语言学重点讲解
三星级重点章节
07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics
这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。因为考点还不少！
Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。能举出代表性的例子来支持定义。总之是非常重要。
Functions of language: informative, interpersonal function, performative, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function. 这7个功能也得记住，而且理解。能举出例子。填空容易考其中一个。Important distinctions in linguistics: descriptive / prescriptive, synchronic / diachronic, langue / parole, competence / performance. Etic / Emic. 5对区别特征也非常重要，尤其前四对区别特征，他们几乎是学语言学的必备知识，连这个都不知道，以后就没法学习了!而且有俩对区别特征都是语言学的创始人索绪尔最先提出的。所以这些区别特征的定义等相关知识点都需要记住。最后那个区别特征Etic / Emic 不是特别重要，而且我看到新版《语言学教程》已经把这个特征删除了！
Chapter2: Speech Sounds
首先对Phonetics(语音学)和phonology(音系学)俩个概念要区分下。
语音学部分：发音器官还是要熟悉，也有助于后面语音描述的学习。另外，声带（vocal card）的三个位置（apart, closed together, totally closed），分别产生清音（voiceless），浊音（voived）和喉塞音（glottal stop）.这部分最重要的还算辅音和元音了。辅音要熟记发音部位和发音方法，能熟练的根据描述，写出对应的语音，或者能描述给出的辅音，这应该是必考得！元音的考察方式跟辅音一样。但元音考得个数少。10个小题里，可能是3个元音描述，7个辅音描述。最后就是coarticulation的定义和理解，举出例子。对什么是宽式标音（broad transcription）和窄式标音(narrow transcription) 也应该熟悉。
音系学部分：理解通过最小对立体的分析，得出的音位(phonemes)的概念.记住音位phoneme 的定义；音位变体（allophones）的定义; 互补分布（complementary distribution）的定义. 音位过程(phonological process) 只要熟悉Nasalization, Dentalization, Velarization, Devoicing 这四个就可以了，自己记几个例子，以防万一！大家也看过书了，音位过程这部分还有些其它知识，挺难的。对于你自己认为很艰涩难懂的东西，其实考试考得可能也不大。这是我们语言学任课老师说的。最后，剩下音节（syllables）了，虽然这个知识点放在本章的最后，以前我以为不重要，但08年，我们有个5分的定义题（definition）,就考了syllables的定义！所以大家对音节结构那块还是熟记下。Chapter3: Lexicon
这章的第二节：The formation of word 和第三节the lexical change 重要。对词素（morphemem）的定义，分类要熟记。Word 形成的俩种方式复合（compound）和派生（derivation）也要熟悉。另外语素变体(Allomorph) 的定义等也要熟悉。词汇变化（the lexical change）这部分，介绍了7种词汇演变的方式，只要记住这7种方式，能给每个方式举个例子就可以了。最后的语义变化（semantic change）这部分，我觉得broadening, narrowing, meaning shift, class shift 需要了解下。
Chapter4: Syntax
这一章可以说是全书最难的章节。但新版的《语言学教程》把这章进行了彻底的改变！难度下降了很多。所以如果09年参考书改成新版的话，考生还是比较幸运的！！！这里，我把新旧俩版的第四章对比一下：
旧版：
The traditional approach: number, gender, case , tense 和aspect 要区别清楚。几个重要概念要背会：Concord, Government.
The structural approach: 索绪尔提出的俩个重要概念：组合关系（syntagmatic relation）和聚合关系(paradigmatic relation)，他们的定义一定要在理解的基础上记住。索绪尔的另外俩个概念：能指（signified）和所指（signifier）也很重要。注意区分structure 和system. 因为前者体现了组合关系（syntagmatic relation）；后者体现了聚合关系(paradigmatic relation)。本章的另一个重点是直接成分分析法（IC analysis）。直接成分（immediate constitute）的定义应该记住。如果给你个句子，你要能够用IC analysis 分析。08年我们就考了这样一道题！这部分的另一个重点是向心结构（endocentric constructions）和离心结构（exocentric construction）。理解这两种结构，能够举出典型的例子。
The generative approach: 第一个重点是deep structure 和surface structure. 要背会它们的定义。第二个重点是Chomsky?s 的转换生成语法理论。这部分特别抽象，理解难度大。那么同学们肯定要问，对于书里的这种知识，该掌握到什么程度呢？其实考试不会涉及这种特别难的东西。所以，转换生成理论这部分，大家只要背会the standard theory 和extended standard theory的图表。第三就是背会government 和binding的定义。理解c-command 就可以了。Chomsky的理论这部分知识难度大，一般都不是重点，因为我们老师说特别难的不考。而08年，最后一道大题，就是考的extended standard theory。整个卷子也有好几处考了Chomsky 的理论。所以我们考生去年考完都觉得语言学很偏，原因也就在此。
The functional approach: 了解布拉格学派（Prague school）, 和系统功能语法（systemic-functional grammar）.重点是主位（theme）和述位(rheme).他们的概念，以及句子中哪部分是主位，哪部分是述位。另一个知识点是交际动力（communicative dynamism）.
新版：Chapter 4: From Word to Text.
第一节Syntactic relation:
第二节Grammatical construction and its constituents
第三节Syntactic function
第四节Category
第五节Phrase clause and sentence
第六节Recursiveness
第七节Beyond the sentence
大家可以看到，新版和旧版已经完全不同了。
Chapter5: Meaning (semantics-语义学)
Meanings of “meaning”: 第一个重点是Leech?s seven types of meaning: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, themantic meaning. 第二个重点是the referential theory 的概念，semantic triangle, sense and reference 的定义。第三个重点是sense relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy. 着三种关系应该说很重要。这章后面一部分内容了解即可。比如sentence meaning 那部分。
二、二星级重点章节
Chapter 7 language, culture and society
Language and culture: 语言与文化这部分其实是人类语言学。需要记住：context of situation 的组成部分。重点是Sapir-Whorf hypotheses 的定义和理解。特别是语言相对论linuistic relativity和语言决定论linguistic determinism。Language and society: 语言与社会这部分就是社会语言学。会写社会语言学这个词：sociolinguistic. 这部分注意下communicative competence, linguistic sexism, women register.
Chapter8: language in use (pragmatics 语用学)
这章的重点就是俩个理论：speech act theory 和the theory of conversational implicature. 其中the theory of the illocutionary act, cooperative principle and its four maxims 要熟记。知道the violation of the maxims, the characteristics of implicature. 在post-gricean development 部分，比较重要的是relavence theory. 后面的内容了解即可。
三、一星级重点章节
Chapter 6: language processing in mind
这章是心理语言学，考的几率很小。但又不能不复习这一章。谁也不能肯定这章肯定不考。比较重要的知识点：cohort theory, frequency effect, recency effects, garden path sentence, minimal attachment theory, schemata.
Chapter 1. Invitation to linguistics
Natural vs artificial languages
I. The definition of Language
II. Design features of language
III. Functions of language
IV. The definition of linguistics:
V. Main branches of linguistics
Phonetics:Phonology:Morphology:Syntax:Semantics:Pragmatics:Macrolinguistics:Psycholin guistics: Sociolinguistics:Anthropological linguistics: Computational linguistics: VI. Important distinctions in linguistics
Descriptive vs prescriptive studies
Synchronic vs diachronic studies
Langue vs parole Saussure
Competence vs performance Chomsky
(Communicative Competence:.)
Etic vs emic
Syntagmatic vs paradiamatic relations
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
I. The three branches of phonetics
II. Speech organs
vocal folds (cords)声带: glottis声门: apart (voiceless: /p/), closed together (voiced: /b/), totally closed (glottal stop: /?/)
III. Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcriptions
IV. Consonants
1) Manners of articulation
2) Places of articulation
Bila bial Labioden
tal
dent
al
alveo
lar
Palatoalve
olar
pala
tal
vel
ar
glot
tal
nasal m n ?
plosive p b t d k ɡ
fricative f v θs z ∫?h
affricate t∫ d?
Approximan
t
(w) r j w
Lateral l
3) Voicing: 4) Nasal vs oral: 5)Pulmonic vs non-pulmonic:
V. Vowels
Cardinal vowels:
Monophthong vs diphthong or pure vowels vs glidings: /a/, /au/
Schwa
VI. Coarticulation and phonetic transcription
Coarticulation协同发音:Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音: Perseverative coarticulation接续性协同发音: Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式和紧式音标: aspirated Diacritics:
VII. Phonological analysis
Phonemes音位:
minimal pairs最小对立体: contrastive distribution对立分布: Allophones音位变体: complementary distribution互补分布:
phonetic similarity语音相似性:
pattern congruity模式一致性:
Phonological processes
Assimilation同化: regressive assimilation逆同化: progressive assimilation顺同化: Phonological processes:
Voiced sound → voiceless / voiceless _________
Epenthesis:
Sibilant:
Underlying form:
The Elsewhere Condition:
VIII. Distinctive features
Obstruents . Sonorants
IX. Suprasegmental phonology超切分音系学
Syllable
Syllabic structures:onset; rhyme;nucleus or peak; coda
open syllable : Sentence stress: Pitch: Tones: Intonation:
Chapter 3 Lexicon
I. What is word
Three senses of word
Identification of word
Lexeme:
II. Classification of words
Variable vs invariable words
Grammatical vs lexical words
Closed-class vs open-class words
Word classes:
New word classes identified
Particles: Auxiliaries:Pro-forms: pro-adjectives:Pro-verbs:Pro-adverbs: pro-locative: Determiners: Pre-diterminers:Central determiners: Post-determiners:
III. Formation of words
Morpheme and morphology
Morphemes:
Types of morphemes:
free morphemes: bound morphemes:
roots:
free roots:bound roots:
affixes: prefixes: suffixes: infixes:
stems:
Differences between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes
Inflection and word formation
Compound:
endocentric （向心的） and exocentric （离心的）
Derivation
Phonology and morphology
morpheme and phoneme
2) morphemic structure and phonological structure
3) allomorph
morphophonology or morphophonemics:
The conditions of morpheme change
phonologically conditioned
morphologically conditione
IV. lexical changes
New words (neologisms, coinages) are created in the following ways:
V. Phonological change
VI. Semantic change
Chapter 4 Syntax
I. The traditional approach
Categories: Number: Gender: Case: Tense: Aspect: Degree: Concord:
Government:
II. The structural approach
<1>Structures and systems
<2>Immediate constituent analysis
Linear structures:
Hierarchical structures:
Construction:
Constituent:
Immediate constituents:
IC Analysis:
Advantages and disadvantages
<3> Endocentric and exocentric constructions:
Exocentric constructions：
Chapter 5 Meaning
1. Meanings of ‘meaning’
Leech’s seven types of meaning:
2. Word Meaning
<1>The referential theory:
Problems:
The semantic triangle
Sense reference
<2>Sense relations
Synonymy:
Antonymy:
Gradable antonymy: three features:
Complementary antonymy: three features
Converse antonymy
Hyponymy: e.g. furniture (superordinate) –desk, sofa, bed, chair, cupboard, etc. (hyponyms or co-hyponyms)
<3>Componential analysis:
woman: HUMAN, ADULT, -MALE.
Father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x) = x is the parent of y and x is male.
Kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (-ALIVE (y)))) = x causes y to become dead
Problems with semantic componential analysis:
<4>Semantic field theory (lexical field theory)
3.Sentence meaning
<1>Predicate logic, predicate calculus
Proposition: a proposition has two parts:
Truth value
<2>Propositional logic
composite proposition
Negation Conjunction Disjunction Implication Equivalence Entailment:
<3>An integrated theory
the principle of compositionality.
According to this them, the semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules.
grammatical classification semantic information
grammatical or syntactic markers.
semantic markers and distinguishers.
Problems:
Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/592047875.html,nguage and culture
<1>Nida:
<2>Firth:Theory of context of situation
<3>the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:
Linguistic determinism:
Linguistic relativity:
<4>Culture in language classrooms
The objectives:
Language and society
<1>Monistic or autonomous pursuit of an independent science:
Dualistic view:
<2>The factors that are believed to influence language behavior in a social context:
<3>a woman register :
<4>Linguistic sexism:
<5>Linguistic racism:
<6>Sociolinguistics to teaching
Cross-cultural Communion
Suggestive Principles for Cross-cultural Communion:
Chapter 8 language in use
1.Speech act theory
Performatives（言语行为句）and constatives（表述句）
A theory of the illocutionary act
3.The theory of conversational implicature（会话含义）
Cooperative principle or CP
Four categories of maxims:
Violation of the maxims
Characteristics of implicature
4.Relevance theory
The Q- and R-principles
6.The Q-, I- and M-principles
重点章Chapter 1. Invitation to linguistics
Natural vs artificial languages
I. The definition of Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
System：rule-governed
Arbitrary: no natural relationship between language elements and their meaning:
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
A sound must seem to be an echo to its sense.
Vocal: speech is primary
Symbol: related to arbitrariness, language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express Human: uniquely human or human specific or species specific
Communication: the primary function of language
II. Design features of language
The defining properties of language
1.Arbitrariness: not entirely arbitrary:
onomatopoeic words;compounds;derivatives;some surnames
(Conventionality: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.)
2.Duality: the property of having two levels of structures, such that the units of the primary level are composed of the elements of the second level, and each level has its own rules of organization.
3.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings.
4.Displacement: language can be used to talk about things that are not present
(structure-dependent operations)
III. Functions of language
Functions: broad categories of language uses
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/592047875.html,rmative: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world. Declarative, interrogative, imperative
2.Interpersonal function: when language is used to establish and maintain social relations
3.Performative: when language is used to perform certain acts
4.Emotive function: when language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to
express the speakers emotions or attitudes towards something or some person.
There were flashes of silence that made his speech perfectly delightful.
This honorable gentleman is indebted to his memory for his jests and to his imagination for his facts. My husband has been sober several times in the past five years.
It is so hot that we have to take off our flesh and sit in our bones.
5.Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes, e.g. greetings,
farewells, etc.
6.Recreational function: when language is used for the pure joy of using it
7.Metalingual function: when language is used to discuss itself
IV. The definition of linguistics: The scientific study of language
Stop/top pipe play, wheel, light cap, map
V. Main branches of linguistics
Phonetics: the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds
Phonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations between speech sounds, the way in which speech sounds are related to meaning, the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds
Morphology: the internal structures of words
Syntax: the internal structures of sentences
Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language
Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context
VI.Macrolinguistics: interdisciplinary
Psycholinguistics: psychology and linguistics combined, the psychological process in language production, comprehension and acquisition
Sociolinguistics: sociology and linguistics combined, social functions of language and the social characteristics of language users. language varieties and functions
Anthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: the relationship between language
and culture
Computational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language:
machine-translation, information retrieval, expert systems
VII. Important distinctions in linguistics
Descriptive vs prescriptive studies
Describing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive.
Trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptive
Modern linguistics is descriptive.
Synchronic vs diachronic studies
Studying language as it is used at a particular point in time is a synchronic study.
Studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic study
Langue vs parole Saussure
Langue (language) is the language system: social, essential, stable
Parole is the actual use of the language system: individual, accidental, unstable
Competence vs performance Chomsky
Competence is the underlying knowl edge about one?s language.
Performance is the actual use of that knowledge in language use situations.
(Communicative Competence: knowledge of grammar and the pragmatic ability for language use.)
Etic vs emic
Etic studies aim at producing an exhaustive list of a linguistic phenomenon.
Emic studies aims at knowing the relationships between the entities in that list.
Syntagmatic vs paradiamatic relations
Syntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction. Syntagmatically related elements form structures.
Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds(重点：看两遍，术语及常用音如b/p, f/v等，和这些常用音的特点)
I. The three branches of phonetics
Articulatory phonetics: the study of sound production
Acoustic phonetics: the study of sound transmission between interlocutors
Auditory phonetics: the study of sound perception
II. Speech organs
Lungs肺
trachea (wind pipe)气管
vocal folds (cords)声带: glottis声门: apart (voiceless: /p/), closed together (voiced: /b/), totally closed (glottal stop: /?/) tongue tip舌尖
tongue blade舌叶
tongue front舌前
tongue back舌后
tongue root舌跟
epiglottis会厌
hard palate硬颚
soft palate (velum)软颚
uvula小舌
teeth 牙
teeth ridge (alveolar ridge) 齿龈
lips (labium)唇
nose鼻
larynx喉
pharynx咽
vocal tract声道
III. Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcriptions
Segments: smallest components of speech: bit -- /b/, /i/, /t/
Divergence: no one-to-one correspondent between pronunciation and spelling: ou – enough, house, through, though, etc. Phonetic transcription: international phonetic alphabet
IV. Consonants
Consonants: when there is an obstruction of the air stream in the production of a sound
1) Manners of articulation:
Stop 塞音: oral stop: /g/, nasal stop: /m/
Fricative摩擦音: /s/, /z/
(median or central) approximant近音: /r/, /j/
Lateral approximant边音: /l/
Affricate破擦音: /t∫/
2) Places of articulation
Bilabial唇音: /m/
Labiodental唇齿音: /f/
Dental齿音: /θ/
Alveolar齿龈音: /t/
Post-alveolar后齿龈音: /∫/
Palatal硬颚音: /j/
Velar软颚音: /k/
Glottal声门音: /h/
Labiodental dental alveolar Palatoalveolar palatal velar glottal
Bilab
ial
nasal m n ?
plosive p b t d k ɡ
fricative f v θs z ∫?h
affricate t∫ d?
Approximant (w) r j w
Lateral l
3) V oicing:
4) Nasal vs oral: If the air is stopped in the oral cavity, but the soft palate is down so that the air can only get out through the nasal cavity, the sound is a nasal stop. Otherwise it is an oral stop.
5)Pulmonic vs non-pulmonic: A pulmonic sound is a consonant sound produced by pushing air out of the lungs; while non pulmonic sounds are produced by either sucking air into the mouth(click吸气音), or closing the glottis and manipulating the air between the glottis and a place of articulation further forward in the vocal tract.
V. Vowels
Cardinal vowels: the reference points for the description and classification of vowels.
i u
e o
??
a ɑ
The part of the tongue that is raised: front /i:/, central /?/, back /α/
The height of the tongue: high, mid, low; closed /i:/, half closed /e/, half open /ε/, open /a/
The degree of lip rounding: rounded /u:/, unrounded /i:/
Monophthong vs diphthong or pure vowels vs glidings: /a/, /au/
Long vs short vowels or tense vs lax vowels: /i:/, /I/
The table of English vowels on page 52 in the textbook.
Schwa is the neutral vowel [?].
VI. Coarticulation and phonetic transcription
Coarticulation协同发音: in speech a sound may become more like its neighbouring sound.
Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音: when a sound is influenced by the following sound, e.g. impossible Perseverative coarticulation接续性协同发音: when a sound is influenced by the preceding sound, e.g. play
Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式和紧式音标: when we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic details is referred to as a narrow transcription.
/p/ is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak
Diacritics: additional symbols or marks showing the minute differences between variations of the same sound, e.g. h for aspirated sounds, ~ for nasalized sounds, 0for devoiced sounds. Broad transcriptions do not make use of these diacritics, while narrow transcriptions do.
VII. Phonological analysis(重点)
Phonemes音位: distinctive speech sounds
minimal pairs最小对立体: pairs of words that differ in only one sound
contrastive distribution对立分布: the two different sounds in a minimal pair are in contrastive distribution
Allophones音位变体: variants of the same phoneme
complementary distribution互补分布: those sounds that never occur in the same environment are in complementary distribution
phonetic similarity语音相似性: allophones of the same phoneme must be phonetically similar
pattern congruity模式一致性: when assigning a sound to one phoneme rather than another, we must take the sound pattern of the language into consideration
Phonological processes
Assimilation同化: when a sound take on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound
regressive assimilation逆同化: when a sound is influenced by the following sound
progressive assimilation顺同化: when a sound is influenced by the preceding sound
Phonological processes: processes in which a sound undergoes a change in certain environments or contexts and we can write phonological rules to represent these changes: e.g.
Voiced sound → voiceless / voiceless _________
A voiced sound is transformed into a corresponding voiceless sound when it occurs after a voiceless sound: e.g. play
→ is transformed into; / specifies the environment in which the change occurs; _________ indicates the position of the target sound.
Epenthesis: the process of inserting a sound is called epenthesis.
Sibilant:/s,z,∫, ?,t∫, d?/, this group fricatives and affricates, which often behaves in the same way, is traditionally known as sibilants.
Underlying form: In order to bring out the rule that governs the pattern of form change, a form occurring in most cases is called the basic form, technically known as underlying form, or underlying representation(UR). The derived form is the surface form of surface representation(SR).
The Elsewhere Condition: the more specific rule applies first.
VIII. Distinctive features(重点)
Distinctive features: a phoneme can be further analysed into a set of features and the distinctive features are phonological, binary; articulatorily and acoustically based features.
Obstruents are stops, fricatives and affricates. Sonorants are all other consonants and vowels.
IX. Suprasegmental phonology超切分音系学concerned with those aspects of sound features that involve more than single sound segments
Suprasegmental phonemes超切分音位: stress, pitch, intonation
Syllable is a spoken language unit which consists of a single vowel or syllabic consonant and other consonants.
Syllabic structures: typically, a syllable consists of onset (consonant preceding the rhyme) and rhyme which consists of nucleus or peak (vowel or syllabic consonant) and coda (consonant following peak). (((C) (C) (C) V ((((C) (C) (C) (C)
A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable while a syllable with coda is a closed syllable.
Stress: degree of force used in the production of a syllable
word stress: distinctive, e.g. PERfect, perfect; REcord, record
sentence stress: normally, content words are stressed in sentences, while grammatical words are unstressed, but in principle, sentence stress can fall on any word or syllable
Pitch: different rates of the vibration of the vocal cords produce.
Pitch variations are called tones: tone languages and non-tone languages
Intonation: when pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentences rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.
1) intonation can indicate different sentence types: yes-no interrogatives vs other types of sentences.
2) intonation can impose different sentence structures on sentences.
3) intonation can bring different part of the sentence into prominence.
Chapter 3 Lexicon(重点:看一遍，选择1或2道)
I. What is word
Three senses of word
1）the physically definable unit: between pauses in speech and between blanks in writing
but “can?t”, “doesn?t”, “for ever”
2）the common factor underlying a set of forms: work, works, worked, working
but “if”, “and”, “the”, “very”
3）a grammatical unit: sentence, clause, word group / phrase, word, morpheme
but “nation”, “fast”
Identification of word
1)stability: the constituent parts of a word have little potential for rearrangement
Playboy: *boyplay; John loves Mary: Mary loves John
2)relative uninterruptibility: new elements and pauses are not to be inserted into a word
nationalization: *nationinteralization, *nation alization
(even) John doesn?t love Mary.
3) a minimum free form: the minimal unit that can constitute an utterance by itself
-Is Jane coming this evening? – Possibly.
-What is missing in a sentence such as …Dog is barking?? – A.
Lexeme: basic abstract units of the lexicon on the level of language which may be realized in different grammatical forms such as the lexeme “work” in work, works, worked, working. A lexeme may also be a part of another lexeme, e.g. worker, workbook, workday. Idioms are also considered lexemes, e. g. the works of God: nature. Lexemes are the units which are conventionally listed in dictionaries as separate entries.
II. Classification of words
Variable vs invariable words
Variable words are words which have different grammatical forms.
Invariable words are words which do not have different grammatical forms.
Grammatical vs lexical words
Grammatical words are words which mainly work for constructing grammatical unist, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. function words
Lexical words are words which mainly work for referring to substance, action, and quality, e.g. nouns, verbs, etc. content words
Closed-class vs open-class words
Closed-class words are words whose membership is fixed or limited, e.g. conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, etc. But even though prepositions are closed class words, they have been increasing in number slowly.
Open-class words are words whose membership is infinite or unlimited, e.g. nouns, verbs, etc.
Word classes: categories of words classified according to their grammatical, semantic, phonological properties or on the basis of formal similarities in terms of inflections and distribution. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, articles
New word classes identified
Particles: the infinitive marker …to? and the negative marker …not? and the subordinate element in phrasal verbs, e.g. …at? in look at and …out? in knock out.
Auxiliaries: the traditional auxiliary and modal verbs such as …do? and …can?
Pro-forms: There are other pro-forms in English in addition to pronouns.
pro-adjectives: Your pen is red. So is mine.
Pro-verbs: He knows English better than I do.
Pro-adverb s: He runs very fast and so do I.
pro-locative: Jane?s hiding there, behind the door.
Determiners: words preceding the head noun and determining the kind of reference the noun phrase has, e.g. the (definite) student, a (indefinite) student, some (partitive) students, all (universal) students.
Pre-diterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, one-third, etc.
Central determiners: (articles) the, a, (demonstrative pronouns) this, that, these, those, (indefinite pronouns) every, each, some, any, no, either, neither, (possessive pronouns) my, our, your, his, her, its, their, etc.
Post-determiners: (cardinal numerals) one, two, etc. (ordinal numerals) first, second, etc. (general ordinals) next, last,
past, other, additional, etc. (quantifiers) many, several, much, little, a lot of, a great deal of, etc.
Determiners follow the order pre-determiner + central determiners + post determiners, e.g. all the students, half a year, etc. The members of each subclass are usually exclusive of each other. But ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals, e.g. the first two days, the past three weeks, etc.
III. Formation of words
Morpheme and morphology
Morphemes: minimal units of meaning
Types of morphemes:
free morphemes: can stand alone as words, e.g. dog, map, nation
bound morphemes: have to appear with at least another morpheme, e.g. international, pre cede, etc.
roots: that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed, e.g. internationalism, antidisestablishmentarianism
free roots: roots that can be used as words, e.g. hopeful, interpersonal
bound roots: roots that have to be appear with affixes, e.g. precede, receive, submit, retain, recur
some roots in English have both free and bound variants, e.g. sleepy, slept; childlike, children; goes, went
affixes: formative elements that have to be attached to at least another morpheme
prefixes: paragraph, miniskirt, unemployed, incorrect
suffixes: national, socialist, physics
infixes: foot / feet, man / men, in Cambodian /sepolah/ (field), /segepolah/ (fields)
stems: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be attached, e.g. national, internationalism inflectional affixes and derivational affixes
1)inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes: inflectional affixes often add only a
grammatical function to the stem, but derivational affixes often change the lexical content, e.g. maps, worker.
2)Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the stem, whereas derivational affixes may or may not change the
word class of the stem, maps, smoker, incorrect.
3)Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by non-semantic linguistic factors, e.g. John loves Mary. whereas
derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions, correct vs correctness.
4)In English, inflectional affixes are normally suffixes, whereas derivational affixes can be prefixes as well.
5)In English inflectional affixes are very small in number, whereas derivational affixes are much larger in number. Inflection and word formation
Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. Word formation: the process of how words are formed. It can be further classified into the compositional type (compounding) and the derivational type (derivation).
Compound: words that consist of more than one free morpheme or the way to join two or more separate words to produce a single form.
Compounds can be completely united: playboy, hyphenated: mother-in-law, separated: high frequency.
There are noun compounds, e.g. daybreak, haircut, verb compounds, e.g. brainwash, lip-read, adjective compounds, e.g. man-eating, heartfelt, prepositional compounds, e.g. into, throughout. Compounds can be classified into endocentric（向心的）and exocentric（离心的）compounds. In endocentric nominal and adjectival compounds, the head is derived from a verb. Nominal: self-control, pain-killer, core-meaning; adjectival: eye-entertaining, bullet-resistant, machine-washable. In exocentric nominal and adjectival compounds, the first word is derived from the verb. Nominal: playboy, scarecrow, breakthrough, get-together; adjectival: take-home, runaway, drive-ins. Derivation: the process by which words are formed from existing words or bases by adding affixes, by changing the shape of the word, or by adding an affix and changing the pronunciation, e.g. unconscious, booklet, disobey, lengthen, foolish.
Phonology and morphology
1)morpheme and phoneme
A single phoneme may represent a morpheme, but they are not identical, e.g. /z/: goes, boys, boy?s, is.
2) morphemic structure and phonological structure
Morphemes may also be represented by morphemic structures other than a single phoneme, e.g. love ly (monosyllabic), tobacco (polysyllabic). The syllabic structure of a word and its morphemic structure do not necessarily correspond.
3) allomorph
Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, e.g. dog, cat, etc. other morphemes may have different shapes or phonetic forms, e.g. {z}: maps, dogs, watches, oxen, teeth, criteria, craft; {in}: incorrect, impossible, irregular, illegal.
4)morphophonology or morphophonemics: the study of the relationship between phonology and morphonology. (1)phonologically conditioned
assimilation: maps, dogs, incorrect, impossible
dissimilation: peregrinus (Latin) → pilgrim, marbre (French) → marble
(2)morphologically conditioned
three requirements:
a.All the allomorphs should have common meaning, e.g. maps, dogs, watches.
b.All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution, e.g. maps, dogs, watches.
c.Allomorphs that share the common meaning should be in parallel formation, e.g.
ox → oxen, cow → cows
IV. lexical changes
New words (neologisms, coinages) are created in the following ways:
Invention: Kodak, coke, nylon, fax, etc.
Compounding: moonwalk, chairperson, etc.
Derivation: semiconductor, supersonic
Blending: transfer + resister → transistor, smoke +fog → smog
tele-printer +exchange → telex, modulator + demodulation → modem
Fusion ( a special type of blendings): spaddle ← spank（拍）+ paddle（打）, riffle ← ripple（波纹）+ ruffle（波纹）, rampacious ← rampageous（暴跳的）+ rapacious（掠夺的）
Abbreviation: Clippings. Cutting the final part: advertisement →ad, mathematics →math; cutting the initial part: aeroplane →plane omnibus →bus; cutting both the initial and final parts: influenza →flu, refrigerator →fridge
Acronym: the initial letters of the words in a phrase or idiom or the name of an organization: EEC ←European Economic Community, CIA ←Central Intelligence Agency, Aids ←acquired immune deficiency syndrome, Radar ←radio detecting and ranging
Backformation: a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form: televise ←television, edit ← editor, diagnose ← diagnosis
Borrowings: from many different languages, especially Greek (electricity, atom), Latin (tumor, alibi), French (table, pork), Spanish (armada, ranch) etc.
Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed with only a light adaptation, e.g. coupon (French), sputnik (Russian), kung-fu (Chinese), Judo (Japanese).
Loanblends: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed, e.g. coconut (Spanish), Chinatown (Chinese),
loan shifts: the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native, e.g. bridge (a card game from Italian), artificial satellite (from Russian)
loan translation: each morpheme or word is translated from the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, e.g.
free verse ←verse libre (Latin), black humour ←humour noir.
V. Phonological change
Loss: the disappearance of the sound as a phoneme in the phonological system, e.g. /x/ (the voiceless velar fricative) was lost between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare: hit →it, niht →night. Sound loss may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels: temperature, postscript, the pen and pencil
Addition: Sounds may be added to the original sound sequence, e.g. rascal → rapscallion, lier → liaison
Metathesis: the alternation in the sequence of sounds, e.g. brid → bird, middel → middle, lytel → little.
Assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound (contact or contiguous assimilation),
e.g. immobile (n → m), support (b → p). Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not
too far apart (distant or non-contiguous assimilation), e.g. discussing shortly (s →∫), confound it (?→ au). VI. Semantic change
Broadening: to extend or elevate the meaning of a word from its original specific sense to a relatively general one, e.g.
offend (to strike against →to create or excite anger), bird (young bird →any kind of bird), companion (a person with whom you share bread → a person who accompanies you), etc.
Narrowing: the original meaning of a word is narrowed or restricted to a specific sense, e.g. girl (young person of either sex → young woman), deer (beast → a particular kind of animal), queen (wife → wife of a king or a female king), etc.
Meaning shift: the departure of a word from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage, e.g. bead (prayer →prayer bead → small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood), etc.
Class shift: conversion: the process in which a word changes from one word class to another, e.g. must (have to → an indispensable item), word (a language unit → to express in words), etc.
Chapter 4 Syntax(大重点:术语，“分析方法”一定会分析、会标注，可能会有句法分析-歧义句、书中的例子) 4.1 The traditional approach
Categories: grammatical categories: the defining properties of language units like nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverb, etc.
Number: the grammatical category of nouns, pronouns and verbs in English. There are usually two terms of number: singular and plural, e.g. a book, some books; he, they; He speaks English. They speak English.
Gender: the grammatical category of nouns and pronouns in English e.g. actor, actress; waiter, waitress; he, she. In English the gender distinction is natural as contrasted with the grammatical gender in many other European languages. There are only a small number of nouns indicating the gender distinction, and the elements indicating it are hardly inflectional.
Case: the grammatical category of nouns and pronouns. In English pronouns have three
cases: nominative (I, he, they), accusative (me, him, them) and genitive (my, his, their), but nouns have only two cases: common (John, boy) and genitive (John?s, boy?s).
Tense: the grammatical gender of verbs, indicating the time of an event in relation to the moment of speaking, e.g. I am a student. I went to the zoo yesterday. Traditionally: past, present, future, past future. Nowadays: past and present.
Aspect: the grammatical category of verbs, distinguishing the status of events in relation to the time of another event, e.g. I was reading when he came to see me. When I got to the railway station the train had already left. Progressive or continuous vs perfect.
Degree: the grammatical category of adjectives and adverbs, distinguishing positive or basic (good, smart), comparative (marking an inequality of two states of affairs relative to a certain characteristic, e.g. better, smarter), and superlative (marking the highest degree of some quantity, e.g. best, smartest) levels. For some there is another level of degree, elative (absolute superlative, marking a very high degree of some property without comparison to some other states of affairs, e.g. The performance was most impressive.
Concord: agreement: the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories, e.g. concord in number, e.g. this boy, these boys; a book, some books, concord in number and person between the noun as the subject and the verb, e.g. He speaks English, They speak English. Government: control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions, a relationship in which a word of a certain word class determines the form of other words in terms of a certain category, e.g. the English verbs and prepositions determines or governs the form the pronouns following them, e.g. John gave her a book. The test is important to me.
II. The structural approach
Structures and systems
Structures: syntagmatically related elements form structures.
Systems: paradigmatically related elements for systems.
Immediate constituent analysis
Linear structures: consisting of individual words one after another in a line, e.g. John loves Mary.
Hierarchical structures: made up of layers of word groups, e.g. The boy kicked the ball Construction: the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller units, represented by a set of elements and relations between elements, e.g. Johnson smiled. This sentence has a construction with two elements (John, smiled) and the relation between them is one of sequence.
Constituent: the component part of a construction.
Immediate constituents: constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction, e.g. Poor John ran away. (poor John) and (ran away) are the immediate constituents of the construction (Poor John ran away.) (poor) and (John) are the immediate constituents of the construction (poor John), etc.
IC Analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents, word groups or phrases, which are in turn analysed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (morphemes) are reached. In practice，however，for sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word.
Bracketing: ((poor )(John))((ran)(away)
Tree diagram: poor John ran away.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and the ambiguities, if any, will be revealed, e.g.
a.Leave the book on the shelf. (Place the book on the shelf.)
b. Leave the book on the shelf. (Keep away from the book on the shelf)
a.my small child?s cot (my small cot for a child)
b. my small child?s cot (my cot for a small child)
c. my small child?s cot (the cot of my small child)
a. The son of Pharaoh?s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh?s son
Adj. Adj. N
b. more expensive clothes
Adv. Adj. N
Pron. V. N Adv.
c. They can fish here.
Pron. Aux. V. Adv.
Disadvantages：
1)binary divisions are not always possible, in some cases, a three-division may have to be made, e.g.
old men and women
Leave the book on the shelf
2)Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams, e.g.
a. Is John coming?
b. make it up
c. John said Mary is a fool.
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:
the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include
语言学概论(考试重点归纳)
语言学概论
目录 第一章语言和语言学 (3) 第二章语言的物质载体——语音 (6) 第三章语言的建筑材料——语汇 (10) 第四章语言的结构规则——语法 (13) 第五章语言的表达内容——语义 (19) 第六章语言的运用特点——语用 (22) 第七章语言的书写符号——文字 (25) 第八章语言的发展和演变 (27) 第九章语言的获得和学习 (30) 第十章语言与文学写作 (32) 第十一章语言与民族文化 (34) 第十二章语言与科学技术 (36)
第一章语言和语言学 第一节认识人类的语言 一、语言的性质和类型P49 1.只有人类才有语言P49 （1）内容更多 （2）用处更大： ①交际功能②标志功能③记录功能④思维功能⑤认知功能 （3）能够创造 2.语言和民族、国家的关系P51（简答） “语言”最初是与“民族”直接相连的，至今也是最直观和最容易识别的民族标志， 同时也是国家的标志，但是只有全面了解从古到今的“语言”、“民族”之间，“民族” 和“国家”之间错综复杂的关系，才能对“语言、民族、国家”三者之间做出更加符合客 观事实的结论。 3.语言的特点和类型P52（单选） （1）从历时的角度看：语言的谱系分，也叫“语言亲属关系分类。 根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性大小对语言进行分类，就是语言的谱系分类。语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小：“语系、语族、语支、语言、方言、次方言。” （2）从共时角度看：语言的形态分类也叫语言的结构类型分类。 二、语言的表现形式P54 1.语言和言语P54 言语：说话的动作和说出来或写出来的成品。 语言：说话所使用的工具，是在背后支配着人们怎么说话和听话的规则。 言语属于个人现象语言属于社会现象，是全社会约定俗成的产物。言语是语言的表现形式，语言是抽象的，言语是具象的。（单选） 2.本体和外围P55 本体知识：语言系统内部的各要素；语音、词语、语法、语义、语用。 外围知识：语言与思维、语言与文化、语言与其它技能、语言运用等。 3.口语和书面语P56（分析） 用嘴巴说出来的话，叫“口语”。 用文字写下来的话，叫“书面语”。 口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。 注意：一方面书面语并不是口语绝对忠实的记录。另一方面书面语也不是口语的机械复制。 第二节语言符号和语言结构 一、语言的符号性P57（论述） 符号：用甲事物表示乙事物，甲事物就是符号。形式＋意义（物质实体＋表达的特定意义） 语言符号：语音＋意义 1.“能指”和“所指”P58（简答） 语言符号中能够指称某种意义的声音叫“能指”。
《语言学纲要》考研修订版考研复习笔记和考研真题
《语言学纲要》考研修订版考研复习笔记和真题 0-1复习笔记 ―、语言学的对象和学科住质 (一)语言学的研究对象 语言学是研究语言的科学，语言是语言学的研究对象。 L语言现红 语言现象是人类社会普迴具有的现象，它是G早纳人人类研究视野的现象之一。 (1)人类对于世界上的齐种自然现象和社会现象的理性认识以及相关的许多抽象观念, 是在各个古典文明形成的时期出现的。有关语言的理性思考也是从这一时期开始的’ (2)中国先秦时期的思想家、古希腊的竹学家.古代印度的思想家等，都提岀了对语言的一股看法，并且对后人产生/?深远影响，这是对语言的最早的理性认识。 2.语言学的发展过程 (])语言甞的三大发源地 在齐个文明的发展过程?l', I l f代文化典籍的传欣成为文化发展延续的重要途径。这些政 治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典若作要得到学习和继承，郁需姿语言方而的分析和解 释。这样，在许多有若悠久历史文化传统的地区都出现了语文学研究，这是语言的系统研究的开 始。中国、印度和希腊一罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌成就，足语言学的三大发源地＞ (2)语苜学三大发源地的成就 ①中国传统语言研究 3.先秦时期已经出现大域的文化典籍，它们所使用的古代书面语体被后人学习继承，称作文言文Q宜至20世纪初，正式的书而语一直使用这种文言文的形式。 b?屮国传统的语言研究主要是围绕解读文言文典籍的需要进行的，主要是分析汉字的形体,探求它的古代读音和意义,形成了统称“小学"的文字、音韵、训诂之学,也就是中国传统的语文学。 ②古代印度语言研究 a.在印度，文化经典主要是宗教典鉛，所川的语言是古代的梵语。最初这些经典是靠口耳相传，后来由文字记载下来。 b?占代印度的语言研究主要是对这些宗教经典的解读C占代印度的学者在对语言般件质的认识以及具体的语音和语法研究等方面都有卓越建树?对世界其他地区的语言研究也产生了深远影响C
语言学名词解释整理
Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法
语言学 重点概念
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
《语言学纲要》(叶蜚声_徐通锵)详细复习资料_课堂讲义笔记
语言学纲要讲义笔记 导言 一、语言的定义 语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。 二、语言学的对象和任务 语言学是研究语言的科学。 要把语言学跟语文学区分开来 中国传统语文学——“小学” 小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。 在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。 三、语言学在科学体系中的地位 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系 语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。 语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段： 编码——发送——传递——接收——解码 对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。三、语言学的基本类别 总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。（一）理论语言学可分为： 1、一般/普通语言学
2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
语言学的名词解释
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
语言学纲要名词解释.
语言学纲要名词解释 导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。
语言学概论名词解释
语言学概论名词解释 序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 语文学：是为给古代文化遗产，即政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。“小学”：中国传统的语文学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，形成了文字学、音韵学、训诂学，分别探讨和研究汉字的字形、字音、字义。 专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。 共时语言学、历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化，把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,。共时语言学研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系，如对现代汉语的研究；历时语言学研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。 普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。 表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 索绪尔：现代语言学的创始人，代表著作是《普通语言学教程》。（简单要加补充） 语言的社会功能 语言：就其本质而言，语言是一种音义结合的符号系统；就其社会功能来说，语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和必不可少的思维工具。 言语：是对语言的运用，是语言的行为和结果。 说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。 思维：是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思维、形象思维、抽象思维。 社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文体传统的人类共同体，即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。 符号：是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。 语言符号：是由音义结合构成的，代表或指称现实现象的符号。“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音义结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言符号。 语言的线条性：是指语言符号在交际过程中，其声音只能一个跟着一个依次出现，随着时间的推移而逐渐延伸，绝不能在同一时间里说出两个符号或两个声音。 语言的任意性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，由社会约定俗成，没有什么必然的、本质的联系。 语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。 征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。 语音部分 语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主
西方语言学史重点
西方语言学史重点 一、语言学的分类 （一）功能角度：理论语言学和应用语言学 （二）具体研究对象：普通（一般）语言学/个别（专语、具体）语言学 （三）研究时段：共时语言学和历时语言学 （四）研究方法：描写语言学和对比语言学 （五）研究对象的状态：静态语言学和动态语言学 （六）研究角度和范围：微观语言学和宏观语言学 二、应用语言学类别 社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学、统计语言学 三、西方语言学史的分期 1.一般的划分方法 （1）古代语言学（19世纪以前） （2）近代语言学（19世纪） （3）现代语言学（20世纪上半叶） （4）当代语言学（20世纪50年代末至今） ——“五段两线三解放 “五段”指语文学、历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、形式语言学、交叉语言学等五个阶段；“两线”指“整齐论”和“参差论”两条路线的斗争；“三解放”指历史比较语言学、索绪尔、社会语言学这三个有代表性的里程碑。 2.传统语文学的定义、性质、局限性 定义：传统语文学是传统语言学的重要组成部分，它主要包括三大语文传统，分别是古希腊传统、古印度传统，以及中世纪阿拉伯传统。 传统语言学是一个与现代语言学相对的概念，泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔的语言学理论之前的各种语言学理论。那么，与它相对的现代语言学就是指20世纪以来，建立在瑞士语言学家索绪尔的语言理论基础上的各种语言流派及其分支学科的总称。 性质：“依附性”是传统语文学重要的性质。传统语文学并不能算作一门真正的独立学科，只能称为语言学的前奏。 局限性：要成为一门真正的学科，必须要有自己独立的研究对象，独立的研究方法以及多样化的研究材料，而传统语文学并不具备。 古希腊、古罗马、古印度 四、古希腊语言研究
应用语言学重点知识汇总
: (特点) 1) (独立性) a) ; b) ; c) . 2) (跨学科) 3) (应用性) 应用语言学包含着具有内在联系的三个方面：语言理论，语言描写和语言教学。 语言理论的作用是为语言教师提供关于一般语言系统的结构和功能运用得知识； 语言描写的作用是使语言教师了解英语的结构特点、 获得语言洞
察力。这两部分是语言教学的基础。 4) (试验性) , , , , . (客观性，系统性，明确性，经济性)（任务） 1) a ； (更好理解掌握最新的语言教学和语言学习的理论基础) 2) ； (全面了解影响语言学习和语言教学的各种因素) 3) a , . (一个语言教学理念、方法和技巧) 英语教学法主要是立足于心理学和教育学的理论和成果。应用语言学主要是站在语言学角度来看语言教学。 在言语交际中，特别是在某种语境中，人们有时不直接表达出自己的思想，而是通过另一种表达方式——虚拟结构，把自己的思想委婉、含蓄地表达出来。 1) ’t . 表示批评 2) . 表示惋惜 3) ’t . 表示感谢 4) . 表示劝告 5) I I ’t a . 表示遗憾 1．社会发展的需要
2．应用语言学学科建设的需要 3．教师发展的需要 4．外语教学改革的需要 : 1. ? (K. 1964) (N. 1959) 结构主义的观点把懂得一种语言局限在掌握结构规则和词汇上。 功能意念观点又增加了需要懂得如何运用规则和词汇去做自己要做的事情。 交往法观点则认为，要知道如何用语言做事，就要知道在什么场合、什么时间、如何去做才算是得体。 从哲学角度来看：语言是人们感受客观世界和表达主观世界的物质外壳。 从心理学角度来看：语言是人们进行认知心理活动的思维的外在形式。 从语言学角度来看：语言的核心就是强调语言的系统性、生成性、习惯性和文化性。 从语言的结构特征来看：语言是个符号系统。它是一个由语音、语素、词和词组、句子和篇章等构成的层级系统。
语言学纲要 第七章
第七章 一,解释下列名词(20分,每词4分) 1.方言:是语言的变体,是因为地域或社会的原因而发生的语言分化. 2.社会方言:指社会内部因年龄,性别,职业,阶级,阶层的人们在使用语言上表现出来的变异,是言语社团的一种标志. 3.地域方言:是一种语言在不同地域上的分支,语言的地方变体. 4.共同语:是在某个方言的基础上形成的一个民族的通用语言. 5.亲属语言:是从同一种语言分化出来的,彼此有同源关系的几种独立的语言. 二,填空题(30分,每空4分) 1.(社会的发展)是语言发展的基本条件. 2.(渐变性)和(不平衡性)是语言发展的两大特点. 3.语言的发展中,(词汇)的变化速度最快,(语音)次之,而(语法)的演变最为缓慢. 4.语言发展的两个基本过程是语言的(分化)和语言的(统一). 5.社会方言是因社会的分工而出现的语言分化,(行业用语),(科学技术术语),(阶级方言)都是常见的社会方言. 6.黑话是一种特殊的社会方言,它具有强烈的(排他性). 7.地域方言的差别,主要表现在(语音)上,划分地域方言的主要依据也是(语音). 8.地域方言的进一步分化就会发展为(独立的语言).这些源自一个共同语分化的语言归属于同一个(亲属语言),这个成为不同语言发展源头的共同语称为(母语) 9.(汉藏语系)和(印欧语系)是世界上使用人数最多的两个语系. 10.按谱系分类,英语属于(印欧)语系(日耳曼)语族. 11.共同语是在(一种语言或方言)的基础上形成的. 12.在一个多民族的国家中,各民族之间往往还需要一个共同的交际工具,这就是所谓的(国语),我国的(普通话)就是这样的一种共同语. 13.语言规范化的对象主要是(书面语). 14.(约定俗成)的原则在规范化的工作中有重要作用,它本身就是规范化的一个
语言学名词解释汇总
语言学名词解释汇总 一、名词解释。 1、语言学：①～是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；②从方法上分为历史…、比较…、历史比较…、描写…；从研究对象上可分为个别…和普通…； ③19世纪初的历史比较学标志着语言学的诞生。 2、语文学：…是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。 3、小学：指我国古代传统的文学学、音韵学和训诂学,虽然我国古代没有语文学，但一般认为…属于语文学的范围。 4、训诂：是解释字义和研究它的演变的一门学科，其目的是从词义方面来解释古书的文字。 5、专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学称为…。 ＊共时语言学和历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化,把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,共时…研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系,如对现代汉语的研究;历时…研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。＊普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。 ＊历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学称为…。 ＊比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的叫…。 6、表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 7、语言：是从言语中概括出来的音义结合的词汇系统和语法系统。 ＊言语：是说的行为和结果。 ＊说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。 8、语言层级性（二层性）：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节；上层分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 ＊语言的线条性：是指在交际过程中，语言符号或者作为符号的形式的声音，只能一个跟着一个依次出现，随着时间的推移而逐渐延伸，绝不能在同一时间里说出两个符号或两个声音。 ＊任意性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，音义之间交没有必然的、本质的联系，也就是它们之间的结合是不可论证的，是约定俗成的。 ＊依存性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 9、语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经 过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 ＊语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、
语言学重点概念总结
Desig n features （定义特征）： the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals. Synchronic （共时的）： said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time. Diachro nic （历时的）： said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time. Prescriptive （规定式）： to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage. Descriptive （描写式）： to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety. Compete nee （语言能力）： uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。 Performa nee （语言运用）： the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue （语言）： the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ” 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole （言语）： the con crete uttera nces of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Pho no logy （音系学）： the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain the variati ons that occur. Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet （国际音标） a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）, designed by the Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardi nal Vowels （基本元音）： a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language