如何写reference

Citing References – this is a quick guide for students with examples of:

1.How to cite sources in the body of the

essay/paper.

2.How to compile a references section at

the end of the essay/paper

When writing in academic style, you will need to refer in your text to all material written or produced by others. This procedure is called citing or quoting references.

Consistency and accuracy in citing sources are important to enable readers to identify and locate the material to which you have referred.

Note: There are a number of other systems used for referencing (in addition to several different interpretations of the Harvard System.) If an alternate method is chosen (or required) the same set of rules should be followed every time you cite a source

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The Harvard System (Author Date Method) All statements, opinions, conclusions etc. taken from another writer’s work should be cited, whether the work is directly quoted, paraphrased or summarised. In the Harvard System cited publications are referred to in the text by giving the author’s surname and the year of publication. These publications are also listed in the references at the end of the text.

Originators/authors

The person or organisation shown most prominently in the source as responsible for the content in its published form should be given. For anonymous works use ‘Anon’ instead of a name. For certain kinds of work, e.g. dictionaries or encyclopaedias, or if an item is the co-operative work of many individuals, none of whom have a dominant role, e.g. videos or films, the title may be used instead of an originator or author.

Dates

If an exact year or date is not known, an approximate date preceded by ‘ca.’ may be supplied and given in square brackets. If no such approximation is possible, that should be stated, e.g. [ca.1750] or [no date].

Citation in the text

Quotations – As a general rule, if the quote is less than 4 lines, it may be included in the body of the text in quotation marks. Longer quotations are indented and single-spaced, and quotation marks are not required. For citations from particular parts of the document, the page numbers should be given in parentheses after the year.

Summaries or paraphrases – Give the citation where it occurs naturally or at the end of the relevant piece of writing. Diagrams, illustrations should be referenced as though they were quotations if they have been taken from a published work. If details of particular parts of a document are required, e.g. page numbers, they should be given after the year within the brackets.

Rules for citation in text for printed documents also apply to electronic documents except where pagination is absent. If an electronic document does not include pagination or an equivalent internal referencing system, the extent of the item may be indicated in terms such as the total number of lines, screens, etc., e.g. "[35 lines]" or "[approx. 12 screens]".

Examples of citation in the text

1. If the author’s name occurs naturally in the sentence the year is given in parentheses:

e.g. In a popular study Harvey (1992) argued that we have to teach good practices…

e.g. As Harvey (1992, 21) said, “good practices must be taught” and so we…

2. If the name does not occur naturally in the sentence, both name and year are given in parentheses:

e.g. A more recent study (Stevens 1998) has shown the way theory and practical work interact.

e.g. Theory rises out of practice, and once validated, returns to direct or explain the practice (Stevens 1998).

3. When an author has published more than one cited document in the same year, these are distinguished by adding lower case letters (a,b,c, etc.) after the year and within the parentheses:

e.g. Johnson (1994a) discussed the subject…

4. If there are two authors the surnames of both should be given:

e.g. Matthews and Jones (1997) have proposed that…

5. If there are more than two authors the surname of the first author only should be given, followed by et al.:

e.g. Office costs amount to 20% of total costs in most businesses (Wilson et al. 1997).

(A full listing of names should appear in the end references.)

6. If the work is anonymous then “Anon.” should be used:

e.g. In a recent article (Anon. 1998) it was stated that…

7. If it is a reference to a newspaper article with no author, the name of the paper can be used in place of “Anon.”:

e.g. More people than ever seem to be using retail home delivery (The Times 1996).

(You should use the same style in the end references.)

8. If you refer to a source directly quoted in another source you cite both in the text:

e.g. A study by Smith (1960 cited in Jones 1994, 63) showed that…

You should list only the work you have read (i.e. Jones) in the list of references.

9. If you refer to a contributor in a source (chapters in books, articles in journals, papers in conference proceedings), you cite just the contributor in the in-text references:

e.g. Software development has been given as the cornerstone in this industry (Bantz 1995).

10. If you refer to a person who has not produced a work, or contributed to one, but who is quoted in someone else’s work, it is suggested that you should mention the person’s name and you must cite the source author:

e.g. Richard Hammond stressed the part psychology plays in advertising in an interview with Marshall (1999).

e.g. “Advertising will always play on peoples’ desires,” Richard Hammond said in a recent article. (Marshall 1999, 67)

(You should list the work that has been published (i.e. Marshall) in the references.)

11.Personal communications

Taken from: APA, 2001. Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. 5th ed. Washington: APA. Personal communications do not provide recoverable data, so they are not included in the reference list. Cite personal communications in the text only. Give initial as well as the surname of the communicator and provide as exact a date as possible.

e.g. Many designers do not understand the needs of disabled people according to J. Reiss (personal communication 18 April 1997).

References at the end of a piece of work

At the end of a piece of work, list references to documents cited in the text. This list is usually called References. Exceptionally you may be asked to list references not cited in the text but which make an important contribution to your work. These are usually listed under the heading of Bibliography or Further Reading. You are advised to review the guidelines issued to you from your university for the preparation of work to clarify this point.

In the Harvard System, the references are listed in alphabetical order of authors’ surnames. If you have cited more than one item by a specific author they should be listed chronologically (earliest first), and by letter (1993a, 1993b) if more than one item has been published in a specific year. Whenever possible, elements of a bibliographical reference should be taken from the title page (or back of title page) of the publication. For place of publication give the city. If more than one town/city is listed give the first one or the location of the publishers head office. If the town/city is not well known, you may in addition add a county, region or state. Note that in the US and Australia states are denoted by a two letter code, for example Hillsdale, NJ. For the publishers name omit superfluous terms such as Publishers, Co, or Inc. Always retain the words Books or Press. Where the publisher is a university and the location is included in the name of the university, do not include the place of publication.

Each reference should use the elements and punctuation given in the following examples for the different types of published work you may have cited.

Examples of references at the end of a piece of work

1. Reference to a book

Author’s surname, initial. (year of publication) Title. Edition (if not the first). Place of publication: Publisher.

Mercer, P. and Smith, G. (1993) Private viewdata in the UK. 2nd ed. London: Longman.

2. Reference to a contribution in a book

Contributing author’s surname, initial. (year of publication) Title of contribution. In: surname, initial. of author or editor of publication. ed. or eds. if relevant. Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher, Page number(s) of contribution. Bantz, C. (1995) Social dimensions of software development. In: Anderson, J. ed. Annual review of software management and development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 502-510.

3. Reference to an article in a journal

Author’s surname, initial. (year of publication). Title of article. Title of journal volume/issue, page numbers of contribution. Evans, W. (1994) Approaches to intelligent information retrieval. Information processing and management 7/2, 147-168.

4. Reference to a newspaper article

Author’s surname, initial. or Newspaper title (year of publication) Title of article. Title of newspaper, Day and month, Page number(s) and column number.

Independent (1992) Picking up the bills. Independent, 4 June, 28a.

5. Reference to a map

Originator’s surname, first name or initial. (may be cartographer, surveyor, compiler, editor, copier, maker, engraver, etc.) (year of publication) Title, Scale. (normally given as a ratio) Place of publication: Publisher.

Mason, J. (1832) Map of the countries lying between Spain and India, 1:8,000,000. London: Ordnance Survey.

6. Reference to a conference paper

Contributing author’s surname, initial. (year of publication) Title of contribution. In: Surname, initial of editor of proceedings (if applicable) ed. or eds. Title of conference proceedings including date and place of conference. Place of publication: Publisher, Page numbers of contribution. Silver, K. (1991) Electronic mail: The new way to communicate. In: Raitt, D. ed. 9th international online information meeting, 3-5 December 1990. London. Oxford: Learned Information, 323-330.

7. Reference to a publication from a corporate body

(e.g. a government department or other organisation). Name of issuing body (year of publication)

Title of publication. Place of publication: Publisher, Report Number (where relevant).

UNESCO (1993) General information programme and UNISIST. Paris: Unesco, PGI-93/WS/22.

8. Reference to a thesis or dissertation

Author’s surname, initial. (year of publication) Title of thesis or dissertation. Designation, (and type). Name of institution to which submitted.

Agutter, A. (1995) The linguistic significance of current British slang. Thesis,(PhD). Edinburgh University.

9. Reference to a patent

Originator, (name of applicant) (year of publication) Title of patent. Series designation. which may include full date. Philip Morris Inc. (1981) Optical perforating apparatus and system. European patent application. 0021165 A1. 7 January 1981.

10. Reference to a translation

Author’s surname, initial. (year)Title. Translated from given language by Translator. Place of publication: Publisher (Originally published in given year).

Kotler, P. (2003) Les cles du marketing. Translated from English by Marie-France Pavillet. Paris: Village Mondial (Originally published in 2003). 11.Reference to a video, film or broadcast

Title (year) (For films the preferred date is the year of release in the country of production.) Material designation. Subsidiary originator. (Optional but director is preferred) Production details – place: organisation.

Macbeth (1948) Film. Directed by Orson Wells. USA: Republic Pictures.

Birds in the Garden (1998) Video. London: Harper Videos.

12.Programmes and series

The number and title of the episode should normally be given, as well as the series title, the transmitting organisation and channel. the full date and time of transmission.

Yes, Prime Minister, Episode 1, The Ministerial Broadcast TV, BBC2. 1986 Jan 16.

Individual items within a programme should be cited as contributors.

Blair, Tony, Interview In: Six O’clock News TV, BBC1. 1997 Feb 29 1823 hrs.

ELECTRONIC MATERIAL

If you are certain that the copy you find on a database is identical to the printed version, you may omit the URL and reference as a printed book or journal. If you are in any doubt, you should use the methods below.

When giving a internet address (URL) for a journal article or book located using a database of books and journals, give the internet address of the source / database

e.g. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html, or https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html, not the full internet address of the individual item.

13. Reference to a book located in a database

Author's /Editor's surname, initial. (year) Title. Edition. Place of Publication: Publisher (if ascertainable). Available from: URL [Accessed Date].

Moloney, K. (2000) Rethinking public relations: The spin and the substance. London: Routledge. Available from:

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html, [Accessed 22 May 2006].

14. Reference to a journal article located in a database

Author's surname, initial. (year) Title. Journal Title,

volume/issue, location within host. Available from: URL [Accessed Date].

McFall, R. (2005) Electronic textbooks that transform how textbooks are used ElectronicLibrary 6/15. Available from: https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html, [Accessed 20 May 2006].

15. Reference to web pages/sites and e-books

Author's /Editor's surname, initial. (year) Title. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher (if ascertainable). Available from: URL [Accessed Date].

Holland, M. (2006) Guide to citing Internet sources. Poole: Bournemouth University. Available from:

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html,/library/using/guide_to_citing _internet_sourc.html [Accessed 4 November 2006].

Much information is put up on the Internet by organisations without citing a specific author. In these instances authorship can be attributed to an organisation or corporation e.g. BBC. Ascribe authorship to the smallest identifiable organisational unit, e.g. BBC, Training and Development.

16. Reference to e-journals

Author's surname, initial. (year). Title. Journal Title

volume/issue, location within host. Available from: URL [Accessed Date].

Korb, K. (1995) Persons and things: Book review of Bringsjord on robot consciousness. Psychology 6/15. Available from:

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html,/archive/00000462/ [Accessed 20 May 2004].

17. Reference to a conference paper from the internet Contributing author’s surname, initial. (year of publication) Title of contribution. In: Surname, initial of editor of proceedings (if applicable) ed. Title of conference proceedings including date and place of conference. Place of publication: Publisher, location within host. Available from: URL [Accessed Date].

Wilde, E. (2006) Merging trees: file system and content integration. Paper presented at the 5th international conference of World Wide Web, WWW 2006 May 23-26 Edinburgh, Scotland,UK. Available from :

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html,/ndret/docs/wilde-www2006-fsx.pdf [Accessed 29 June2007].

18. Reference to a Blog

Author's surname, initial. (Day Month Year) Subject of message. Blog Title. Available from: list e-mail address [Accessed Date].

Schofield, J. (20 May 2006) Yahoo is winning in the portal wars. GU technologyblog. Available from:

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html,/technology/ [Accessed 22 May 2006].

19. Reference to mailbase/listserv e-mail lists

Author's surname, initial. (Day Month Year) Subject of message. Discussion List. Available from: list e-mail address [Accessed Date]. Brack, E. (2 May 2004) Re: Computing short courses. Lis-link. Available from: jiscmail@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html, [Accessed 17 Jun 2004].

Jensen, L. (12 Dec 1999) Recommendation of student

radio/tv in English. IASTAR. Available from:

listserv@ftp.nrg.dtu.dk [Accessed 29 Apr 2004].

It should be noted that items may only be kept on discussion group servers for a short time, and hence may not be suitable for referencing. A local copy could be kept by the author who is giving the citation, with a note to this effect. 20. Reference to personal electronic communications (e-mail)

Sender's surname, initial. (Sender’s e-mail address) Day Month Year. Subject of Message. e-Mail to Recipient's surname, initial. (Recipient’s email address).

Lowman, D. (deborah_lowman@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html,) 4 Apr 2000. RE: ProCite and Internet Reference.

e-Mail to Cross, P. (pcross@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html,).

21. Reference to CD-ROMs and DVDs

This example refers to CD-ROMs which are works in their own right and not bibliographic databases.

Author's Surname, Initial. (Year) Title [type of medium CD-ROM]. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher (if ascertainable). Available from: Supplier/Database identifier or number (optional) [Accessed Date] (optional).

Hawking, S. (1994) Brief history of time: an interactive adventure. [CDROM] London: Crunch Media.

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Adapted from: Holland, M. (2007) Citing references Poole: Bournemouth University. Available from:

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5516756868.html,/library/citing_references/doc s/Citing_Refs.pdf [Accessed 04 October 2008].