太忙了。 His ideas were way ahead of his time.他的思想远远超越了他那个时代。 She finished the race way ahead of the other runners.她第一个跑到终点,远远领先于其他选手。 way用法例句

the_way的用法大全教案资料

t h e_w a y的用法大全

The way 在the way+从句中, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 如果怕弄混淆，下面的可以不看了 另外，在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的

the way 的用法

The way 的用法 "the way+从句"结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 一.在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮.

the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的 the way =while/when(表示对比) 9)From that day on, they walked into the classroom carrying defeat on their shoulders the way other students carried textbooks under their arms. 从那天起,其他同学是夹着书本来上课,而他们却带着"失败"的思想负担来上课.

The way的用法及其含义(三)

The way的用法及其含义（三） 三、the way的语义 1. the way=as（像） Please do it the way I’ve told you.请按照我告诉你的那样做。 I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own.我和你说话就像和自己孩子说话一样。 Plant need water the way they need sun light. 植物需要水就像它们需要阳光一样。 2. the way=how（怎样，多么） No one can imagine the way he misses her.没人能够想象出他是多么想念她！ I want to find out the way a volcano has formed.我想弄清楚火山是怎样形成的。 He was filled with anger at the way he had been treated.他因遭受如此待遇而怒火满腔。That’s the way she speaks.她就是那样讲话的。 3. the way=according as （根据） The way you answer the questions, you must be an excellent student.从你回答问题来看，你一定是名优秀的学生。 The way most people look at you, you'd think a trash man was a monster.从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物。 The way I look at it, it’s not what you do that matters so much.依我看，重要的并不是你做什么。 I might have been his son the way he talked.根据他说话的样子，好像我是他的儿子一样。One would think these men owned the earth the way they behave.他们这样行动，人家竟会以为他们是地球的主人。

way的用法

一．Way：“方式”、“方法” 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式 Do it (in) your own way. Please do not talk (in) that way. 2.表示做某事的方式或方法 It’s the best way of studying [to study] English.。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词)，也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句 正：I don’t like the way he spoke. I don’t like the way that he spoke. I don’t like the way in which he spoke.误：I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4. the way 的从句 That’s the way (=how) he spoke. I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. He did not do it the way his friend did. 二．固定搭配 1. In a/one way：In a way he was right. 2. In the way /get in one’s way I'm afraid your car is in the way， If you are not going to help，at least don't get in the way. You'll have to move－you're in my way. 3. in no way Theory can in no way be separated from practice. 4. On the way (to……) Let’s wait a few moments. He is on the way Spring is on the way. Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way. She has two children with another one on the way. 5. By the way By the way，do you know where Mary lives? 6. By way of Learn English by way of watching US TV series. 8. under way 1. Elbow one’s way He elbowed his way to the front of the queue. 2. shoulder one’s way 3. feel one‘s way 摸索着向前走；We couldn’t see anything in the cave, so we had to feel our way out 4. fight/force one’s way 突破。。。而前进The surrounded soldiers fought their way out. 5.. push/thrust one‘s way（在人群中）挤出一条路He pushed his way through the crowd. 6. wind one’s way 蜿蜒前进 7. lead the way 带路，领路；示范 8. lose one‘s way 迷失方向 9. clear the way 排除障碍，开路迷路 10. make one’s way 前进，行进The team slowly made their way through the jungle.

the way的用法大全

在the way+从句中, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句.它有三种表达形式:1) the way+that 2)the way+ in which 3)the way + 从句(省略了that或in which),在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用.如下面三句话所示,其意义相同. I like the way in which he talks. I like the way that he talks. I like the way he talks. 如果怕弄混淆，下面的可以不看了 另外，在当代美国英语中,the way用作为副词的对格,"the way+从句"实际上相当于一个状语从句来修饰全句. the way=as 1)I'm talking to you just the way I'd talk to a boy of my own. 我和你说话就象和自己孩子说话一样. 2)He did not do it the way his friend did. 他没有象他朋友那样去做此事. 3)Most fruits are naturally sweet and we can eat them just the way they are ----all we have to do is clean or peel them . 大部分水果天然甜润,可以直接食用,我们只需要把他们清洗一下或去皮. the way=according to the way/judging from the way 4)The way you answer the qquestions, you must be an excellent student. 从你回答就知道,你是一个优秀的学生. 5)The way most people look at you, you'd think a trashman was a monster. 从大多数人看你的目光中,你就知道垃圾工在他们眼里是怪物. the way=how/how much 6)I know where you are from by the way you pronounce my name. 从你叫我名字的音调中,我知道你哪里人. 7)No one can imaine the way he misses her. 人们很想想象他是多么想念她. the way=because 8) No wonder that girls looks down upon me, the way you encourage her. 难怪那姑娘看不起我, 原来是你怂恿的 the way =while/when(表示对比) 9)From that day on, they walked into the classroom carrying defeat on their shoulders the way other students carried textbooks under their arms.

“the-way+从句”结构的意义及用法知识讲解

“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子： Read the following passage and talk about it with your classmates. Try to tell what you think of Tom and of the way the children treated him. 在这个句子中，the way是先行词，后面是省略了关系副词that 或in which的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the way+从句”结构的用法。 1．the way之后，引导定语从句的关系词是that而不是how,因此，<<现代英语惯用法词典>>中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的：This is the way how it happened. This is the way how he always treats me. 2. 在正式语体中，that可被in which所代替；在非正式语体中，that则往往省略。由此我们得到the way后接定语从句时的三种模式：1) the way +that-从句2) the way +in which-从句3) the way +从句 例如：The way(in which ,that) these comrades look at problems is wrong.这些同志看问题的方法不对。

The way(that ,in which)you’re doing it is completely crazy.你这么个干法，简直发疯。 We admired him for the way in which he faces difficulties. Wallace and Darwin greed on the way in which different forms of life had begun.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 This is the way (that) he did it. I liked the way (that) she organized the meeting. 3.the way(that)有时可以与how(作“如何”解)通用。例如： That’s the way (that) she spoke. = That’s how she spoke. I should like to know the way/how you learned to master the fundamental technique within so short a time. 4．the way的其它用法：以上我们讲的都是用作先行词的the way，下面我们将叙述它的一些用法。

定冠词the的12种用法

定冠词the的12种用法 定冠词the 的12 种用法，全知道?快来一起学习吧。下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。 定冠词the 的12 种用法，全知道? 定冠词the用在各种名词前面，目的是对这个名词做个记号，表示它的特指属性。所以在词汇表中，定冠词the 的词义是“这个，那个，这些，那些”，可见，the 即可以放在可数名词前，也可以修饰不可数名词，the 后面的名词可以是单数，也可以是复数。 定冠词的基本用法： (1) 表示对某人、某物进行特指，所谓的特指就是“不是别的，就是那个!”如： The girl with a red cap is Susan. 戴了个红帽子的女孩是苏珊。 (2) 一旦用到the，表示谈话的俩人都知道说的谁、说的啥。如：

The dog is sick. 狗狗病了。(双方都知道是哪一只狗) (3) 前面提到过的，后文又提到。如： There is a cat in the tree.Thecat is black. 树上有一只猫，猫是黑色的。 (4) 表示世界上唯一的事物。如： The Great Wall is a wonder.万里长城是个奇迹。(5) 方位名词前。如： thenorth of the Yangtze River 长江以北地区 (6) 在序数词和形容词最高级的前面。如： Who is the first?谁第一个? Sam is the tallest.山姆最高。 但是不能认为，最高级前必须加the，如： My best friend. 我最好的朋友。 (7) 在乐器前。如： play the flute 吹笛子

Way的用法

Way用法 A:I think you should phone Jenny and say sorry to her. B:_______. It was her fault. A. No way B. Not possible C. No chance D. Not at all 说明：正确答案是A. No way，意思是“别想！没门！决不！” 我认为你应该打电话给珍妮并向她道歉。 没门！这是她的错。 再看两个关于no way的例句： （1）Give up our tea break? NO way! 让我们放弃喝茶的休息时间？没门儿！ （2）No way will I go on working for that boss. 我决不再给那个老板干了。 way一词含义丰富，由它构成的短语用法也很灵活。为了便于同学们掌握和用好它，现结合实例将其用法归纳如下： 一、way的含义 1. 路线

He asked me the way to London. 他问我去伦敦的路。 We had to pick our way along the muddy track. 我们不得不在泥泞的小道上择路而行。 2. （沿某）方向 Look this way, please. 请往这边看。 Kindly step this way, ladies and gentlemen. 女士们、先生们，请这边走。 Look both ways before crossing the road. 过马路前向两边看一看。 Make sure that the sign is right way up. 一定要把符号的上下弄对。 3. 道、路、街，常用以构成复合词 a highway（公路），a waterway（水路），a railway（铁路），wayside（路边）

way与time的特殊用法

way/time的特殊用法 1、当先行词是way意思为”方式.方法”的时候,引导定语从句的关系词有下列3种形式： Way在从句中做宾语 The way that / which he explained to us is quite simple. Way在从句中做状语 The way t hat /in which he explained the sentence to us is quite simple. 2、当先行词是time时,若time表示次数时,应用关系代词that引导定语从句,that可以省略; 若time表示”一段时间”讲时,应用关系副词when或介词at/during + which引导定语从句 1.Is this factory _______ we visited last year? 2.Is this the factory-------we visited last year? A. where B in which C the one D which 3. This is the last time _________ I shall give you a lesson. A. when B that C which D in which 4.I don’t like the way ________ you laugh at her. A . that B on which C which D as 5.He didn’t understand the wa y ________ I worked out the problem. A which B in which C where D what 6.I could hardly remember how many times----I’ve failed. A that B which C in which D when 7.This is the second time--------the president has visited the country. A which B where C that D in which 8.This was at a time------there were no televisions, no computers or radios. A what B when C which D that