中国文化
杨敏、王克奇、王恒展.中国文化通览（Chinese Culture: An Introduction）.北京:：高等教育出版社（Higher Education Press）, 2006
（Passage 1）地理环境
中国是一个疆域辽阔、人口众多的多民族的统一国家。它立国的地理环境对中国文化的形成发展起到了至关重要的作用。中国位于东亚大陆，处于一个相对隔绝封闭的地理环境中：北部是辽阔的大漠与草原，西部是浩瀚的戈壁沙漠和青藏高原，西南部是云贵山地和莽莽雨林，东部和东南部的平原与丘陵地带则面向大洋。这种相对封闭的地理环境为中国古代文化相对独立的发展提供了自然条件。所以在相当长的一段时间里，中国文化与外来文化的武力冲撞较少。这对中国文化形成一个历史悠久又自成体系，具有鲜明的地域特征且具有一定的稳定性的文化系统，有着重要的作用。
中国内部的地理环境西高东低，东西走向的几条大河较为均匀地分布于其间，构成了辽河、黄河、长江、珠江几个流域。流域内纵横其间的支流为农业的发展和交通提供了有利的自然条件，也促成了区域文化的发展。风格多样各异的区域文化融合为一体，丰富了中国文化的内涵。但又产生了区域文化间几次的冲突，这里面既有民族间的，也有地方政权间的，但最终是复归于文化的融合和政治的一统。
中国的疆域处于温带和亚热带地区，光、热、水、土和生物等自然资源和自然条件都比较适合农业经济的发展。特别在黄河流域与长江流域，农耕生产是其主要的经济方式。中国的古代文明，其性质是农业文明，这是一种早熟型的人类文明。中国的古代文明主要发生在黄河流域和长江流域，尤其是黄河流域。黄河流域那四季分明的温带气候，肥沃厚实的黄土层，大河及其支流所提供的可资开发利用的水利资源，使黄河流域的农业文明很早就发展起来，在很长的一段历史时期内，成为中华古代文明的主要发祥地和根据地。农业文明给予中国文化的形成和发展以决定性的影响，是构成中国文化不同于西方文化的基本点。
The Geographical Surroundings
China is a unitary multinational country with a vast territory and a large population. The geographical surroundings play a vital role in the formation and development of the Chinese culture. Situated in the continent of East Asia, China is located in relatively enclosed geographical surroundings. In the north stretches the vast desert and prairie; in the west, the vast expanse of Gobi and desert and Qinghai-Tibet plateau; in the southwest, Yunnan-Guizhou mountainous region and boundless tropical rain forests; in the east and southeast, the ocean. The relatively enclosed geographical surroundings provided exceptional natural advantages for the ancient Chinese culture to develop independently, for a fairly long period free from the impact of foreign cultures, especially those powerful ones. These facilitated the Chinese culture to evolve into a stable and independent system with distinctive regional features.
Since the terrain of China is high in the west and low in the east, several long rivers running from west to east are distributed evenly to form the valleys of Liaohe River, Yellow River, Yangtze River and Pearl River. The large rivers and their tributaries facilitate the agricultural development and transportation as well as the growth of regional cultures. Chinese cultural system is an organic unity with multi-elements. Different styles of regional cultures enrich the connotation of the Chinese culture. Meanwhile, conflicts among different regional cultures came into being between various nationalities as
well as regional regimes, due to the difference in geographical surroundings and the regional cultures arising therefrom. The general trend, however, is cultural fusion and political unity.
With the territory in the temperate and subtropical zones, the natural resources such as light, heat, water and soil are fit for the development of agricultural economy. Especially in the Yellow River Valley and the Yangtze River Valley, farming is the major economic mode. Ancient Chinese civilization is of agricultural nature, which is an early-maturing type of human civilization. Hence, China’s ancient civilization originated mainly in the Yellow River Valley and the Yangtze River Valley. Agricultural civilization developed early in the Yellow River Valley. People here enjoy seasonal climate of temperate zone. Besides, the thick and fertile layer of loess, and the water resources provided by the river and its tributaries also contribute to its development. For quite a long period, the Yellow River Valley has been the major birthplace and base of the ancient civilization. Agricultural civilization plays a decisive role in forming and promoting the Chinese culture, which constitutes its fundamental differences from Western culture.
（Passage 2）中国文化的历史发展
中国已有5 000年的文明发展史，中国文化是世界最古老的文化之一，而且是世界上唯一的长期延续没有中断的文化。中国文化之所以具有如此强大的生命力，主要由其本身所固有的内在结构和基本素质所决定。中国文化的结构是“多元一体”的，“多元”是指它早期由多种文化融合而成，后来又接纳了各少数民族文化，且对外来文化具有极强的包容性，从而形成了一种“多元”文化兼容并包的格局；“一体”指多元文化熔铸为一个整体，形成了有着共同的价值观念和鲜明特色的中华民族文化。中国文化“多元一体”的结构造就了它自信宽容的素质，中国文化以我为主，不断吸收外来文化，在吐故纳新中获得了生命的活力。面临当今世界的挑战，饱经风霜的中国文化从容应对，在自我改造和改造世界中展示自己的文化魅力，并永葆青春。
The Historical Development of the Chinese Culture
China has a 5000-year history of the development of civilization. The Chinese culture is one of the most ancient cultures in the world, and the only one that has lasted for thousands of years without suspension. The strong vitality could be attributed to its innate structure and essential quality. The structure o f the Chinese culture is typical of integrated pluralism. “Pluralism” refers to the fact that the Chinese culture is a blending of so many different cultures and it displays strong tolerance to embrace the cultures of ethnic groups and those from extraneou s places. “Integrated” means various cultures melt into a unity, forming a distinctly Chinese culture with common values. The integrated pluralism has developed a self-confident magnanimity so that the Chinese culture, which gives priority to itself, can absorb foreign cultures constantly, thereby getting revitalized in the process of discarding the old and embracing the new. Throughout the history, the Chinese culture has survived all kinds of ordeals and turmoil. Confronted with today’s challenges, it is sure to face them calmly, revealing its fascination and keeping its youthful vigor in the process of remolding itself and transforming the world.
（Passage 3）大一统的观念和注重整体利益的价值取向
中国传统社会具有宗法社会的性质，重视人伦关系成为其文化特色。孟子将“人伦”归结为“父子有亲，君臣有义，夫妇有别，长幼有序，朋友有信”。这五种基本的社会关系有四种关系与血缘和家庭有关，而国家关系正是这种血缘和家庭关系的拟制。人伦文化注重血缘亲情，强调等级名分，强化社会成员的角色意识，着眼于家庭和社会利益的全局，注重内部的秩序与凝聚力。正是在人伦文化的基础上，形成了大一统的观念和注重整体利益的价值取向。
中国传统价值观念强调大一统和注重整体利益。鉴于小农经济的松散性，为了把千万个散漫的小农家庭组织起来，以维持社会的秩序和运行，作为君主专制中央集权制度的补充，大一统观念应运而生。大一统的观念由来已久，早在西周就产生了“溥天之下，莫非王土，率土之滨，莫非王臣”的观念。就是在政治上分裂割据的春秋战国时代，“尊王攘夷”、“王者执一”仍然是华夏各国的共识。秦汉统一王朝的建立，在制度上进一步强化了大一统的观念。秦始皇的琅刻石宣称：“六合之内，皇帝之土”。汉武帝尤其推崇《春秋》“大一统”的精神，大一统的观念进一步深入人心。这一时期产生的历史巨著《史记》，在《五帝本纪》中把东夷、西夏，以及夏、商、周、秦、汉，包括四边的戎狄蛮夷，都归结为黄帝的子孙，黄帝成为中华各民族的共同祖先。“炎黄子孙”的概念由此产生。“大一统”的观念获得了族源学上的论证，从此成为中国人挥之不去的文化情结。
传统社会宗法关系强有力的纽带作用和强调集权统一的观念文化与制度文化，培养出中华民族注重整体利益的价值观念。在这种价值观念中，社会的利益、国家的利益和家庭的利益始终是第一位的，而地方的利益、局部的利益和个人利益往往被忽视。个性被淹灭在共性之中，整齐划一是理想典范，标新立异则是异端另类。
注重整体利益的价值取向培育了中华民族的爱国主义和集体主义的精神传统。在中国历史上，无数的民族英雄在民族发展的关键时刻，能放弃个人的利益，甚至置自己的家庭生命于不顾，为了民族的大义，赴汤蹈火，死不旋踵。这些民族英雄身上表现出来的精神，受到历代人民的崇敬，最终凝结为我们民族的精神脊梁。中华民族在长期曲折的发展中，能挽狂澜于既倒，历劫难而不衰，主要得力于此。爱国主义和集体主义精神，使中华民族具有强大的凝聚力和生命力。但注重整体利益的价值取向在某些条件下可能产生一些消极的影响。专制集权可能导致暴政，过分地强调整体的需要容易造成对个体权利的忽视和压制，不利于调动个人的积极性和创造性。所以在倡导爱国主义和集体主义精神的同时，如何正确处理调整集体与个人、整体与局部的利益，在二者间求得一种相对平衡，发挥各方面的积极性，成为一个很重要的理论问题和实践问题。
The Conception of Great National Unity and Values of Collectivism
China’s ancient society was patriarchal in nature, in which human relations were given priority. Mencius summed up human relations as “Between father and son, there should be affection; between sovereign and minister, righteousness; between husband and wife, attention to their separate functions; between old and young, a proper order; and between friends, fidelity.” Out of these five basic human relations, four were related with blood ties and family. State relationship was a copy of this kind of family blood relationship. The culture based on human relations held as essential the blood relationships, and highlighted people’s social status. With a view to the overall situatio n of the family and social interests, it
paid special attention to the internal order and cohesiveness. It was on the basis of this culture that the concept of great national unity and collectivism came into being.
Traditional Chinese values attached great importance to collective interest. In light of the slack small-scaled peasant society, in order to organize thousands of loosely connected peasant families to sustain social order and operate as complements of autocratically centralized system, the conception of great national unity emerged as the times required in ancient China. Early in the Western Zhou Dynasty, there was the notion that “all the land under the sun belongs to the king; all the people within this country are the king’s subjects.” Even in the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods, plagued by internal wars among the states, it was still the common understanding of all the states of China that “each should respect the king and reject the officials” and that “there is only one king across the land”. The founding of the unified empire in the Qin Dynasty further consolidated the notion of great national unity. Inscription on First Emperor’s Langya engraved stone reads “All the land in the universe belongs to the Emperor.” Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty canonized in particular the spirit of great national unity, making it deeply rooted among the people. According to the Historical Records, written in this period, people of Eastern Yi and Western Xia, of Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han dynasties, and of the minority nationalities living around the Central Plain, such as the Rong, Di, Man and Yi, were all descendants of Huangdi, the common ancestor of all the Chinese nationalities. Thus was formed the notion of descendants of Yandi and Huangdi. Great national unity was proved from the angle of the nationality genesis, thereafter a cultural complex lingering in the mind of the Chinese people.
The Chinese value of collectivism was cultivated by the forceful tie of the patriarchal relations and the culture of ideology and institution that gave prominence to centralization and unity. The interest of the society, the country and the family was always counted number one while that of the locality, the part, or the individual sometimes ignored. Individuality gave way to universality. Uniformity was considered apotheosis whereas unconventionality, heterodoxy.
The values asserting collective interest fostered in China the spiritual tradition of patriotism and collectivism. In history, countless national heroes, at the crucial moment of national development, abandoned individual interest, even disregarding their own lives and families, to go through fire and water for the cardinal principle of national interest. The spirit embodied by them has been adored generation after generation, which has finally been condensed and crystallized into the spiritual tower of Chinese nation. During the long process of development full of twists and turns, the reason why the Chinese managed to suffer the vicissitudes of history without declining and save the critical situations by herculean efforts was mainly due to the formidable cohesive force and vitality rooted in the patriotism and collectivism.
（Passage 4）姜太公钓鱼
民间有句俗话，叫做“姜太公钓鱼——愿者上钩”。这句话来自于一段历史故事。据史料记载：姜太公名叫姜尚，字子牙，东海(今山东省日照市东)人。因其始封于吕，故以封地为姓，又称吕尚。商纣王时，
姜尚曾任朝廷大夫。因目睹纣王昏庸残暴，百姓民不聊生，遂辞官隐居于渭水之滨。当时位于西部的诸侯国周国国力强盛，西伯姬昌(即周文王)礼贤下士，仁义治国，老百姓安居乐业。但长期以来，姬昌一直未能遇到一位贤德的辅佐。一天，姬昌乘车去渭水北岸打猎。在渭水边上，姬昌看见一个老者在岸边垂钓，大队人马走过，老者充耳不闻，仍然是静静地钓鱼。这位老者正是姜尚，传说当时已经70岁了。姬昌觉得奇怪，就下车来到老者跟前，却发现老者钓鱼的鱼钩是直的，根本就钓不上鱼来。姬昌知道老者是一位奇人，就跟他聊了起来。经过一番谈话，姬昌发现这位老者正是自己要找的人，于是高兴地说：“我祖父在世的时候曾对我说过：‘将来会有一奇人帮助你把周族兴盛起来。’您正是我要找的人。我的祖父盼望您已经很久了。”因此古代文献中又称姜尚为“太公望”或“姜太公”。于是，姜尚跟随姬昌来到西周，被封为国师。他辅佐西伯推行新政，西周愈加强盛，周边诸侯国的人民也都纷纷归顺西周，三分天下西周占有了二分。西伯去世后，其子姬发(即周武王)继位，仍封姜尚为国师，尊称尚父。在姜尚的辅助下，姬发在盟津大会诸侯，随后兴兵伐纣，商纣王自焚而死，商朝灭亡。姬发建立了周朝，史称周武王，追封其父西伯姬昌为周文王。周朝建立以后，姜尚被封到齐地，建都营丘(今山东省淄博市临淄区齐陵镇附近)，齐国后来成为诸侯国中的强国。
Fish the Same Way as Jiang Taigong Did, Who Cast a Hookless and Baitless Line for the Fish That Wanted to Be Caught
Jiang Taigong is a popular name for Jiang Ziya, statesman and strategist. As an adviser of King Wen of the Zhou State in ancient China, he, at the age of 80, helped the young King Wu overthrow the Shang Dynasty and establish the Zhou Dynasty.
Jiang was a senior official during the reign of King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty. Since the king was muddleheaded and atrocious, and the masses had no means to live, Jiang resigned and lived in seclusion on the shore of the Wei River. The State Zhou was strong and prosperous. There Ji Chang (King Wen of the Zhou State) was courteous to the wise and condescendent to the scholarly, ruling the state with benevolence and uprighteousness. He had long been in search of a virtuous assistant. One day Ji Chang went to hunt on the northern shore of the Wei River. He saw an old man fishing by the shore who, oblivious of so many people passing by, continued to fish quietly. That was Jiang. It was said he was over 70 then. Ji Chang felt curious so he stepped down from the chariot and walked to the old man, only to find the man’s fishhook was not bent, impossible to get any fish. Realizing this man was not a common one, Ji Chang began to chat with him. He found this was the right man he was in quest of, so he said, “Before he died, my grandfather had anticipated that Zhou would be come prosperous when a sage came to us. Are you the sage? My grandfather had long expected your arrival!” So he called him Taigong. He returned with Taigong, sharing his carriage with him, and treated him as his mentor. Taigong assisted Ji Chang. The Western Zhou became more flourishing, so the people of other states came over and pledged allegiance one after another. After Ji Chang passed away, his son Ji Fa (King Wu) succeeded to the throne. With Jiang Shang’s assistance, Ji Fa met the sovereigns of the o ther states in Mengjin and then they together sent an army to crusade against Zhou. As a result, King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty burned himself to death. After the downfall of the Shang Dynasty, Ji Fa established
the Zhou Dynasty. Known as King Wu in history, he honored his father with the posthumous title of King Wen.
（Passage 5）卧薪尝胆
据《史记》卷四十一《越王勾践世家》等史书记载：越王勾践本是大禹的后裔。登上王位后的第三年，他听说吴王夫差正在日夜练兵，准备攻打越国，便决定先下手为强。于是，不听范蠡的劝告，兴兵讨伐吴国。不料，在夫椒(今江苏省吴县一带)这个地方打了败仗，被吴军围困在会稽山上。勾践将越国第一美女西施和大量金银珠宝进献给夫差，夫差一时失于计较，就放了越王勾践。勾践回国后，自苦其身，立志复仇。他将苦胆放在自己的座位旁，每次坐下或躺下的时候，就看一眼苦胆，吃饭的时候也要亲口尝一下苦胆，以示不忘丧国之辱。他自己亲身下地耕种，夫人也亲手织布，睡觉的时候只是躺在一堆柴草(薪)上，吃饭的时候从不吃肉，也从不穿好衣服，一切都与老百姓完全一样。7年以后，越国逐渐强盛起来，老百姓也富足了。过了两年，吴王夫差兴兵攻打齐国；3年后，夫差又到黄池这个地方大会诸侯，吴国的精兵也都保护夫差去了北方。勾践借吴国国内兵力空虚的机会，突然发难，率兵进攻吴国，并杀了吴国的太子。吴王夫差鞭长莫及，只好派人请求和解，勾践暂时退回越国。4年以后，越王再次攻打吴国，大获全胜，并将夫差围困在姑苏山上。吴王夫差见大势已去，只好自刎而死。后来常用“卧薪尝胆”一词来形容刻苦自励的精神。
Gou Jian Slept on Firewood and Tasted Gall to Avenge a National Humiliation
Historical Records·The Heritary House of the Yue’s King Gou Jian: During the Spring and Autumn Period, remitted by the monarch of Wu State, the defeated monarch of the Yue State, Gou Jian, returned to his state. He underwent self-imposed hardships and was mentally worried. Placing a bitter gall in front of his seat, he had a look at it when he sat or slept and tasted it when he had meals to remind himself of his humiliation and steel his determination to avenge it. About four years later, Yue State launched another attack on Wu State and defeated it. There is no mention of “sleeping in firewood”.In “A Fabricated Reply Letter from Sun Quan to Cao Cao”, Su Shi first used the allusion to Gou Jian’s “sleeping in firewood and tasting gall”. Now it is used to depict the spirit of the painstaking self-inspiration.
（Passage 6）开天辟地
据《艺文类聚》卷一引徐整《三五历纪》及清马《绎史》卷一引《五运历年纪》记载：在天地还没有开辟之前，天和地是合在一起的，就像个浑浑沌沌的鸡蛋一样，漆黑一团，没有星星，更没有人类。人类的始祖盘古就在这一片浑沌之中沉睡着。就这样过了18 000年，盘古醒来了，他站起身来，浑沌的世界也随之裂成了两半：阳清者上升为天，阴浊者下沉为地。天地从此开辟了。盘古在天地之间，随着天地的变化而变化。天日高一丈，地日厚一丈，盘古也日长一丈。如此又过了18 000年，天变得极高，地变得极厚，盘古也变得极长，天地之间的距离有90 000里。从此有了高高的天空和厚厚的大地。又不知过了多少年，盘古终于倒下了。就在盘古临死的时候，世界突然发生了奇异的变化：他呼出的气变成了风云，声音变成了雷霆，左眼变成了太阳，右眼变成了月亮，四肢五体变成了四极五岳，血液变成了江河，筋脉
变成了道路，肌肉变成了田土，发髭变成了星辰，皮毛变成了草木，齿骨变成了金石，精髓变成了珠玉，汗水变成了雨泽。而盘古身体中的生命体，因风所感，变成了老百姓。世界从此充满了活力。
The Creation of the Earth
According to Classified Anthology of Literary Works, the sky and the earth were, at the initial stage, one blurred entity like an egg. The separation of the sky and the earth took eighteen thousand years —the yang which was light and pure rose to become the sky, and the yin which was heavy and murky sank to form the earth. Between them was Pangu, the earliest ancestor of humanity, who went through nine changes every day. Every day the sky rose ten feet higher, the earth became ten feet thicker, and Pangu grew ten feet taller. Another eighteen thousand years passed, and there was an extremely high sky, an extremely thick earth, and an extremely tall Pangu. So the sky was ninety thousand li from the earth. Nobody knows how many years passed and then Pangu finally fell down. Just before his death, the earth underwent a miraculous change: Pangu’s breath turned into wind and cloud, his sound thunderbolt, his left eye the sun, his right eye the moon, his four limbs the four corners of the sky, his five body constituents the Five Famous Mountains in China, his blood the rivers, his veins the roads, his muscles the fields, his hair and moustache the stars, his skin and hair the grass and trees, his teeth and bones the metals and stones, his marrow the pearls and jades, and his sweat the rain. The vitality in Pangu, touched by the wind, turned into the common people. Thus came the dawn of the vigorous earth.
女娲造人
据《太平御览》卷七八引《风俗通义》记载：女娲是一位人身龙尾的女神，是人类共同的母亲。传说天地刚刚开辟的时候，还没有人类，只有女娲独自一人生活在世界上，她觉得非常寂寞。于是，女娲就根据自己的形象，将黄土捏做人形。这些小泥人一放到地上，就变成了能言会走、聪明灵巧的小精灵，女娲就管他们叫“人”。后来，因为工作劳累，力气不够，女娲就把草绳蘸在黄泥中，甩在地上的泥浆也变成了人。就这样，女娲创造了人类，给大地带来了生命和活力。为了让人类能够自然地繁衍下去，女娲又区别了男人和女人，并为人类建立了婚姻制度，让男女互相配合，生儿育女。从此以后，人类便繁衍到了今天。
Nüwa Made Man
In Taiping Anthologies for the Emperor, the record goes like this. It is said that there were no men when the sky and the earth were separated. It was Nüwa who made men by molding yellow clay on her own shape. Those made in this way were rich and noble, while those made when the mud dropped down to the ground were poor and low.
（Passage 7）大禹治水
据《山海经》、《淮南子》等文献记载：尧舜时期，黄河流域发生了特大水灾，庄稼被淹没，房子被冲毁，老百姓流离失所。有位叫鲧的大神很同情百姓的遭遇，就偷窃了天帝的宝物“息壤”，一种生生不息、能不断生长的土壤，来到大地上掩堵洪水。天帝知道以后非常生气，就命令火神祝融在羽郊这个地方把鲧杀死了。鲧死之后，他的精神复生为他的儿子大禹，他的肉体则变成一头黄熊隐入山中。大禹继承
父志，重新开始治理洪水。他吸取了父亲掩堵洪水失败的教训，变掩堵为疏导，取得了良好的效果。然而由于工作繁忙，大禹30岁还没有结婚。这时有位自称涂山氏的姑娘，她本来是一位九尾白狐，来向大禹表示爱情，大禹就和她结了婚。婚后的大禹仍然忙于治理洪水，很少能够回家与妻子团聚，甚至三过家门而不入。美丽的妻子想念丈夫，就到治水工地去看望大禹。没想到大禹当时正变成一头熊在疏通水道。涂山氏没有看到丈夫，却看见一头熊在那里挖山洞，吓得转身就跑。大禹发现以后，急忙去追，匆忙之间忘了变回人形。涂山氏见大熊越追越近，就变成了一块石头。大禹很伤心，对着石头说：“还我儿子！”石头就裂开了一条缝，露出了一个小孩，这就是大禹的儿子，名字叫启。大禹治水成功后，大舜就把帝位禅让给了大禹。老百姓重新过上了太平的日子。
Da Yu Led People in Curbing Floods
Legend in Book of Mountains and Seas and Huai Nan Zi has it that four or five thousand years ago there came a flood in the Yellow River Valley which rose as high as the sky, washing away whole villages with their houses and inundating large areas of cropland. Many people lost their lives in the flood and those who were fortunate enough to survive were forced to abandon their homes and go and live on hillsides or migrate to places far away. To stop the flood Gun stole some of the growing earth possessed by the Heavenly Emperor without asking for permission. For this the emperor ordered Zhu Rong to execute him near Yushan Mountain. Nevertheless, out of Gun’s belly Yu was born. Yu carried on the work of fighting the flood. It was barely four days after he got married when Yu received Shun’s order. Determined to have the flood under control and remove the menace to the people, he left his wife behind and set off for the worksite. Before, under Gun’s leadership, the people spent nine long years building dams and dykes to stop the flow of the rivers. All the efforts had however ended only in more disastrous floods. Yu first made a study of the causes that had led to his father’s failure. Then he made a careful survey of the afflicted areas and asked for advice from experienced workers. Knowing that water tends to flow from higher to low er regions, he abandoned Gun’s method of building dams and dykes to stop the flow of waters. Instead he led his men in digging ditches and canals to divert the flood and also in dredging the river channels so as to provide outlets for the flood into the sea. In those days there was a high mountain in the upper reaches of the Yellow River that blocked the way of the river. In order to cut a canal into the mountain, Yu turned himself into a bear and stole into the mountains to do the digging. Rain or shine, Yu worked in the midst of his men, digging and taking earth away all through the four seasons of a year. He was so dedicated that it was said that he had three times refrained from entering the door of his home when he was passing by. Missing Da Yu so much, his wife visited the worksite. In the shape of a bear, Da Yu was dredging the watercourse. His wife was greatly frightened so she ran away. Da Yu chased his wife, forgetting to convert himself back into a human being. The wife saw no chance to escape and turned herself into a stone. Da Yu was greatly depressed. He said to the stone, “Give back my son!” The stone split and revealed a child — the son of Da Yu, named Qi. After thirteen long years of continuous efforts, Yu and his men succeeded in dredging all the rivers, big and small, and in doing away with the evil of flood. After the death of Shun, Yu became the head of the tribal confederation.
（Passage 8）牛郎织女
传说牛郎从小跟着哥嫂长大，常受兄嫂的虐待。后来，哥嫂与他分家，只分给他一头老牛。牛郎就与老牛相依为命。织女是天帝的孙女，常在纺织之余与诸仙女到凡间洗澡。有一次，牛郎根据老牛的吩咐，等仙女们下凡洗澡的时候，偷走了织女的天衣。织女没有了天衣，就飞不回天上去了，于是就和牛郎结为夫妻。牛郎与织女男耕女织，日子过得非常幸福。几年后，二人生下了一儿一女。老牛要死的时候，叮嘱牛郎要把它的皮留下来，到急难时披上就可以得到帮助。后来，天帝知道了织女与凡人结婚的事情非常生气，派天兵天将下凡捉拿织女，织女被带回天上。牛郎不能上天，只能与儿女仰天号哭。紧急之时，牛郎想起了老牛临死时说的话，于是他披上牛皮，挑着一双儿女飞上天去。眼看就要追上织女了，王母娘娘却用头上的金簪凭空一划，顿时划出了一条波涛滚滚的天河，牛郎飞不过天河，只能与织女隔河相望。后来，牛郎、织女的爱情终于感动了天帝，天帝准许他们每年相会一次。每年农历7月7日，由喜鹊为他们搭桥，牛郎和织女才能见上一面。
The Cowherd and the Girl Weaver
The Cowherd was brought up by his brother and sister-in-law and was often maltreated by them. Later they broke up the family and lived apart from him. As a result, he only got an old cow. The Girl Weaver, the granddaughter of the God of Heaven, often descended with the other fairies from on high and took a bath in the secular world. Once the Cowherd, following the advice of the old cow, stole her heavenly dress. Unable to return to the heaven, the Girl Weaver married the Cowherd and had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband tilling the land and wife weaving. When the God of Heaven learned it, he was outraged, and he sent heavenly troops to catch the Girl Weaver. The Cowherd could do nothing but weep with his children. At that time, the cow, who was dying, told the Cowherd that after his death his skin could help the Cowherd rise up to the heaven. Wrapping the skin around him, the Cowherd went to the heaven with his children shouldered in two baskets. Just as he almost caught up with the Girl Weaver, the Queen Mother of the Western Heavens drew a line in the Heaven with her gold hair clasp. Immediately appeared a temptuous heavenly river (the Milky Way). The couple were separated. Later, the affection between the Cowherd and the Girl Weaver moved the God of Heaven, who allowed the Girl Weaver to join her husband only once a year. According to legend, on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar, the Cowherd and the Weaver met on the east bank of the river on that evening, and magpies were made to form a bridge for them.
（Passage 9）梁山伯与祝英台
祝英台是浙江上虞县祝家庄祝员外的女儿，她女扮男装到外地去求学，与会稽的梁山伯同窗肄业。3年的同窗生涯，祝英台爱上了梁山伯，梁山伯却不知道祝英台是女儿身。临别之际，祝英台邀请梁山伯到祝家庄去，并说要告诉父母把自己的妹妹嫁给梁山伯为妻。可梁山伯因为囊中羞涩，迟迟未能成行。而祝员外已将祝英台许配给马公子。两年后，梁山伯去祝家庄拜访祝英台，才知道所谓的“妹妹”就是祝英台自己。梁山伯后悔不迭，从此一病不起，不久便病死了。到了成亲的日子，马公子派花舟来接祝英台。当新娘的花舟经过梁山伯的墓地时，突然刮起了大风，直吹得波浪滔天，船不能行。祝英台一问才知道，梁山伯的墓地就在岸边。祝英台跑到岸上，跪在梁山伯的墓前放声大哭。突然一声天崩地裂，梁山伯的坟墓裂
开了，祝英台趁机跳进了坟墓。坟墓很快又合了起来，将祝英台也埋在了里面。这时，早已经雨过天晴，风平浪静，只见一对美丽的蝴蝶在坟墓前的野花丛中翩翩起舞。
Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai (The Butterfly Lovers, Leon and Jo)
Zhu Yingtai, the daughter of a ministry councilor, disguised herself as a male and left her hometown to study. During the three years of study, she fell in love with Liang Shanbo, who was unaware of her real identity. At departing, Zhu invited Liang to visit “his” family, and told him “he” would ask parents to marry “his” sister to Liang. But since Liang was short of money, he delayed the visit. Councilor Zhu betrothed Zhu Yingtai to childe Ma. Two years later, Liang Shanbo went to visit Zhu. Only then did he realize that the “sister” was actually Zhu Yingtai herself. Liang was in deep remorse. He fell ill and failed to recover. He succumbed to the disease soon. On the day of wedding, childe Ma sent a flower boat to Zhu’s home to bring her over. When the flower boat for the bride passed Liang’s tomb, there came a fresh gale, which caused the wave to surge so that the boat could not go any further. Informed that Liang’s tomb was on the shore, Zhu ran there and knelt down in front of the tomb wailing bitterly. Suddenly the skies fell and the earth cracked. Liang’s tomb split open. Seizing this opportunity, Zhu jumped into the tomb and soon the tomb closed, burying Zhu inside. Then the rain passed off and the sky cleared up; the wind abated and waves calmed down. A couple of butterflies danced gracefully among the wild flowers.
（Passage10）京剧—国之瑰宝
京剧是一门高雅的古典艺术，是中华民族文化的瑰宝，是中国的国粹。京剧艺术的历史悠久，源远流长，内容丰厚，形式完美，风格独特，直至今天，仍能令无数中外观众为之倾倒。
京剧剧目丰富多彩，琳琅满目。根据不同标准，从不同的角度，可划分为不同的类型。
按故事发生的时间，可分为传统戏、古装戏、时装戏和现代戏。传统戏是反映古代生活的，内容与中国传统文化水乳交融，如《岳母刺字》、《文天祥》、《打渔杀家》、《二进宫》、《霸王别姬》、《群英会》、《乌盆记》、《拾玉镯》、《白蛇传》、《宝莲灯》等。古装戏是辛亥革命后出现的一种旦角穿古装、并以歌舞为主的新剧目，如《嫦娥奔月》、《黛玉葬花》等。时装戏指清末出现的表现现实生活的新编戏曲，如《新茶花》、《黑籍冤魂》等。现代戏是表现现代生活的，包括近代革命历史题材戏，如《秋瑾传》、《红灯记》、《沙家浜》、《智取威虎山》等。另外，解放前后出现了一批新编历史剧，如《赵氏孤儿》、《杨门女将》、《穆桂英挂帅》等
按表演形式分类，有文戏和武戏。文戏包括以唱工为主的唱工戏和以做工为主的做工戏，武戏以武打为主。
按演出时间的长短分类，有本戏、折子戏。本戏即整本大戏，连日接演的整本大戏叫“连台本戏”。折子戏是从整本戏中拆出相对完整的一折单独演出。
根据剧中人物重要角色的多少分类，有对儿戏，在一出戏里只有两个主要角色；群戏，一个剧目中有数个行当的角色，表演分量不相上下。
按行当分类，有老生戏、小生戏、武生戏、青衣戏、刀马旦戏、武旦戏、花彩戏、架子花脸戏、铜锤花脸戏等。
京剧的行当划分严格而精细，最早分为生、旦、净、丑、末、副、外、武、杂、流十行，后来归为生、旦、净、丑四大行当，每行中又有更细的分工。随着京剧艺术的日臻完美，每个行当都有一大批艺术家脱颖而出，可以说是名家辈出。老生行的余叔岩、言菊朋、马连良、谭富英、周信芳、高庆奎、李少春等，武生行的杨小楼、尚和玉等，旦行的梅兰芳、程砚秋、尚小云、荀慧生、张君秋、言慧珠、关肃霜等，老旦行的龚云甫、李多奎等，净行的金少山、郝寿臣、侯喜瑞、裘盛戎、方荣翔、袁世海等，丑行的王长林、萧长华、叶盛章等，都能独树一帜，对京剧艺术的发展起了承前启后的历史作用。他们往往在继承前人艺术成就的基础上革新创造，形成各自的流派。京剧流派异彩纷呈，风格迥异，各有千秋，在京剧舞台与艺坛上熠熠生辉。
京剧唱腔悠扬委婉，声情并茂；京剧念白简洁生动，韵律性和节奏感很强；京剧乐队的演奏旋律优美，曲调动听；京剧舞台美术绚丽多彩；京剧脸谱极富民族特色……所有这些特点，都使京剧不愧为世界表演艺术大花园中一朵独放异彩的奇葩。
Beijing Opera
Beijing Opera is a refined classical art. It is a treasure of the Chinese nation as well as a cultural symbol of China. Rich in content, perfect in form and unique in style, Beijing Opera, with a long history, is still enjoyed by a large Chinese audience.
There is a long list of Beijing Operas with a wide range of subjects. Beijing Opera can be divided into different types according to different criteria or approaches.
According to the time of the story, Beijing Opera falls into four categories. They are traditional operas, costume operas, new or contemporary operas and modern operas. Traditional operas reflect life in ancient times, and their subjects are all from the traditional Chinese culture such as Yuefei’s Mother Tattooing His Back, General Wen Tianxiang, Fisherman’s Revenge, Entering the Palace for the Second Time, Farewell My Concubine, Gatherings of Heroes, The Story of the Black Basin, Picking Up a Jade Bracelet, Madame White Snake, The Lotus Lamp, etc. After the Revolution of 1911, there appeared a new form of opera, called the costume opera, in which the Dan players wear costumes, with song and dance dominating the show. The representative pieces are Chang E Flying to the Moon and Lin Daiyu Burying A Dead Flower. The new or contemporary operas refer to the newly written plays in the late Qing Dynasty, plays reflecting the real life of the people, such as The New Camellia and Wronged Ghosts Soul in an Opium Den. Modern Operas mirror the real life of modern people, such as The Story of Qiu Jin, The Legend of the Red Lantern, The Story of Shajiabang, Takeover of Tiger Mountain, etc.
According to the performance style, Beijing Opera can be divided into “civil” pieces, which are characterized by singing and acting, and “martial” ones, which feature acrobatics and stunts. Some operas are the combination of both.
According to the duration of time, Beijing Opera can be classified into ben xi and zhezi xi. The former refers to the whole play, which could even be staged several days on end. The latter refers to an act or the highlight of a play, which is a complete story on its own.
According to the number of characters in a play, Beijing Opera can be grouped into dui xi or a play involving only two major characters and qun xi or a play involving many characters, each playing an equally important role in the play.
Beijing Opera can also be categorized according to the type of role. The major roles in Beijing Opera include laosheng(virtuous old men wearing beards), xiaosheng(handsome young men), wusheng(young warriors), qingyi(sedate ladies with dignities), daomadan(warrior women), wudan (military or non-military women capable of martial arts), huadan(either vivacious young girls or viragoes), hualian (male characters with a painted face), jiazi hualian (male characters with a painted face, often associated with rude persons and outlaws), tongchui hualian (male characters with a painted face, usually associated with upright, strong and resolute persons). And the operas are therefore named after the names of the roles such as laosheng show, and the like.
The roles of Beijing Opera are strictly classified. There were altogether ten types of roles in the beginning, which were sheng, dan,jing, chou, mo, fu, wai, wu, za, and liu. Later, they were reclassified into four major roles, namely sheng (male), dan (female),jing (painted face), chou (clown). And each role was further divided. With Beijing Opera becoming better and approaching perfection day by day, there have appeared many outstanding performers regarding each type of role. Yu Shuyan, Yan Jupeng, Ma Lianliang, Tan Fuying, Zhou Xinfang, Gao Qingkui, and Li Shaochun are famous laosheng (old men) players; Yang Xiaolou, Shang Heyu, Ge Jiaotian wusheng (young warriors) players; Mei Lanfang, Cheng Yanqiu, Shang Xiaoyun, Xun Huisheng, Zhang Junqiu, Yan Huizhu and Guan Sushuang dan (female) players; Gong Yunpu and Li Duokui laodan (old women) players; Jin Shaoshan, Hao Shouchen, Hou Xirui, Qiu Shengrong, Fang Rongxiang, and Yuan Shihai jing (painted face) players; Wang Changlin, Xiao Changhua and Ye Shengzhang chou (clown) players. All of them have a style of their own, playing an important role in the development of Beijing Opera, serving as a link between past and future, and have developed a school of their own. There are many schools of Beijing Opera, with distinctly different styles, each having its own merits.
The singing in Beijing Opera is melodious and sensational; the recitation vividly brief, and harmoniously rhythmic. The music is graceful and charming, and the stage art is bright and colorful. And the facial make-up is a distinctive feature of Beijing Opera. It is very Chinese and national in color. All this has made Beijing Opera a unique flower in the world garden of performing arts.
（Passage11）龙舟竞渡
龙舟竞渡，也称赛龙舟，今称龙舟比赛，是用一种狭长的龙形舟船、由多人同时划桨进行的划船竞赛活动，通常于每年农历的五月初五在各地知名的江河湖泊中举行，是一种传统的民间体育竞赛项目。
龙舟竞渡起源于战国时期的楚国，开始只是为了纪念屈原而举行的一种祭祀活动。据史料记载，屈原是楚国的贵族，曾任楚国左徒兼三闾大夫。后因楚怀王听信谗言，将屈原流放于汉水以北；顷襄王继位后，又将屈原放逐江南。屈原自感无力挽救楚国的衰亡，于五月五日自沉汨罗江而死。老百姓很同情屈原的遭遇，为了避免屈原的尸体被鱼鳖吞食，便于五月五日这一天划着龙舟在江中驱赶鱼鳖，并将包好的粽子投放江中来喂鱼鳖，以保护屈原的尸体。建国以后，龙舟竞渡活动因其强烈的团队精神和深厚的文化底蕴，成为一项全民健身运动，并成为一项国际性的体育竞赛项目。
古代的龙舟有广义、狭义之分。广义的龙舟包括3层含义：一是指绘有龙形图案的舟船，比如屈原《东君》诗“驾龙舟兮乘雷，载云旗兮委蛇”句中的龙舟。这是一种古老的龙舟。二是指皇帝专用的舟船。三是指端午节竞渡中的专用舟船。狭义的龙舟则只指第三种，即端午节龙舟竞渡中的专用龙形舟船。我们这里用的就是狭义的龙舟。
传统的龙舟包括龙船和龙舟两类。龙船也称游龙，是一种体积庞大的造型龙舟，装饰华丽，主要用于演示欣赏，在龙舟竞渡之际擂鼓敲锣、呐喊助威，或在船上进行各种技巧性表演。蒲松龄《聊斋志异·晚霞》篇中记载：“五月五日，吴越有斗龙舟之戏：刳木为龙，绘鳞甲，饰以金碧；上为雕甍朱槛，帆旌皆以锦绣。舟末为龙尾高丈余，以布索引木板下垂。有童坐板上，颠倒滚跌，作诸巧剧。下临江水，险危欲堕。故其购是童也，先以金啖其父母，预调驯之，堕水而死勿悔也。吴门则载美姬，较不同耳。”描述的就是这种龙船。龙舟也称赛龙，是一种船体狭长的竞渡龙舟，船身只饰以龙头、龙尾，主要用于竞速比赛。具体又可按其长度和所载人数的多少，分为小龙舟(载10人左右)、中龙舟(载20—50人)和大龙舟(载60—100人)，还有比较少见的特大龙舟(可载200人左右)。
作为一项体育竞赛活动，民间传统的龙舟竞渡与现在的国际龙舟比赛有很大的差别。传统的龙舟竞渡是一种自发的民间竞赛活动，参赛的龙舟由各村自行准备，参赛选手也都是业余的。所用的龙舟必须装饰以龙头、龙尾；船长一般在20—30米，宽1米左右，能并排坐两个人。参赛的人数各地也不统一，少则十几人，多则达30多人。但通常要包括一名旗手(也称舵手)摇旗呐喊，以负责指挥；另有一名鼓手、一名锣手擂鼓敲锣助威，以统一号令；划船手则必须成双成对，不能为单数，根据旗手的号令和锣鼓的节奏，同时动作，齐心协力。比赛一般都是在当地有名的河流湖泊中的湍流急水中进行，以先划到终点者为胜。观众也是自愿前往、随意观看，不用买入场券。
龙舟竞渡的竞赛规则有明确的要求，主要包括：将舟做成龙型；比赛时，各队龙舟均以锣鼓指挥、助阵；登舟比赛队员为划手20人，舵手、锣手、鼓手各1人，共计23人；比赛项目分为男子组、女子组和混合组直道竞速500米、800米；混合项目每队参赛队员(23人)中，最少有8名女划手，舵手、锣手和鼓手性别不限；参加龙舟比赛的运动员应有和衣游泳100米以上的能力等。其中广州珠江上举行的广东龙舟节、上海苏州河上举行的赛龙舟、南京莫愁湖上举行的龙舟大赛，以及苗族、傣族的赛龙舟等，都在国内外具有很大影响。
The Dragon-Boat Race
The dragon-boat race is a boating game involving dragon-shaped long canoes propelled by a crew of many paddlers in unison. As a traditional folk sporting contest, the dragon-boat race is held annually in May 5th of the lunar calendar in some renowned rivers and lakes in various regions.
The dragon-boat race originated in the State of Chu in the Warring States Period. It started as a sacrificial activity to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, the greatest romantic poet. According to some historical records, Qu Yuan was an aristocrat in the State of Chu and he once served as the minister of state. Because Chu Huaiwang, the head of state, believed the false accusation against him, Qu Yuan was exiled to the north of Hanshui. Later on, Qing Xiangwang, the successor to the late head of state, sent Qu Yuan into exile again in the south of the Yangtze River. Feeling hopeless to save the State of Chu from its fall, Qu Yuan commited suicide by drowning himself in the Miluo River on the fifth of May. The sympathetic local people raced out onto the river to drive away the fish and turtles and threw their rice dumplings into the river in an attempt to prevent fish and turtles from eating his body. This event has been documented in some Chinese history books. The Boat Race, which was based upon the re-enactment of the race to save Qu from drowning, thus came into existence.
From the Qin and Han dynasties onward, the boat race began to spread from the State of Chu to the whole country, especially to the various parts of the south. The boat race gradually dropped its sacrificial service as part of its subject matter, leaving only the race as a sporting event. By the time of Wei, Jin and the Southern and Northern dynasties, the dragon-boat race had become a very popular event. The tradition was passed on from generation to generation until today.
Dragon boats in a broad sense fell into three types in ancient times. The first type was an ancient type of dragon boat referring to the boat painted with dragon design. The second type referred to em peror’s special boat. The third kind was a long canoe specifically made for the dragon-boat race. In its narrow sense, a dragon boat only refers to the third type, that is, the dragon-shaped long canoe for a dragon-boat race.
Traditional dragon-boats can also be categorized into two types in terms of their roles: the show boat and the race boat. The former is an attractively adorned big boat for demonstration and performances with musical instruments like drums and gongs, and various feat shows to activate the atmosphere in the course of the race. The latter, on the other hand, is a narrow and long canoe decorated only on the bow and stern like the head and tail of a dragon. The race boat can be small, medium or big in size according to the number of paddlers it carries inside. Usually the small race boat is about 4 to 6 meters in length with the capacity of carrying 10 paddlers, the middle one 17 to 23 meters with 20 to 50 paddlers, while the large one can be as long as 30 to 33 meters and carry within it 60 to 100 paddlers. Occasionally there are exceptionally huge race boats with a capacity of 200 paddlers.
As a sporting activity, a traditional folk dragon-boat race differs greatly from an international dragon-boat race. The former is launched by the villagers themselves, with amateur competitors. The dragon boats, decorated on the head and tail, are about 20 to 30 meters in length and one meter in width, enough for two paddlers to sit abreast. The number of participants in a boat varies from 10 to over 30, usually including one flagman, also called helmsman, who directs the whole team by waving a colored flag to give orders, one who beats the drum and one who strikes the gong to cheer for the team. The paddlers must be in even number and they must work in unision. Synchronicity is more important than strength. A perfectly synchronized team will almost always beat a stronger, less coordinated team. The race is usually held in turbulent rivers and the one that reaches the destination first is the winner. Spectators are free to go and watch.
Specific rules of this game have been set: the race vessel must be made into dragon shape; each competing team is composed of 23 people with 20 paddlers, one steersperson, one gongmen and one drummer. The racing events include a male team, a female team and a mixed team, three types competing on a 500 meter or 800 meter straight line river course. For the mixed crew, the minimum number of female paddlers is eight, though no restriction is imposed on the sex requirement for steersperson, drummer or gangman. In addition, the participants are required to have the capacity of swimming with clothes on for at least 100 meters. So far many dragon-boat races have been held in various parts of China which have been successful and influential both at home and abroad. Examples are the Canton Dragon-boat Festival held on Pearl River, Guangzhou; the dragon-boat race on the Suzhou River in Shanghai; the dragon-boat race on Mochou Lake in Nanjing; and dragon-boat races among the Miao ethnic groups and the Dai ethnic groups.
（Passage12）中国烹饪
中国的饮食调制方法自古就有繁琐、复杂的特点。例如，尚秉和《历代社会风俗事物考》中介绍了《礼记·内则》中记载的“炮豚”法，“炮”是中国古代的一种饮食调制方法，从中便可略见一斑：
先取豚若羊杀之，实枣于腹内；再裹之以苇，涂之以泥，炮之使干，擘而摩去其油膜；再以稻米粉为糊，糊豚四周，煎于油镬中，使干，置小鼎中；再将小鼎置大镬沸汤中，汤勿灭鼎(勿使水浸入小鼎，败肉味也)。煮三日三夜，而后调醯醢食之。
正是在这样的传统下，适应各地不同的特产、口味，便逐渐出现了各种不同的调制方法。后来，在长期的实践过程中，又逐渐形成了各种具有地方特色的饮食体系。比如鲁菜(山东菜)、京菜(北京菜)、沪菜(上海菜)、苏菜(江苏菜)、浙菜(浙江菜)、川菜(四川菜)、徽菜(安徽菜)、粤菜(广东菜)、湘菜(湖南菜)、鄂菜(湖北菜)、闽菜(福建菜)、陕菜(陕西菜)、东北菜(东北地区菜肴的总称)、豫菜(河南菜)，以及仿膳菜(仿制的宫廷菜)、清真菜(回族菜的总称)、素菜(由佛教寺院所创、由僧厨执鼎、以非动物原料烹制的菜肴)等。各个菜系或清雅或淳厚、或麻辣或酸甜，不仅各有自己的独到之处，而且还各有自己的拿手好菜。比如闽菜中的“佛跳墙”，原名“全福寿”，用海参、广肚、干贝、鱼翅、火腿、蹄筋、香菇、鸽子蛋、鸡鸭等10余种名贵原料，置于坛中，再加骨汤、绍酒、香料等，以荷叶封口，密封坛内，用文火煨制而成。据说，清代福州有一家菜馆制作的“全福寿”香气四溢，竟诱使隔壁寺院的一名高僧不顾佛门戒律，跳墙而入，饱餐了一
顿。故又名“佛跳墙”。而鲁菜中的“泰山三美”，则是用泰安的白菜、豆腐和水烹制的“白菜炖豆腐”，自然素雅，清香宜人。中国菜肴的花色之多、菜式之众、制作之繁，是世界闻名的。
中国菜还具有浓厚的文化底蕴。传说古代有一个名厨，只用两个鸡蛋就做出了4道“雅菜”：第一道菜，将两个鸡蛋黄煮熟放在盘子里，菜名叫“两只黄鹂鸣翠柳”；第二道菜，将一个鸡蛋清煮熟切成三角状码在盘子里，菜名叫“一行白鹭上青天”；第三道菜，将另一个鸡蛋清炒作碎末状堆在盘子里，菜名叫“窗含西岭千秋雪”；第四道菜，将4瓣蛋壳漂在一碗清汤里，菜名叫“门泊东吴万里船”。而这4个菜名，恰好是杜甫的《绝句》。
值得一提的是，中国菜讲味道、重艺术，并不等于不重视营养。实际上，中国菜作为一种文化，很早就与中医结下了密切的关系，在讲究味道和意味的同时，更讲究营养和保健。比如百草脱骨扒鸡、黄芪汽锅鸡、虫草全鸭、核桃鸭子、枸杞肉丝、人参莲肉汤、当归羊肉羹、双耳汤、羊肺汤、肝片汤等等，远比大块的排骨和烤肉的营养价值要高。
Chinese Culinary Arts
Chinese culinary arts are rather complicated, and in different places, there are different ways for preparing dishes. Many different cuisines unique to certain areas are formed, for instance, Shandong cuisine, Beijng cuisine, Shanghai cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Anhui cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Hubei cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Shannxi cuisine, Henan cuisine, north-eastern China cuisine, royal style cuisine, Muslim style cuisine and vegetarian cuisine.
Each cuisine has its own specialty. For example, the Fujian cuisine has a dish called “happiness and longevity”. Its preparation is like this: first put some of the most nutritious ingredients (sea cucumber, dried scallop, shark’s fin, ham, tendons of beef, dove’s eggs, chicken, duck, etc) into a jar, then add some bone broth, Shaoxing rice wine and spices, next, cover the mouth of the jar with a lotus leaf, and last, simmer it on the stove. It’s not hard to imagine how delicious and nutritious the dish would be. This dish has another well-known name—“Buddha jumping over the wall”. It may sound strange, but there’s an interesting story behind it. It is said that during the Qing Dynasty, a restaurant in Fuzhou (the capital city of Fujian Province) was very famous for its dishes. One day, the restaurant made the dish “happiness and longevity”, the aroma of the dish was so appetizing and spread so far that a monk in a nearby temple just couldn’t resist the temptation. In the end, he put aside the Buddhist discipline, jumped over the wall into the restaurant, and ate to his heart’s content. What happened to the monk afterwards, we do not know, but the reputation of the dish “Buddha jumping over the wall” spread afar.
Generally speaking, there are three essential factors by which Chinese cooking is judged, namely: “color, aroma and taste”. “Color” refers to the layout and design of the dishes. “Aroma” implies not only th e smell of the dish, but also the freshness of the materials and the blending of seasonings. “Taste” involves proper seasoning and fine slicing techniques. These three essential factors are achieved by careful coordination of a series of delicate activities: selecting ingredients, mixing flavors, timing and cooking, adjustment of the heat, and laying out the food on the plate.
What is worth mentioning is that there’s a lot of cultural background knowledge involved in the naming of Chinese dishes. Often, it’s hard, even for the Chinese people themselves, to tell what is actually in a certain dish until it is served on the table. Of course, one can always turn to the waiter or waitress for explanation. In most cases, waiters and waitresses are ready to satisf y one’s curiosity. Apart from having regard for the above-mentioned three essential factors —“color, aroma and taste”, Chinese cuisine attaches great importance to nutrition. As a matter of fact, Chinese cuisine has long been closely related to traditional Chinese medicine. Ginseng, walnut, Chinese angelica and the fruit of Chinese wolfberry are often used as ingredients in certain Chinese dishes.
（Passage13）《阿Q正传》
鲁迅的《阿Q正传》是中国现代小说史上的杰作，是最早介绍到世界的中国现代小说。作品通过对阿Q的遭遇和阿Q式的革命的描写，深刻地总结了辛亥革命失败的历史教训。阿Q是一个被剥夺得一无所有的贫苦农民，有农民式的质朴，但又深受封建观念侵蚀和毒害，带有小生产者保守落后、不觉悟的特点。他思想性格最突出的特点是他的精神胜利法。尽管他处于社会的最底层，常常遭受挫折和屈辱，是一个永远的失败者，但他却对自己的失败命运和奴隶地位采取了令人难以置信的辩护和粉饰态度。精神胜利法典型地代表了中国的国民性弱点。《阿Q正传》画出了国人的灵魂，暴露了国人的弱点，促进了国民的觉醒。小说形喜实悲的悲喜剧色彩，使作品产生了巨大的艺术魅力。
The True Story of Ah Q
This novel by Lu Xun is a masterpiece in the history of modern Chinese fiction. It is also the first modern Chinese novel that is introduced to the world. Through t he description of Ah Q’s misfortunes and his style of personality, the novel elaborates profoundly upon the historical lessons left by the failure of the 1911 Revolution. A poor peasant being deprived of all his belongings, Ah Q epitomizes the image of a simple and ignorant farmer who is corroded and poisoned deeply by the feudal conception, and who is characterized by the common conservativeness and lack of self-consciousness of a petty producer. What is most striking in his personality is his self-satisfied spiritual triumph. Though he is at the bottom of the society as an eternal loser, who suffers frequently setbacks and disgrace, he takes an incredible attitude to defend and gloss over his doomed destiny and his enslaved status. To some extent, Ah Q’s self-satisfied spiritual triumph is representative of the frailties in the Chinese national character. The True Story of Ah Q portrays vividly the national soul and exposes fully the national weaknesses, thus stimulating the awakening of the people. Comedic in form while tragic in content, the novel is endowed with an enormous artistic charm with its strong tragic flavor.
（Passage14）《围城》
钱钟书的《围城》是中国现代杰出的讽刺小说。小说以青年方鸿渐留法归来后的漂泊旅程为线索，涉笔成趣，广泛描绘了社会的形形色色，写出了历史转型期的中国在文化、价值方面的断裂、错位、颠倒与冲突，深刻地表现了中国现代文化与传统文化的对立与冲突、文化价值的混乱与尴尬。作者借家庭婚姻关系隐喻传统对于现代中国的围困，借小说中人物的话说：“结婚仿佛金漆的鸟笼，笼子外面的人想住进去，
笼内的鸟想飞出来”，“是被围困的城堡，城外的人想冲进去，城里的人想逃出来”。小说还揭露了新型知识分子的种种畸形性格和丑恶灵魂，尤其是方鸿渐、高辛楣、苏文纨等留洋归来的西式知识分子，他们不是沉沦堕落，就是一事无成，在传统的围困中消磨着人生。作者通过他们，对中国的西式知识分子与中国化了的西方文明，从哲学与思想的多重角度作了精心审视。作者善于经营新奇、犀利、多样的比喻，并把比喻发展为象征，形成贯通全书的反讽。全书妙譬连珠，恣意幽默，充满智慧与哲理，是一部成功的“学人小说”。
Fortress Besieged
Fortress Besieged, written by Qian Zhongshu, is an outstanding satirical novel in modern Chinese literature. Based on the vagrant life experience of Fang Hongjian, the young hero, after his return from France on completion of his overseas studies and with a lively and humorous style of pen, the author makes an extensive description of various types of people and numerous aspects of the Chinese society. He vividly depicts the country which was then involved in a historically transitional period, focusing on the rupture, dislocation, perversion and conflict in regard to culture and values. He elaborates with great profundity on the confrontation between the modern and traditional Chinese culture and on the confusion and discomfiture in terms of cultural values. Applying the traditional customs of familial and marital relationships as a metaphor, the writer makes an attempt to elucidate the self-besiegement of modern China. To quote the characters of the book, “Marriage is nothing but a gold-plated birdcage, those without are eager to get in while those within long to get out.” “It is just a fortress besieged, those outside are anxiou s to rush in while those inside yearn to get out.” The writer exposes the abnormal personalities and filthy souls of the new generation of intellectuals typified by Fang Hongjian, Gao Xinmei and Su Wenwan, who either sink into degeneration or accomplish nothing, idling away their life in the besiege of traditional customs. Through them, the writer makes an elaborate and multi-layered survey of the westernized intellectuals and the localized Western civilization from both ideological and philosophical perspectives. Adept at applying vagarious, incisive and diverse figuration and at extending his imageries into symbols, the writer creates an irony which runs through the book as its consistent style. Abundant in witty and humorous remarks and rich in wisdom and philosophical ideas, the book is recognized as a successful work about “scholars”.
（Passage15）《木兰诗》
长篇叙事诗《木兰诗》是北朝民歌中的杰作。诗歌用质朴自然的语言描写木兰女扮男装代父从军的传奇故事，塑造了木兰这一巾帼英雄的光辉形象。木兰本是一个普通的劳动妇女，毅然乔装代父从军，表现出非凡的胆识和自我牺牲精神。她历时10年，身经百战，九死一生；凯旋归来，不受官爵，不慕荣名，表现了淳朴高洁的情操。她的身上既集中体现了普通劳动妇女的高尚品德，又具有非凡的智慧、传奇的经历和英雄的品格。她身上体现着劳动人民的高尚品质和乐观主义精神，为历代人民所喜爱，今天木兰故事已被搬上舞台、银幕。《木兰诗》与《孔雀东南飞》被誉为中国诗史上的乐府“双璧”。
The Song of Mulan
The Song of Mulan, a long epical poem, is a masterpiece of the folk songs of the Northern Dynasty. Describing in simple and natural language the story of Hua Mulan, a legendary heroine, the poem creates a glorious image of the heroine who is dressed up as a man to serve in the army in place of her father. Mulan, an ordinary working class woman, disguises herself resolutely as a man to replace her father’s service in the army, which demonstrates her outstanding courage and self-sacrificing spirit. For ten years in commission with hundreds of battles fought, she goes through numerous narrow escapes from death. Upon her return in triumph, she neither accepts any official positions nor admires any honors, thus displaying a simple and honest, noble and unsullied sentiment. She embodies not only the outstanding noble morality of the working class women, but also their extraordinary wisdom, legendary experience and heroic character. The noble quality and optimism of the working class people she incarnates have been admired by people of later generations. Her story is still being staged or made into movies today. Mulan Verse and Peacocks Flying Southeastward are highly regarded as “a pair of jade” in the history of Chinese poetry.
（Passage16）中国传统山水画
山水画是以自然风景为描写对象的中国传统画科。中国的山水画不但表现了自然风光的丰富多彩，更集中体现了中国人的自然观与审美意识，凝聚着中国人的智慧和感情，体现着东方艺术的审美理想。
中国古代山水画不像西方风景画那样，以再现自然为表现目的。中国山水画的独特传统是创造“意境”，即把表达画家来自生活的情思放在主导地位，追求景象的形神统一，使客观的景与主观的情相统一，达到情景交融的境界。通过不同意境的构筑，中国山水画的目的就是实现画外意和“意外妙”，去吸引观者，感染观者。中国古代山水画在有限的山水形貌中寄托着画家对整个宇宙自然的认识及审美主体的感情与理想，表现了主客观之间的辩证关系，营造出天人合一的境界。写景是为寄情寓意，意与景汇，景与情通，情景交融才能产生意境。总之，意境是中国山水画的灵魂。
中国山水画的创作原则是“外师造化，中得心源”。所谓“外师造化”，就是向大自然学习，酝酿成为胸中丘壑和胸中意象。“中得心源”则牵涉到创作主体修养的高低，包括人品的修养、诗文的修养等。“外师造化，中得心源”是一个物我交感的过程，即以我观物，将抒情意象自由组合，在貌似平淡的写意中追求内蕴丰富的优美意境。中国古代山水画的表现形式主要有青绿山水、金碧山水、水墨山水、浅绛山水、没骨山水等。在塑造形象上，强调整体感，不过分拘泥于细节；同时从物象的结构组织出发，形成了既反映山水石类别的表现特点又更具程式化的组织手法。在空间处理上，要求“以小观大”、“折高折远”，游动视点，打破时空界限。在构图上，更重视“势”和“开合起伏”的处理与表现，在或繁或简的构图中，体现出大自然内在联系与运动的深厚内蕴。山水画的笔法有点子皴、线皴、面皴3种皴法，墨法有破、染、擦、泼、积墨等。笔中有墨，墨中有笔，互相渗透，技法丰富多变，提高了笔墨状物抒情与表达独特风格的作用。
中国山水画的发展源远流长。早在先秦时期，儒家就倡导“仁者乐山，智者乐水”。至魏晋南北朝，“老庄告退，山水方滋”，山水便成了人们置身于社会现实之中，又超越于社会现实之外的一个精神家园。独立的山水画也出现了，东晋顾恺之已有山水作品。其时山水画仍是人物的衬景，技法也相当稚拙。但山水画理论已经成熟，南朝的宗炳与王微写下了《画山水序》和《叙画》两篇最早的山水画论。隋唐山水画走向了成熟。唐代的“二李”(李思训、李昭道父子)和王维被后世奉为“南北二宗”的开山，分别代表了宫廷贵族和
隐逸文人对山水画的不同玩赏倾向。五代两宋的山水画注重对山水客观真实性的描绘。五代以荆浩、关仝为代表的北方画派以峻拔雄伟的高山大岭作为画面的主体，以董源、巨然为代表的江南画派则以平淡天真的洲渚峰峦为画面的主体。宋代山水画名家辈出，风格多样。李成、范宽、郭熙、米芾、赵令穰、王希孟等画家在山水画创作上或水墨山水，或小景山水，或米点山水，或青绿山水，各擅胜场。南宋的马远、夏圭突破全景式构图，以局部表现整体，或写山之一角，或写水之半边，称为边角山水。元代的山水画以文人画家为创作主体，大多以“山居”、“渔隐”等命题。“元四家”黄公望、倪瓒、王蒙、吴镇为代表的山水画出现了重主观感情抒发与重笔墨风格的创造新高峰，奠定了元明清文人山水画的表现形式，也完成了山水画诗、书、画的统一。
Traditional Chinese Landscape Painting
Traditional Chinese landscape painting takes natural landscape as its object of description. While creating rich and colorful natural landscapes, it embodies the Chinese people’s conception of nature, their aesthetic awareness, and their wisdom and sentiment. It is a vivid manifestation of the aesthetic thinking of the oriental art.
Unlike Western landscape paintings, traditional Chinese landscape paintings go beyond the passive copying of nature. It is a unique tradition of Chinese landscape painting to create artistic conception, viz. to seek a unity of form and spirit, of human feelings and natural settings, with an emphasis on the expression of the painter’s own thoughts and feelings. Landscape paintings appeal to viewers by the creative compos ition that results in “meaning beyond the picture and picture beyond the meaning”. They try to preserve the painter’s understanding and perception of the whole natural world, his / her thoughts and emotions, ideals and hopes, in the limited picturesque scene. What traditional Chinese landscape painting expresses is a dialectical relationship between subjectivity and objectivity; and what it builds is a scene in which man and nature, feelings and settings are in harmony. The depiction of the landscape should express the painter’s feelings, and only when landscape and feelings become one can artistic perception be created. In short, artistic conception is the soul of traditional Chinese landscape painting.
Traditional Chinese landscape painting has a long history. As far back as the pre-Qin period, Confucian scholars believed that a true man loves the mountains; a wise man loves the sea. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, and the Northern and Southern dynasties, landscape (e.g. mountains and rivers) became a spiritual home for people to stay away from the maddening society. It was at this time that independent landscape painting came into being. Gu Kaizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty was a landscape painter. In fact, landscape then was nothing but the background for the figure in the painting, and the techniques were very simple and shallow. However, landscape painting theories were elaborate. Preface to Landscape Painting and Xu Hua were the first two essays on the theory of landscape painting written by Zong Bing and Wang Wei of the Southern Dynasty respectively. In the Sui and Tang dynasties, landscape painting matured. Li Sixun, Li Zhaodao (father and son), and Wang Wei were deemed as the forerunners of landscape painting representing the Southern and Northern styles, or the attitudes of nobles in the royal court and secluded literati towards landscape painting. The landscape paintings of the Five Dynasties and the Northern and Southern dynasties emphasized the likeness of objects, or