Strategic risk communication Adding value to society

Public Relations Review 33(2007)120–129

Strategic risk communication:Adding value to society

Michael J.Palenchar a ,?,Robert L.Heath b ,1

a School of Advertising and Public Relations,College of Communication and Information,The University of Tennessee,

476Communications Building,Knoxville,TN 37996-0343,United States

b School of Communication,University of Houston,101Communications Building,

Houston,TX 77204-3786,United States

Received 1November 2006;received in revised form 1November 2006;accepted 20November 2006

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to provide a concise summary of the evolvement and the current state of risk communication research and draw insights from a decade of risk communication studies [Heath,R.L.,&Abel,D.D.(1996).Proactive response to citizen risk concerns:Increasing citizens’knowledge of emergency response practices.Journal of Public Relations Research,8(3),151–171;Heath,R.L.,&Palenchar,M.(2000).Community relations and risk communication:A longitudinal study of the impact of emergency response messages.Journal of Public Relations Research,12(2),131–162;Palenchar,M.J.,&Heath,R.L.(2002).Another part of the risk communication model:Analysis of communication processes and message content.Journal of Public Relations Research,14(2),127–158;Palenchar,M.J.,&Heath,R.L.(2003a).Protracted strategic risk communication:A longitudinal analysis of community’s zones of meaning.Paper presented at the conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication,Kansas City,MO;Palenchar,M.J.,&Heath,R.L.(2003b).Strategic risk communication:A longitudinal analysis of a community’s emergency response awareness and practices.Paper presented at the conference of the National Communication Association,Miami,FL;Palenchar,M.J.,&Heath,R.L.(2006).Strategic risk communication campaigns:Some insights from the culmination of a decade of research.Paper presented at the conference of the International Communication Association,Dresden,Germany;Palenchar,M.J.,Heath,R.L.,&Dunn,E.(2005).Terrorism and industrial chemical production:A new era of risk https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4a14976822.html,munication Research Reports,22(1),59–67].A meta-analysis of the authors’research based on qualitative and quantitative research methodologies,including professionally conducted telephone interviews,focus groups,in-depth interviews and ethnography,suggests that strategic risk communication based on the concept that ideas and meaning count,transparency,building trust through community outreach and collaborative decision making,acknowledging uncertainty,and narrative enactment are fundamental communication guidelines for good organizations communicating well;keys for risk communication if it is to add value to society.

?2006Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.

Keywords:Risk communication;Transparency;Trust;Uncertainty;Narrative;Public relations

Throughout history,in numerous and eclectic ways and often by inventive means,human society has been deeply engaged in discussions to try to understand,interpret,mitigate and manage risks,supporting Mary Douglas’(1992)notion that society is structured essentially for the cooperative management of risk.This sense of risk invades homes,?

Corresponding author.Tel.:+18659749082.E-mail addresses:mpalench@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4a14976822.html, (M.J.Palenchar),rheath@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4a14976822.html, (R.L.Heath).1Tel.:+17137432882.

0363-8111/$–see front matter ?2006Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.11.014

M.J.Palenchar,R.L.Heath/Public Relations Review33(2007)120–129121 businesses and communities like never before,particularly for residents and employees who live near or work at potentially dangerous chemical manufacturing1facilities.From media’s unremitting coverage of terrorist threats against energy and transportation systems to activists’blogs exposing the environmental destruction as a result of the present-day course of energy consumption,life hazards related to chemical manufacturing are an ascendant part of contemporary life.Part of these risk characteristics,especially concerning chemical manufacturing,includes political and ecological destruction,human health impacts,poverty and corruption,and security arrangements and human rights abuses.

Community residents who live near or work at potentially hazardous manufacturing facilities are neither spurious nor false in their reasons and desires to be safe and healthy;they are and should be sensitive to the fairness and equality of risk distribution and the resulting environmental and aesthetic implications.These are among the numerous motivators people use when deciding whether a problem exists that affects them and deserves their attention,including the option of making personal responses or collaboratively seeking collective solutions by engaging in public policy struggles(Singer&Endreny,1987).

These motivators and social relations,among others,have been at the forefront of public discussions regarding risks and the development of the?eld of risk communication during the past three decades.To add to this discourse,the purpose of this paper is to provide a concise summary of the evolvement and the current state of risk communication and develop insights from a decade of risk communication research(Heath&Abel,1996;Heath&Palenchar,2000; Palenchar&Heath,2002,2003a,2003b,2006;Palenchar,Heath,&Dunn’s,2005)in communities where over time efforts have been made to build relationships between industry and area residents whose lives are affected,positively and negatively,by the presence of hazardous manufacturing operations.

1.Risk communication

Various de?nitions of risk can be found in the literature,though common themes of risk feature a probabilistic event of various magnitudes that can be augmented or mitigated by various actions and circumstances.The magnitude and valence of a risk as well as when it occurs,who/what it affects and how great the effects’magnitudes are matters that can be variously calculated by science.Science may also be able to intervene to change the probability and magnitude,while some argue that science is also one of the factors that increase the risk.In the event that risk is not proactively controlled,health,safety and environmental concerns remain at the forefront of media,community and public policy discussions.As a result,community residents and industry employees bear the risks associated with living and working near manufacturing facilities,outcries from activists continue to be fueled and the credibility of risk generators is constantly questioned.

Early on the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency identi?ed risk communication as a means to open,responsible, informed,reasonable,scienti?c and value-laden discussion of risks associated with personal health and safety practices involved in living and working in close proximity to harmful activities and toxic substances(National Research Council, 1989).This view of risk communication typically involves large organizations whose activities can pose a risk to members of a community.According to Palenchar(2005),dialogue about risk:

[I]s a community infrastructure,transactional communication process among individuals and organizations

regarding the character,cause,degree,signi?cance,uncertainty,control and overall perception of a risk.Risk communication provides the opportunity to understand and appreciate stakeholders’concerns related to risks generated by organizations,engage in dialogue to address differences and concerns,carry out appropriate actions that can reduce perceived risks,and create a climate of participatory and effective discourse to reduce friction and increase harmony and mutuality.(pp.752–753)

Disciplines do not agree and often assume substantially different interpretive approaches to risk.Althaus(2005) offered a comparative analysis of the disciplines’approaches to risk by starting with economic conceptualizations that differentiate risk from uncertainty;risk is a structured application of knowledge to the unknown.As such her review considered:

1For simplicity reasons,chemical manufacturing refers to exploration,re?ning,production,storage and transportation of oil,natural gas,specialty chemicals and other energy sources.

122M.J.Palenchar,R.L.Heath/Public Relations Review33(2007)120–129

[E]ach of the disciplines as having a particular knowledge approach with which they confront the unknown so

as to order its randomness and convert it into a risk proposition...[that]places the personal decision maker at the center of attention,forcing analysis to concentrate on the nature of uncertainty and the available knowledge that is brought to bear on this uncertainty.(p.567)

Among the social sciences,anthropology views risk as a cultural phenomenon,sociology a societal phenomenon, economics a decisional phenomenon related to a means of securing wealth or avoiding loss,law as a fault of conduct and a judicable phenomenon,psychology as a behavioral and cognitive phenomenon,linguistics as a concept,history as a story,arts as an emotional phenomenon,religion as an act of faith,and philosophy as a problematic phenomenon (Althaus,2005).

Risk communication is also grounded in various other academic and applied orientations,including:actuarial approach utilizing statistical predictions,a toxological and epidemiological approach,an engineering approach includ-ing probabilistic risk assessments,and cultural and social theories of risk(Renn,1992).Summarizing these numerous views,Renn concluded that risk communication has evolved from at least three separate streams of thought to guide the way risks are calculated,evaluated and controlled:(1)scienti?c positivism,whereby data and methodologies of scientists dominate community efforts to ascertain the degree of risk and subsequent communications about the risk on behalf of the community;(2)constructivism/relativism,which assumes that everyone’s opinions have equal value so that no opinion is better or worse than anyone else’s;and(3)dialogue,that through collaborative decision-making, scienti?c opinion becomes integrated into policies that are vetted by key publics’values.

Leiss(1996),having written extensively on the history of modern risk communication,described three eras of the ?eld beginning with a source-oriented approach and ending with the present approach of communication that is based on shared,social relations.Along those lines,one of the most proli?c lines of risk communication research involved residents living near risk environments and the concern that they rely on invalid assumptions of risk.Fischhoff,Slovic, Lichtenstein,Read,and Combs(1978;Covello,1983;Slovic,1987),among others,initiated“expressed preference”research that involved measuring a wider array of attitudes than bene?ts to ascertain tolerable risk levels.The researchers found laypeople’s risk ratings,unlike those of experts,are not simply in?uenced by fatality estimates.Differences in judgments were affected by numerous qualitative factors such as relationships to other risk bearers,familiarity,control, dread,acute,fatal,undetectable and arti?cial.

Within public relations research in the United States,risk communication began when private sector and public sector organizations failed to understand and exhibit appropriate levels of corporate responsibility by failing to achieve proper control of risks associated with their activities.In response to this lack of oversight,as well as in response to the chemical accident that occurred in Bhopal,India,in1984,and a series of other large chemical accidents in the United States in the late1980s,the U.S.Congress,along with an array of city,county,state and federal governmental organizations, passed a series of laws and regulations intended to minimize the likelihood and consequences of catastrophic chemical and other manufacturing accidents(Belke,2000).

One common element of these legal instruments and non-regulatory mechanisms,as well as the various models and epistemological approaches to risk communication related to chemical manufacturing in this country,is communication.“Empowering the public with information helps assure[industry]compliance with existing laws and encourages companies to take additional measures to reduce industrial chemical releases”(U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, 1997,p.3).For example,the Superfund Amendment Reauthorization Act of1986(SARA),Title III,Section313, requires companies to share information with the public concerning chemical emissions.

Rather than suggesting that one discipline’s approach is superior,Althaus(2005)reasoned that the various disciplines should work in concert to bring to bear on risk perception and interpretation the best each has to offer.Accordingly, each discipline is an epistemological system that focuses on risk matters with a unique set of bifocals and varying interpretive screens.

2.Insight from a decade of research

This research note analyzed the longitudinal implications and expanded upon the results and conclusions drawn by more than a decade of research by the authors on strategic risk communication(Heath&Abel,1996;Heath& Palenchar,2000;Palenchar&Heath,2002,2003a,2003b,2006;Palenchar,Heath,&Dunn’s,2005).The research was based on qualitative and quantitative research methodologies,including professionally conducted telephone interviews,

M.J.Palenchar,R.L.Heath/Public Relations Review33(2007)120–129123 focus groups,in-depth interviews and ethnography conducted in numerous risk communities dominated by chemical manufacturing facilities.In times of risk and crisis,members of society are likely to turn to one or more individuals or organizations for answers.In response,this paper offers strategic risk communication based on the concept that ideas and meaning count,transparency,building trust through community outreach and collaborative decision making, acknowledging uncertainty and narrative enactment as important requirements for good organizations communicating well;keys for risk communication if it is to add value to society.

2.1.Strategic risk communication:ideas and meaning count

Strategic risk communication is about something:ideas and meaning count.Obvious and even trivial,public relations and risk communication researchers and campaign strategists often forget that their work can and do–positively or negatively–affect people’s health,safety and environment.Formative research prior to developing and implementing a risk communication campaign is essential.Strategic research allows program planners to hear and learn from a myriad of stakeholders and stakeseekers,including local residents,employees,health care providers,government of?cials,emergency personnel,and vendors and contractors to name some major categories.For example,industry employees often have great misconceptions about health and safety risks related to living(as opposed to working)in the presence of hazardous manufacturing operations,though these stakeholders are often disregarded in community risk communication efforts–it is assumed they understand the implications of their jobs or that their companies are communicating with them(Palenchar&Heath,2002).

Risk generating organizations,often in conjunction with local government,formulate personal response plans which people can use to shelter in place–to go or stay inside a residence or business,close the building to outside air,and to monitor the emergency by using special radio frequencies and emergency response activated telephone systems. For the communities in the numerous studies,long-term strategic risk communication campaigns have been effective in increasing residents knowledge of what to do to protect themselves and their families in the case of an emergency, whether in a home,business or park,(Palenchar&Heath,2006),including some counter-intuitive emergency response procedures such as not picking up their children at school in the event of an emergency(federal and state law requires children to be sheltered-in-place during a declared emergency unless the school itself is in more danger than exposure). Residents’awareness and knowledge of the term shelter-in-place and all its corresponding elements increased,including awareness and knowledge of emergency noti?cation systems in the community and an increase in behavioral intentions related to proper shelter in place procedures.Residents perceptions that industry and emergency personnel are prepared to respond properly during a manufacturing emergency continued to increase over ten years of analysis,as well as residents increased awareness of industry safeguards to air and water quality in the community(e.g.,Palenchar& Heath,2002).Residents’positive perception also increased in regard to industry studying worst-case scenarios and terrorism preparation(Palenchar et al.,2005),as well as their perception that local industries are a positive economic and community force(Palenchar&Heath,2002).

Reviewing the data from one of the early risk communication studies,Heath and Abel(1996)concluded,“When community of?cials provide emergency response systems and the information citizens need to protect themselves in the event of an emergency,those efforts can be demonstrated to foster support of the industry”(p.151).Reviewing data from the follow-up study,Heath and Palenchar(2000)concluded that“a fully functioning risk community is one in which risks are known to occur,and this knowledge keeps industry,government,and citizens continually learning what to do during such events”(p.156).

All the studies assumed that by instituting emergency response procedures and communicating about them,industry would enjoy increased citizen support.However,several of the later studies questioned whether sustained risk com-munication campaigns,which helped the citizens remain knowledgeably vigilant,increased concerns about risk while appreciating the responsible care demonstrated by the industry and the city government.

A review of the most recent study(Palenchar&Heath,2006)argued that both the process and content of communication are integral factors in increasing awareness,knowledge,positive attitudes and positive behavioral intentions:

Opposition is based on the perception that the industry is offensive and poses a risk to safety.Support comes from the belief that the industry is having a lowered impact on the quality of the environment.These themes are consistent for the past decade.These conclusions suggest that effective relationships between industries that

124M.J.Palenchar,R.L.Heath/Public Relations Review33(2007)120–129

pose risks and communities in which they operate are based on both the performance of the industry and on its communication efforts.(p.24)

With proactive dialogue,negotiated relationships and social identities as a starting point to examining the lat-est era of risk communication research and practices,it is clear that strategic risk communication campaigns can make a difference in communities;but only with the legitimate efforts of the industry’s control over the production of hazardous materials,political commitment,and the allocation of resources needed to carry out long-term risk communication.

2.2.Transparency

Information transparency is the degree to which organizational actions and decisions are ascertainable and compre-hensible by interested parties(Grunig&Hunt,1984).Transparency is not just about information;it is a process whereby active participation in acquiring,distributing and creating knowledge(Grunig&Huang,2000)with stakeholders and stakeseekers is essential to effective relationships.

According to Hon and Grunig(1999),transparency is another way of thinking about disclosure and it is an important part of relationship maintenance strategy.“[P]ublics want to understand the organizations that have consequences on their lives as well as the economy and health of their community...Failure to disclose breeds suspicion that an organization has something to hide”(Hon,2006,p.61).Organizations that adopt as part of its culture the concept of transparency improves a company’s reputation and helps restore trust(Bowen,2004).

While clearly advocating for more transparency,Gower’s(2006)review of related research notes some of its possible limitations,such as consumers may not necessarily be interested in more information but rather just knowing that organizations are behaving properly,that publics don’t have unlimited information-processing systems,and that more information does not necessarily lead to greater trust and credibility.

However,transparency and disclosure can facilitate communities to participate in environmental and development decision-making processes.One key aspect of risk communication consistently identi?ed during ten years of research is to adhere to and improve voluntary protocols and laws improving the public’s right of access to information and participation in organizational and governmental decision making.“Without good-quality information,consumers and socially responsible investors cannot consistently and accurately voice preferences through markets...Policymak-ers should further adopt veri?cation standards to ensure that of?cials,consumers,and shareholders can rely on the information disclosed–that companies are performing as they claim”(Leighton,Roht-Arriaza,&Zarsky,2002,p.

74).

For example,technology enables organizations to communicate instantly and continually with stakeholders.The Internet and other new communication technologies allow stakeholders and stakeseekers the opportunity to unearth potentially unlimited amounts of information about risk generating organizations and related public policy debates. Within risk communication campaigns,the Internet has been utilized to promote children’s educational campaigns about risk(see Wally Wise Guy,e.g.,Palenchar&Heath,2002),to notify communities of wind directions related to shelter in place procedures,and to encourage participation in public policy debates during Local Emergency Planning Committee(community)meetings.According to Gower(2006),the Internet has shaped the expectation of transparency and provided the facility to be transparent.

Berger(2005)rhetorically asked whether we could imagine public relations practitioners and academics marching, demonstrating and lobbying in the interests of shared power and increased organizational transparency.A decade of risk communication research clearly argues for organizations to demonstrate greater social accountability and transparency of risk through strategic risk communication.An organizational culture of transparency acknowledges and respects the information,communication and decision-making expectations and demands of all its stakeholders and stakeseekers,and does not stage-manage them by limiting access to,propagandizing information about or manipulating decision-making regarding risk.

2.3.Build trust over time through community outreach and collaborative decision making

Public distrust of industry and government of?cials is readily apparent.Research has demonstrated that industry and government regulatory of?cials are not considered the most trusted sources of risk information,including media

M.J.Palenchar,R.L.Heath/Public Relations Review33(2007)120–129125 and public relations spokespersons.At the same time,trust in plant managers as credible spokespersons remained consistently high throughout ten years of research(e.g.,Palenchar&Heath,2006).Residents who demonstrated trust in industry and emergency response personnel were more likely to gather information,be knowledgeable and exhibit positive behavioral intentions regarding emergency response procedures(Palenchar&Heath,2002).One part of the studies examined whether over a10-year period increased awareness of industry’s health and safety efforts increased support and trust for the industry.While residents were more supportive of the industry in relation to these efforts it did not necessarily translate into trust for the involved industry and government of?cials or awareness of speci?c communication efforts or sources of information(Palenchar&Heath,2006).

For effective risk communication,the source of information and advice needs to have a satisfactory level of trust in the judgment of each public(Renn&Levine,1991).People tend to be less afraid of risks that come from places, people,corporations or other organizations that they trust,and are more afraid if the risk comes from a source they don’t trust(Ropeik&Gray,2002).If expert risk estimates con?ict with one another,the decision to be made becomes more complex and requires greater amounts of trust.

Organizations that work to build trust over time through community outreach and collaborative decision making help to demonstrate industry’s efforts to achieve reasonable levels of health and safety.Such levels need to withstand the knowledgeable skepticism of the area residents that they could and should trust industry to exert reasonable amounts of security and communicate in ways that increase rather than decrease citizens’security.Trust is ultimately demonstrated in word and dead.It is groomed and maintained,and can be lost or destroyed.If citizens cannot trust organizations or industries to be responsible,they will turn to other entries–government,activists and non-governmental organizations –to force appropriate operating standards.

2.4.Acknowledge the uncertainty in risk assessments

Aristotle(Trans.1932),in discussing enthymene,suggested that people do not have to deliberate upon which is certain.“No human action,so to speak,is inevitable”(p.12).Rather,men have to deliberate upon what is uncertain,and on which their judgments are based no more than probabilities.The very nature of risk prohibits absolute de?nitions and knowledge.Driskill and Goldstein(1986)de?ned uncertainty“as the perceived lack of information,knowledge,beliefs and feeling necessary for accomplishing organizational tasks”(p.41).In this vein, Albrecht(1988)de?ned uncertainty as the lack of attribution con?dence about cause-effect patterns.Uncertainty moti-vates information seeking because it is https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4a14976822.html,ing that principle,uncertainty reduction theory explains the human incentive to seek information(Berger&Calabrese,1975).Publics want information to reduce their uncertainties about the subjects under consideration and about the people who are creating those uncertainties. As such,it would bene?t both risk generating organizations and risk bearers if organizations acknowledge the uncertainty in risk assessments,and use it as an incentive for constantly seeking better answers to the questions raised.

Concerning communication related to complex chemical manufacturing issues,it is understandable that risk mes-sages can be confusing:they come from a variety of sources that involve multiple parties and often re?ect competing scienti?c conclusions.Experts and regulatory agencies often operate on the assumption that they and their audiences share a common framework for evaluating and interpreting risk information.Numerous views of communication, however,continue to identify understanding as the most important outcome.People may understand,for example,the various shelter in place protocols during a risk event.Those people,however,may not agree with the risk assessments because they are not satis?ed that those assessments achieve or constitute the proper levels of risk.This includes the small percentage of residents who live near chemical facilities that evacuate at the?rst alert of a shelter in place,even if they understand that this is not the suggested course of action for most risk events(e.g.,Heath&Palenchar,2000). This line of reasoning makes explicit the fact that risk communication is not merely a scienti?c or knowledge based activity.

The quality of uncertainty framing is also the direct result of risk management cultures.Uncertainty framing is primordial to a reasonable risk advocacy.Rayner(1992)suggested that framing uncertainty tends to depend upon an organization’s function(self-interest)and structure(culture)and is in this sense legitimate;but as soon as this uncertainty is overrepresented because of a culture’s interpretation of the situation and leads to heightened risk perceptions in other stakeholders,it must be considered as obstructive to the collective formulation of appropriate policy measures(Gerlach &Rayner,1988).

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2.5.Risk communication is carried out as narrative enactment

Communities of risk can be considered a front line in the marketplace of attitudes,knowledge and perceptions over the distribution of resources.In this social arena,society is the collective enactment of that discussion via narratives(in harmony,in con?ict,that build con?ict)as shared meaning made public through voices in uni?ed competition(Heath, 1994).

Some communication scholars regard narrative as the paradigm of all communication(Fisher,1985a).People think and act in terms of narratives,providing form and content to connect and give meaning to events.Narrative functions represent a universal medium of human consciousness(Lucaites&Condit,1985)and a metacode for transactional transmission of messages about shared reality(White,1981).

Narrative theory,devised by Fisher(e.g.,1984,1985a,1985b),adds depth to the view that people enact their lives as actors in an undirected play(Cronen,Pearce,&Harris,1982;Pearce&Cronen,1980).Through narratives,people structure their experiences and actions.Aristotle pointed out that people do not necessarily experience organizations, but rather they experience the communication organizations utilize to explain their actions and the communication about organizations(Elwood,1995).People,especially in more economic-based countries,have become accustomed to companies speaking as individuals,sharing their thoughts and perspectives on a range of issues,and not just those pertaining particularly to their company’s or industry’s core job functions.For example,chemical companies often voice their opinions about community affairs in which their plants are situated.Knowing the common narratives of a group,organization or society allows risk communicators the framework for scanning,analyzing,identifying and monitoring stakeholders and stakeseekers’perceptions,as well as participating in shared dialogue and decision-making.

Quintilian(Trans.1966)noted,“For we must state our facts like advocates,not witnesses”(p.109),while Fisher (1985b)argued that the unities of direction and purpose combine to form discourse dependency.In this sense,rhetorical narrative is not complete and self-suf?cient textually.The claim supported by rhetorical narrative must be articulated outside of the narration as part of a whole and changing world.This view by Fisher essentially supports Aristotle’s (Trans.1932)contention that investigation of public discourse cannot be separated from the role of discourse in society.

Within society discourse,power is exercised by the groups who are able to frame their interests as those of other groups.In the time of uncertainty–such as risk or crisis situations–the interpretations or narratives offered to frame and explain this uncertainty favor those of the empowered groups.Narratives are used to create,maintain and continue the interpretation and stabilization the distribution of power within a society.In the marketplace of ideas there are many different stories interpreting any one event.The acceptance of one narrative or interpretation leads to the elimination or muting of the alternatives.This in turn also leads to the conclusion that a group can rise to power when its interpretations or narratives are accepted in the wrangle of the marketplace of ideas(Heath,1994).

Within this dialogue and contest,words have propositional values(Burke,1966)and the selection of those terms affects how information is considered,accepted,acted upon or altered–fundamental roles of risk communication.For example,the Texas City explosion on April16,1947,is an iconic narrative for residents along the Houston Ship Channel. Mention“the explosion”and most everyone knows exactly what you are talking about,the loss of life,the community and industry destruction,the changes in legislation and enforcement of transportation codes,and the sense of risk that still resides in the local communities.Deconstructing risk narratives ultimately can help public relations practitioners understand how stakeholders and stakeseekers navigate through the information and public policy environment.

3.Risk communication can add value to society

At the core of a decade of lessons learned from developing and analyzing risk communication campaigns lies Quintilian’s(1951)principle of the good person communicating well as a foundation for fostering enlightened choices through dialogue in the public sphere.Each organization should strive to be moral and communicate to satisfy the interests of key markets,audiences and publics that strive to manage personal and public resources,make personal and sociopolitical decisions,and form strong and bene?cial relationships.

Quintilian(1951)considered social values to be an implicit or explicit part of each statement.The quality of discourse (risk communication campaigns)is inseparable from the character of the organization that chooses the side of an issue as well as the form and substance with which to address it.As such,a“bad”organization cannot communicate effectively or well for the long haul.Eventually either the falseness of the arguments made or the unethical ends to which the organization works and communicates will be its undoing–it will be found out and discredited.

M.J.Palenchar,R.L.Heath/Public Relations Review33(2007)120–129127 A“good”organization can utilize risk communication to empower relevant publics by helping them to develop and use emergency responses that can mitigate the severe outcomes in the event of a risk https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4a14976822.html,anizations?nd reason to implement programs whereby they increase publics’understanding of technical processes as a means for lessening the fear of the threatening unknown and of increasing trust.To do so requires that the organizations evidence public interest in how they operate and communicate.They often have the best information to use to determine whether or how some commercial process should be conducted.If that information is hidden or otherwise withheld from the public,it cannot serve the wise formulation of public policy.

Positive impact of such measures is not a given.For instance,research has led to mixed reviews of industries’ability to communicate environmental information to citizens.For example,Heath,Bradshaw,and Lee(2002)found a lack of awareness of the existence of Local Emergency Planning Committees and low use of such organizations,while at the same time more than two-thirds of the residents surveyed approved of their intended functions.Overall,their?ndings suggested,“a fully functioning communication infrastructure leads to a healthier community that responds to risks as manageable uncertainties”(p.317).

Risk communication,as part of the management of organizations(whether for pro?t,nonpro?t or government) must,according to Heath(2006):

[D]emonstrate the characteristics that foster legitimacy,such as being re?ective;being willing to consider and

instrumentally advance others’interests;being collaborative in decision making;being proactive and responsive to others’communication and opinion needs;and working to meet or exceed the requirements of relationship management,including being a good corporate citizen.(p.100)

In this way organizations are seen as relevant and worthy contributors to a fully functioning society as opposed to careless risk generators draining resources from a dysfunctional society.

4.Conclusion

All of the risk communication efforts,both individual and collective,throughout history have often been easier to imagine and create than to implement successfully.Risk communication science challenges academics and public relations practitioners to achieve a delicate balance–help people to make sound judgments within a community of interest even though technical information is often dif?cult to obtain,assess and draw consensual conclusions about,while on the other hand those same people must not lose their sense of apprehension about risks to such an extent that they cannot or do not act to reduce their harm.Overall communication objectives are not just to gain additional support for the risk-generating organization or allay the concerns of community residents and other involved individuals and parties,but rather a constructive dialogue that legitimately addresses risk assessment,abatement,policy and communication.

Is it becoming increasingly clear that the main product of risk communication is not informed understanding as such, but the quality of the social relationship it supports.Risk communication becomes a tool for communicating values and identities as much as being about the awareness,attitudes and behaviors related to the risk itself.While at its worst risk communication can be utilized to propagandize and promote a bad industry not communicating well,at its best risk communication can be used to increase awareness and understanding of emergency response measures,heighten and not reduce appropriate levels of vigilance of the risks being born by risk bearers in the community,and work to adjust behavioral intentions that though may intuitively seem correct may actually cause additional negative health and safety consequences.In this way public relations and risk communication increasingly can help make society more fully functional.

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实数舍入后的小数值FracPart 实数舍入后的整数值IntPart 自然对数Ln LN(X) 对数Log LOG(X) 余数Mod MOD(A,B) 负绝对值Neq 指定数值舍入后的奇数Odd 返回PI Pi 给定数字的乘幂Power POW(A,B) 随机数Rand 按指定位数舍入Round 靠近零值，舍入数字RoundDown 远离零值，舍入数字RoundUp 数字的符号Sign SGN(X) 正弦值Sin 双曲正弦值Sinh SIN(X) 平方Sqr SQUARE(X) 正平方根Sqrt SQRT(X) 正切值Tan TAN(X) 双曲正切值Tanh 取整Trunc INTPART(X) 字符串函数

测试是否相同Exact 返回字符串中的字符数Len 大写转小写Lower 数字转化为字符串Text 取出文本两边的空格Trim 小写转大写Upper 文字转化为数字Value 颜色函数 黑色Black COLORBLACK 蓝色Blue COLORBLUE 青色Cyan COLORCYAN 茶色DarkBrown 深青色DarkCyan 深灰色DarkGray 深绿色DarkGreen 深褐色DarkMagenta 深红色DarkRed 默认颜色DefaultColor 绿色Green COLORGREEN 浅灰色LightGray COLORLIGHTGREY 紫红色Magenta COLORMAGENTA 红色Red COLORRED

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A: 吸血受护甲的影响。比如你造成100伤害，对方护甲有20%减成，那么你的攻击将造成80伤害。如果此时你的吸血效果为10%，那么你将吸取8点血。吸血效果可以叠加，并且没有上限没，也就是说你可能会获得超过100%的吸血。 Q: 护甲和魔防是如何计算的？ A:每一点护甲意味着对方要杀死你将需要多造成你生命1%的攻击。比如当你有100护甲时，对方需要多造成100%伤害才能杀死你，也就是说你减少了一半的攻击。再比如你有300护甲时，对方需要多打300%，也就是总共需要造成400%你生命值的攻击力，也就是你只承受了25%伤害并且这种关系没有收益递减。也就是说为线性关系。如果你有1000血，那么每点护甲可以看成给你多提供了10点血。 魔法防御也是同样的道理。要注意的是魔防只防御魔法，物力防御只防御物力(废话？呵呵) Q: 我怎么看到我人物的属性。 A: 在游戏里，左下角可以看见人物的攻击，AP，移动速度，护甲，魔防。如果要看到其他属性，请按Ｃ键，或者点击人物头像。 3. 移动速度 Q: 不同的鞋子增加了多少移动速度 A: 1级增加50，2级70，3级90。 Q: 移动速度如果计算？ A: 首先每个英雄有一个初始移动值，假如为300。当你穿上2级鞋子，那么你拥有370的移动效果。如果此时你获得一个+35%移动效果的buff。那么就是370 * 1.35,你将有499.5的移动速度。要注意的是这里只是理论竖直，移动效果将符合收益递减规则(下面一个问题会详细解释)这里我们先忽略。现在在前面的例子上如果你中了ashe的减速箭，将减少38%的移动速度。本来是499.5，现在将为499.5 *(1-38%) =309.69 Q: 移动速度的收益递减如何计算 A: 当你人物移动速度超过490后，每一点增加将只收益50%。所以假如你最后理论移动数值为748，那么你的速度为：490+(748-490)*0.5= 604的移动速度。当速度超过415 时候，每点收益为80%。所以假如你的人物速度在所有调整后为445，那么你实际的速度为，415+(445-415 )* 0.8=439。 Q: 减速叠加么？ A:不叠加。当你受到2个减速时候，减速减的多的那个将起作用。如果这个效果结束了，并且你还有另一个减速效果，那么另一个将继续起作用。 比如你受到2个debuff：5秒减少30%速度，3秒减少50%。那么前3秒你身上的减速效果为50% ，最后2秒为30% 。