Chapter 8 Pragmatics
Chapter 8 Language in Use
?The Scope of Pragmatics
?Speech Act Theory
?Conversational Implicature
?Speaker?s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) –the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context.
?The discipline which concentrate on this kind of meaning is called Pragmatics.
?Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language.
?Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory.
?Pragmatics is the study of the ability of language users to pair sentences with the contexts in which they would be appropriate.
?Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. (Hu)
?Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. (Leech) Context and Meaning
?What is contextual meaning?
?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of war? for example, may have two different contextual meanings:
?(1) it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war ?, when said by a language teacher to a class of students.
?(2) it may mean War produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.
?The meaning of a very simple statement depends on who says it, who they are speaking to and where the two people are. Because the people are both in the situation, the meaning is clear to them – it does not need to be said. E.g.
?The door is open.
?Please discuss the meaning of this sentence by listing the people and the situation involved in it.
?(1) The room is messy.
?Possible context:
?(a) A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.
?(b) In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy”.
?(c) The room was wanted for a meeting.
?(2) I can?t work under untidy circumstances.
?Possible contexts:
?(a) A request to someone to tidy up the circumstances.
?(b) It was an excuse for not wanting to do something there.
?(c) It is the speaker?s habit.
?(3) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.
?Possible context:
?(a) A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady?s appearance.
?(b) A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.
?(c) That she wore a red skirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion. Semantics and Pragmatics
?Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speaker meaning.
?Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.
?Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is implicated or inferred.
8.1 Speech Act Theory
?Consider these sentences:
?1) I apologize for stepping on your toe.
?2) I now pronounce you man and wife.
?3) A: What a boring movie.
?B: You can say that again.
?4) A: Mary’s cooking tonight.
?B: Better buy some stomach pills.
?Some utterances can do things. They are acts.
8.1.1 Performatives and constatives
?Austin (How to Do Things with Words, 1962)
?Consider these sentences:
?a) I name this ship Elizabeth.
?b) I bequeath my watch to my brother.
?c) I now pronounce you man and wife.
?d) I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.
?The utterance of these sentences is the doing of an action. They cannot be said to be true or false. So these sentences are called performatives.
?A constative sentence is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. It can be said to be true or false. For example, I pour some liquid into the tube.
?Implicit performatives –It?s cold here.
?Explicit performatives – Please close the door.
?Felicity conditions – how to make sth. valid
?Austin:Although performatives cannot be true or false, there are still conditions for them to meet to be appropriate or felicitous.
?A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and
?(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.
?B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.
?C Very often, (i) the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and (ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.
?Problems:
?1. There are some cases in which one does not need a conventional procedure. For example, I give my word for it can also be used to perform the action of promising.
?2. Some performative sentences presuppose the existence of something, which does not actually exist. (I bequeath my watch to my brother.)
?3. People must have requisite intentions, so they cannot say The cat is on the mat, but I don’t believe it.
?Austin tried to separate performatives from constatives on grammatical and lexical criteria, but he finally found that it was almost impossible. (cf. p. 188)
?8.1.2 Speech Act Theory
?Austin later considered the problem again, i.e. in what sense to say something is to do something. In his opinion, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something. Thus Speech Act Theory is introduced.
?1. Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）
?When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called Locutionary Act (the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance).
?It is the act of making the sentence; it is a description (traditional grammar), for example, “Morning!” The locution is the actual form of words used by the speaker and their semantic meaning.
?2. Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）
?When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the Illocutionary Act, which indicates the speaker?s intenti on. The utterances have some illocutionary forces (Austin).
?For example, “Morning” has the force of greeting.
“Force”, which is equivalent to speaker?s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, is considered different from “meaning” which means the constant, inherent side of meaning.
The illocution (or illocutionary force) is what the speaker is doing by uttering those words: commanding, offering, promising, threatening, thanking, etc.
Classify each of the following utterances as interrogative, imperative or declarative. Then decide what the speaker is using the utterance to do.
a) You can pass the milk.
b) Why don?t you pass the milk?
c) Have you got the milk?
?d) I could see the milk.
e) Get me the milk.
f) Send the milk down here.
?Despite the fact that e) and f) are imperatives, b) and c) are interrogatives and a) and d) are declaratives, all six utterances can be acts of requesting (milk in this case).
?Therefore, different locutions can have the same illocutionary force.
?The difference between locution and illocution can also be illustrated by the following example:
?Give me some cash. (Mike?s utterance to Annie)
?Please explain it.
?LOCUTION: Mike uttered the words Give me some cash which can be semantically paraphrased as: “Hand some money over to me”, with me referring to Mike.
?ILLOCUTION: Mike performed the act of requesting Annie to give him some cash.
?We need to distinguish locution and illocution because different locutions can have the same illocutionary force.
?Similarly, the same locution can have different illocutionary forces depending on the context. For example, It’s cold in here.
?The illocution could either be a request to close the window or an offer to close the window.
?3. Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）
?It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.
?By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.
?Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.
?Take “Morning” again as an example. The speaker wants to keep friendly relations with the hearer by saying “Morning”, and this friendliness will have effects on the hearer. Cf. p. 189.
?Another example to illustrate the distinction among the three acts:
?It’s stuffy in here.
?1) The Locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning "There isn't enough fresh air in here".
?2) The illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to open the window.
?3) The perlocutionary act can be the hearer's opening the window or his refusal to do so.
?In fact, we might utter this sentence to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes.
?See another example given by Austin (1962:101-102):
?Shoot her!
?The locution is the act of saying “Shoot her” and meaning shoot by …shoot? and her by …her?. The illocution is the act of, variously, urging, advising, ordering the addressee to shoot her. But the perlocution is the act of persuading, forcing, or frightening the addressee into shooting her. (Or, it might have the perlocutionary effect of frightening her).
?The literal meaning is taken care of by semantics and the effect of an utterance is subject to many factors, including social psychology, more than linguistics can cope with. So, what speech act theory is most concerned with is illocutionary acts. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.
?It is also designed to show coherence in seemingly incoherent conversations. Consider:
?a. Husband: That's the phone.
?b. Wife: I?m in the bathroom.
?c. Husband: Okay.
?In a) the husband is not describing something---it is a thing that needs no description to his wife. He is making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.
?In b), the wife is not describing her action either--- people do not usually need to assert that they are in the bathroom. Its illocutionary acts are (i) a refusal to comply with the request and (ii) issuing a request to her husband to answer the phone instead.
?In c) the man accepts his wife's refusal and accepts her request, meaning "All right, I'll answer it.“
?This analysis shows that this seemingly unconnected conversation is very coherent on a speech-act level (in b and c, each performs two speech acts), and that in saying things people are in fact "doing" things.
?In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended by the speaker.
?If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about – one of the students will go and get some chalk – is perlocutionary.
?In English, illocutionary acts are given specific labels, such as “request, warning, promise, invitation, compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc.” These specific labels name various speech functions.
?As functions may not correspond to forms, speech acts can be direct and indirect, for example: ?Direct speech act: Close the door.
?Indirect speech act: It’s cold in here.
?Why do people often speak indirectly in social communication?
?1. Different social variables: age, sex, social condition
?2. Politeness: communicative strategy
?Indirect speech acts are related to appropriateness.
?Indirect speech acts are made for politeness, not vice versa. To make appropriate choices does not necessarily mean indirect speech acts.
?Kinds of action
?i) representatives (陈述), those kinds of speech committed in various ways to the truth of a statement (state, suggest, boast, complain, claim, report, warn, etc).
?a. The earth is flat.
?b. It was a warm sunny day.
?c. Chomsky didn't write about music.
?In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (of belief). Of course, the degree of commitment varies from statement to statement. The commitment is small in “I guess John has stolen the book" but very strong in “I solemnly swear that John has stolen the book".
?ii) directives (命令), which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something. They express what the speaker wants. (order, command, request, beg, advise, warn, recommend, ask, etc)
?a. Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black.
?b. Could you lend me a pen, please?
?c. Don't touch that.
?In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words (via the hearer).
?iii) commissives (承诺), which commit the speaker to some future course of action. They express what the speaker intends. (promise, vow, offer, undertake, contract, threaten, etc)
?a. I'll be back.
?b. I'm going to get it right next time.
?c. We will not do that.
?In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker).
?iv) expressives (表达),which express a psychological state (thank, congratulate, praise, blame, forgive, pardon, etc.)
?a. I'm really sorry!
?b. Congratulations!
?c. Oh, yes, great, mmm, ssahh!
?In using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling).
?v) declaratives (宣布), which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions (resign, dismiss, christen, name, open, sentence, bid, declare, etc)
?a. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
?b. Referee: You're out!
?c. Jury Foreman: We find the defendant guilty.
?In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words.
8.2 Conversational Implicature
?Speakers and listeners are generally cooperating with each other in daily conversation. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers? presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them.
?However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.
?American philosopher Herbert Paul Grice (“Logic and Conversation”, 1975): People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. For example:
?1) A: How’s John getting on?
?B: Oh quite well, I think; he likes his colleagues, and he hasn’t been to prison yet.
?2) A: You are very beautiful without glasses.
?B: Then I must be ugly with glasses.
?Then how do people manage to convey implicature, which is not explicitly expressed?
?8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle (CP)
?“Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”
?A. Maxim of Quantity
?i) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).
?ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
?B. Maxim of Quality
?Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
?i) do not say what you believe to be false;
?ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
?C. Maxim of Relation
?Be relevant.
?D. Maxim of Manner
?Be perspicuous, and specifically:
?i) avoid obscurity of expression.
?ii) avoid ambiguity.
?iii) be brief (avoid prolixity).
?iv) be orderly.
?To put it very simply, the CP means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner. We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, and that they are telling the truth, being relevant, and trying to be as clear as they can. Speakers rarely mention these principles simply because they are assumed tacitly in verbal interactions.
?The CP is not used as rules for people to follow when they speak. The truth is that it is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation. (Cf. p. 192)
?Grice's basic idea is that in communication, speakers aim to follow the CP and its maxims, and that hearers interpret utterances with these maxims in mind.
?According to Grice, utterance interpretation is not a matter of decoding messages, but rather involves
?(i) taking the meaning of the sentences together with contextual information,
?(ii) using inference rules, and
?(iii) working out what the speaker means on the basis of the assumption that the utterance conforms to the maxims.
?The main advantage of this approach from Grice's point of view is that it provides a pragmatic explanation for a wide range of phenomena, especially for conversational implicatures---a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.
?According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxims, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observance and non-observance of the maxims.
?The least interesting case is when speakers directly observe the maxims so as to generate conversational implicatures.
?Husband: Where are the car keys?
?Wife: They're on the table in the hall.
?The wife has answered clearly (Manner) and truthfully (Quality), has given just the right amount of information (Quantity) and has directly addressed her husband's goal in asking the question (Relation). She has said precisely what she meant, no more and no less, and has generated her conversational implicature. In this case, there is, in essence, no distinction to be made between what is said and what is implicated.
?Other examples to show “what is said” is “what is implicated”:
?1) Some people believe in God. (Not everyone believes in God.)
?2) My job?s OK. (I?m not very happy in my work.)
?3) John has two PhDs. (I believe he has, and have adequate evidence that he has.)
?4) Smoking is hazardo us to one?s health. (I believe it is.)
?5) When will he be coming? (I don?t know, I want to know, and I think the addresses know.)
?However, in actual communication, it is often the case that the speaker cannot and do not observe the CP and its maxims. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles “in a deeper degree”. For example:
?1) He is a tiger. (quality)(He has some characteristics of a tiger)
?2) If he comes, he comes. (quantity)(You never know if he is going to turn up so there is no point worrying about it. )
?3) I'm Alex from Leeds, 26, unmarried. (quantity, more information that is required)
4) A: Where is Bill?
?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house. (relation)
?5) A: I?m out of petrol.
?B: There is a garage round the corner.
?6) A: Can you tell me the time?
?B: Well, the milkman has come.
?7) A: Is there another pint of milk?
?B: I?m going to the supermarket in five minutes.
?If I avoid some simple expression in favor of some more complex paraphrase, it may be assumed that the details are somehow relevant:
?8) a) Open the door.
?b) Walk up to the door, turn the door handle clockwise as far as it will go, and then pull gently towards you.
?9) A: Where are you going with the dog?
?B: To the V-E-T.
?10) a) ??The ranger rode into the sunset and jumped on his horse.
?b) The ranger jumped on his horse and rode into the sunset.
?11) Time flies. (光阴似箭) (*给苍蝇计时)
?CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation. When we speak we generally have something like the CP and its maxims in our mind to guide us, though subconsciously or even unconsciously.
?Grice: Conversation is governed by the Cooperative Principle. “We interpret what we hear if it conforms to these maxims.” When a maxim is violated, it becomes an implicature.
?8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims
?A: Quantity
?1) A reference letter by A for his past student X, who is applying for a lectureship in philosophy:
?Dear sir,
?Mr. X’s command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular.
?Yours,
?2) A: Where?ve you been?
?B: Out.
?3) A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?
?B: Somewhere in the south of the city.
?4) Boys are boys.
?5) War is war.
?6) A: Where is X?
?B: He?s gone to the library. He said so when he left.
?B: Quality
?7) He is made of iron.
?8) Every nice girl loves a sailor.
?9) I think he was married and had a lioness at home.
?The speaker usually use some pragmatic figures of speech such as metaphor, irony, or hyperbole to make the hearer to infer the implied meaning.
?C. Relation
?10) A: Mrs. X is an old bag.
?B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, isn?t it?
?11) A: What do you intend to do today?
?B: I have a terrible headache.
?D. Manner
?12) A: Let?s get the kids something.
?B: OK, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.
?13) Never seek to tell thy love,
?Love that never told can be.
?14) a. Miss X sang “Home sweet home”.
? b. Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home sweet home”.
8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature
?(i) Calculability: they can be worked out on the basis of some previous information.
?(ii)Cancellability: also known as defeasibility. The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP. the linguistic and situational contexts, etc. So if any of them changes, the implicature will also change. E.g.,
?The movie was OK. In fact, it was terrific.
?(iii) Non-detachability: a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. In other words, an implicature will not be detached, separated form the utterance as a whole, even though the specific words may be changed.在同样的语境中，不同的命题内容会产生同样的会话含义。如：
?1) The movie was OK.
?2) The movie was all right.
?The meaning of the two examples are the same, that is, the movie was not excellent.
?(iv) Non-conventionality: conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. In other words, implicatures are no part of the conventional meaning of linguistic expressions.
4. Politeness Principle (PP)
?Leech points out that CP in itself cannot explain why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean.
?Conversational interaction is a social behaviour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in language use. There are social and psychological factors that determine the choice.
?Besides being cooperative, participants of conversations normally try to be polite. The speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech proposes the politeness principle (PP), which contains six maxims.
?1. Tact 策略
?Minimize cost to other.
?Maximize benefit to other.
?2. Generosity 宽宏
?Minimize benefit to self.
?Maximize cost to self.
?3. Approbation 赞扬
?Minimize dispraise of other.
?Maximize praise of other.
?4. Modesty 谦虚
?Minimize praise of self.
?Maximize dispraise of self.
?5. Agreement 赞同
?Minimize disagreement between self and other.
?Maximize agreement between self and other.
?6. Sympathy 同情
?Minimize antipathy between self and other.
?Maximize sympathy between self and other.
?The tact maxim expressed in terms of cost and benefit can be exemplified by the following: ?Clean the rooms.
?Get some chalks for me.
?Look at the map.
?Take a seat.
?Enjoy your trip.
?Have another cup of coffee.
?Cost to H less Polite
?Benefit to H More Polite
Cost to hearer:
?Peel the potatoes.
?Can you peel the potatoes?
?Will you peel the potatoes?
?Would you possibly peel …?
?More direct Less polite
?Less direct More polite
Benefit to hearer:
?Would you have another sandwich?
?Will you have another sandwich?
?Have another sandwich.
?You must have another sandwich.
Less direct Less polite
More direct More polite
Relation between CP and PP
?The PP is the superordinate principle standing above the CP. The PP overrides the CP.
?People sometimes violate the CP in order to follow the PP.
5. Presupposition
?If someone tells you "Y our girlfriend is waiting outside for you", there is an obvious assumption that you have a girlfriend. If you are asked the following question, there are at least two assumptions involved:
?(1) When did you stop beating your wife?
?Here, the speaker assumes that you used to beat your wife, and that you no longer do so. Such assumptions by the speaker or writer are called presuppositions.
?Questions like this, with built-in presuppositions, are very useful devices for interrogators or trial lawyers. For example, if you are asked by your teacher,
?(2) How often do you cheat in your examinations?
?There is a presupposition that you do, in fact, cheat in examinations.
?If you simply answer the How often part of the question e.g. by saying "Very seldom" , you are behaving as if the presupposition is right, that is, you admit that you have cheated in examinations.
?How do we know that something is built into a sentence as presupposition?
?One of the tests used to check for the presuppositions underlying sentences involves negating a sentence with a particular presupposition and considering whether the presupposition remains true. For example, if someone says,
?(3) I used to regret marrying her, but I don't regret marrying her now.
?The presupposition "I married her" remains constant even though the verb “regret” has been negated.
1、2. Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）
When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called Locutionary Act (the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance). It is the act of making the sentence; it is a descriptio n (traditional grammar), for example, “Morning!” The locution is the actual form of words used by the speaker and their semantic meaning.
3. Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）[要求：理论是什么，定义，例子]
When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the Illocutionary Act, which indicates the s peaker?s intention. The utterances have some illocutionary forces (Austin).
For example, “Morning” has the force of greeting.
“Force”, which is equivalent to speaker?s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, is considered different from “meaning” w hich means the constant, inherent side of meaning.
The illocution (or illocutionary force) is what the speaker is doing by uttering those words: commanding, offering, promising, threatening, thanking, etc.
Classify each of the following utterances as interrogative, imperative or declarative. Then decide what the speaker is using the utterance to do.
a) You can pass the milk.b) Why don?t you pass the milk c) Have you got the milk?d) I could see
the milk.e) Get me the milk. f) Send the milk down here.
Despite the fact that e) and f) are imperatives, b) and c) are interrogatives and a) and d) are declaratives, all six utterances can be acts of requesting (milk in this case).
Therefore, different locutions can have the same illocutionary force.
The difference between locution and illocution can also be illustrated by the following example: Give me some cash. (Mike?s utterance to Annie)
Please explain it.
LOCUTION: Mike uttered the words Give me some cash which can be semantically paraphrased as: “Hand some money over to me”, with me referring to Mike.
ILLOCUTION: Mike performed the act of requesting Annie to give him some cash.
We need to distinguish locution and illocution because different locutions can have the same illocutionary force.
Similarly, the same locution can have different illocutionary forces depending on the context. For example, It’s cold in here.
The illocution could either be a request to close the window or an offer to close the window.
#Another example to illustrate the distinction among the three acts:
It’s stuffy in here.1) The Locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning "There isn't enough fresh air in here". 2) The illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to open the window. 3) The perlocutionary act can be the hearer's opening the window or his refusal to do so. In fact, we might utter this sentence to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes.
#See another example given by Austin (1962:101-102):
Shoot her!
The locution is the act of saying “Shoot her”and meaning shoot by ‘shoot’and her by ‘her’. The illocution is the act of, variously, urging, advising, ordering the addressee to shoot her. But the perlocution is the act of persuading, forcing, or frightening the addressee into shooting her. (Or, it might have the perlocutionary effect of frightening her).
#The literal meaning is taken care of by semantics and the effect of an utterance is subject to many factors, including social psychology, more than linguistics can cope with. So, what speech act theory is most concerned with is illocutionary acts. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.
《语言学纲要》名词解释_叶蜚声
《语言学纲要》名词解释 导言 4.交际工具：人类交际活动所使用的工具。语言是人类最重要的交际工具。此外，身势等伴随动作是非语 言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具； 5.思维：是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。 是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思
维、形象思维、抽象思维。 6.社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化习惯的人类社会的共同体， 即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。与此相关联的现象就是社会现象。 7.社会现象：指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生、存在和发展密切联系的现象。 取渐变，不能爆发突变。 8.语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是 不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 9.表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形
式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 10.组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构。 11.聚合关系：在链条的某一环节上能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然聚集成群。它们彼 此的关系称为聚合关系。 23.音高：声音的高低，是由发音体形状及振动频率快慢决定的。 24.音重：声音的强弱，它取决于声波振幅的大小，而振幅的大小与发音时用力大小有关。 25.音质：也叫音色，指声音的品质或个性。
中国传媒大学语言学及应用语言学专业方向介绍
中国传媒大学语言学及应用语言学专业方 向介绍 （感谢凯程罗老师对本文的有益指导.) 语言学及应用语言学专业（050102） 1．应用语言学方向 应用语言学方向是适应我国应用语言学发展需要设立的研究方向，它以“人机交际”和人际交际的语言理论和技能、技术为主要研究对象。作为跨学科的语言应用学科，它同人文科学、自然科学（数学、物理学、信息科学、计算机科学等）都有密切关系。 本方向有社会语言学和计算语言学两个研究领域。社会语言学，重在研究语言在社会生活中的应用。它结合中国社会的文化背景，对语言应用进行多角度、全方位的研究，总结社会生活不同领域（如旅游、交通、商贸、公关、司法、教育等）人际交往中语言应用的特殊规律，对语言实践提供理论指导，并为我国语言文字规范化工作服务。计算语言学是利用计算机对人类自然语言处理和加工的科学，它是适应信息时代的要求而产生和发展起来的一门边缘交叉性学科。机器翻译、自然语言理解、语音识别与合成等都是本方向研究的重要课题，这些课题的研究对人工智能计算机的研制，起着举足轻重的作用。 本方向将发挥中国传媒大学文、理、工多科院校、以及与教育部语言应用研究所合作的优势，为二十一世纪的应用语言学培养高层次专门人才。 2．对外汉语教学方向 本研究方向以对外汉语教学研究为重点。汉语教学法历来都是汉语言基础理论体系中的重要组成部分，汉语教学法研究，也是汉语言基础理论研究中不可缺少的部分。 自现代汉语诞生之日起，其教学过程即随之开始；应用语言学的产生和发展，更进一步推动了汉语教学研究的理论升华。特别是近几十年来，汉语教学研究，无论是对内的，还是对外的，都越来越受到重视。从建立完整的理论体系的角度说，我校有国内著名语言学家为学科带头人的现代汉语语法、修辞研究的深厚基础，最近又增添了应用语言学研究的雄厚实力，如果再加上汉语教学研究理论的参与，必将使汉语语言理论研究体系更趋完善。我校作为全国广播电视人才培养基地，多年来一直担负着为广播电视事业培养专门人才的重要任务。如何在汉语教学中把结构、意义和交际功能三者有机地结合起来，更好地培养学生实际运用语言的能力，也是多年来面临的理论与实际的大问题。随着时代要求的不断提高，矛盾日益突出。汉语教学如何借鉴心理学、教育学等相关学科的研究成果，结合语言应用实际，力求走出一条新路子。 对外汉语教学专业人才的需求，近年来不断加大，国内各汉语教学机构为了在来华留学生的市场竞争中占有更多的份额，都纷纷把对外汉语教学高学历师资的竞争放到了首位。此外，全球性“汉语热”方兴未艾，特别是在进入新世纪之后，国内外汉语教学师资的需求量呈上升趋势。本方向将竭力培养对外汉语教学方面的高层次专门人才。 3. 语言信息处理方向 语言信息处理是语言学与计算机科学交叉形成的一门新型学科，是应用语言学的重要组成部分。 我国“十五”发展规划的重要方针之一，是大力推进信息化进程，以信息化带动工业化。
英美文化与英汉翻译(1-12)
制作时间：2004年7月21日英美文化与英汉翻译(第1-12期) 作者：snowry_yhn 编辑、制作：yangbb 第1期 MAVERICK (2) 第2期 FBI & SLOAN-KETTERING (3) 第3期 AMA (4) 第4期 GATT (5) 第5期 WESTERN (6) 第6期 GIS & YANK (7) 第7期 GILTS (8) 第8期 JV (9) 第9期 AT&T (10) 第10期 GDP (11) 第11期 MAFIA (12) 第12期 GURU (13) 转载请注明出处，谢谢！
制作时间：2004年7月21日［yangbb语］ 终于完工了，而且今天是自己的生日，就把这个包子作为生日 礼物送给自己吧！呵呵，好高兴啊！ 其实做包子真的是件比较苦的事情，而且体力劳动远大于脑力劳动。但是我想，如果自己辛苦做出来的包子没有人分享，那才是真正 可悲的事情。所以沪友一定要支持我们的劳动啊！ 还有两点提醒一下（不要骂我啊，我马上就说完）： 1．本文档版权归沪江所有，尊重原创，请网友在转载时注明出处，非常感谢！ 2．本文档按A4幅面制作，有条件的网友可直接打印。 ［snowry_yhn语］ 了解英美文化对我们的英语学习是很有必要的，特别是对于翻译！ “白象牌运动鞋”怎么翻译呢？是“White Elephant Sports Shoes” 吗？大家知道White Elephant 在英语中是什么意思吗？”yellow pub lications"又该怎么翻译呢？是"黄色出版物"吗？ 由于缺乏对英美文化的了解而造成的误译、谬译或交际中断经常发生。我们这个栏目就是希望让大家更多的了解一些英美文化，基于snow的实际水平，有错误的地方请大家多多包涵！ 第1期 Maverick Maverick
腐植酸复混肥的生产工艺与技术及工艺流程图
腐植酸复混肥的生产工艺与技术 随着腐植酸机理研究的不断深化, 我国腐植酸肥料的研制开发及其在农业上的应用有了新的进展。现从腐植酸复混肥的性能、作用、机理、生产工艺特点及农田效果等方面进行探讨与分析, 以推动腐植酸复混肥料在农业上的迅速推广应用。 1 腐植酸的性能 腐植酸是一种化学结构相当复杂的胶体无定型高分子有机化合物, 它是由几个相似的结构单元所形成的大分子复合体, 每个单元又以芳香族聚合物为核, 在核的外面带有羧基、酚羟基、羰基、甲氧基等活性基团。这些活性基团使腐植酸具有酸性、亲水性、较强的离子交换能力和吸附能力, 能与 K+、Na+、Ca2+、 M g2+、Fe3+、Al3+和 NH4 +形成腐植酸盐, 并能与某些金属离子生成络合物或螯合物。腐植酸由很多极小的球形微粒积聚而成, 表面大, 其阳离子交换量比矿质胶体大 10～20 倍。 腐植酸可与碱成盐, 其 1 价盐如 NH4+、Na+、K+盐为水溶性, 2 价盐如 Ca2+、Mg 2+盐和 3 价盐如 Fe3+、Al3+盐均不溶于水。 腐植酸具有胶体性质, 在水溶液中呈现出疏松的结构, 加入电解质后会破坏腐植酸胶体溶液的稳定性, 使其凝聚成絮状沉淀。腐植酸的热稳定性差, 在高温下很容易脱羧基、酚羟基而发生裂解, 以致失去原有的活性。 腐植酸具有良好的生理活性, 其分子中所含的多酚基结构参与
了植物体的氧化还原过程, 有活化生物体多种酶的活性, 促进细胞分裂, 加速作物生长点分化及增强根系发育, 刺激作物生长的作用。它还能抑制土壤中脲酶和硝化菌的活性, 增强作物对养分的吸收, 提高化肥利用率。 腐植酸存在于泥炭、褐煤和风化煤中, 其总含量一般为 30% ～50% 。目前统称的腐植酸由胡敏酸( 黑腐酸和棕腐酸) 和富里酸组成, 富里酸又称黄腐酸, 含量少。由于原生植物、地质年代所经历的变化和环境不同, 其腐植酸含量、成分、结构有很大差异, 直接影响到腐植酸产品的质量和应用效果。一般来讲, 活性基团的含量越高, 调剂肥料中养分释放和供给能力越强。 腐植酸在农业上的应用, 则表现出具有 5 大作用, 即: 改良土壤; 增强化肥效能; 刺激作物生长; 改善作物品质; 增强作物抗逆能力。 我国蕴藏着上千亿吨的腐植酸资源, 为发展腐植酸复混肥提供了可靠的物质基础。 2 腐植酸对氮肥分解的抑制机理 2·1腐植酸的脲酶抑制和硝化抑制机理 多元复混肥, 其氮源多采用尿素为原料。 ( 1) 酰胺水解作用 尿素进入土壤后, 在土壤脲酶作用下, 很快发生水解而生成氨。水解后的氨, 一方面与土壤中的水发生水合反应而形成 NH4 + , 使其存在于土壤中供作物吸收利用; 另一方面可进入大气而损失。其化学
《语言学纲要》试题库剖析
绪论、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系 二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。
英美文化与英汉翻译
Introductory Remarks ①．White elephant昂贵而无用的东西 ②．Yellow publications低级趣味出版物 ③．Lame duck跛鸭：不能连任的人 ④．Disinformation假情报 ⑤．Hegemony势力范围 ⑥．Mentor保护人 ⑦．Deep throat秘密消息的来源 ⑧．Paint lily多此一举 ⑨．Smoking gun确凿的犯罪证据 ⑩．Be in high cotton兴隆 ?．Barter trade交换贸易 ?．BBS电子布告栏系统 ?．Anonymous remailer匿名转信站 ?．Cybersalon网络咖啡厅 ?．Cyberspace网络世界 ?．Online prank网络恶作剧 ?．CPI消费者物价指数 ?．ISDN综合服务数字网络 ?．OPEC石油输出国组织 ?．Mitnick affair米尼克事件 21．World Wide Web万维网，全球信息网 22．Cellular phone蜂巢式移动电话 23．Genetic engineering遗传工程 24．The economics of Cloning复制人的经济分析 25．G-7七大工业国集团 26．Reaganomics里根经济学 27．Junk bond垃圾债券 28．Face the music了解美国军队惩罚违纪士兵的方式方法 29．Talk turkey了解美国白人的伪善 30．Come down to the brass tacks了解美国工人的过去 31．Go to the dogs了解英美人破产的辛酸 32．Samaritan源自《圣经》中，指乐善好施者 33．Green Berets指头戴绿色贝雷帽的美国特种部队 34．An Eagle Scout指美国的飞鹰童子军 35．American Dream表意是“美国梦” 36．Forbes list指美国《富布斯》富翁排行榜 37．Madison Avenue是麦迪逊大街，代指美国广告中心 38．A rags-to-riches legacy是美国梦的一个重要的内容，指“留下一笔‘白手起家发财’的遗产” 39．Social Security指美国的“社会保障条例” 40．Medicare指美国为65岁以上的老人专设的“老年保健医疗制” 41．Negative income tax指美国社会的“最低收入补贴” 42．A scapegoat替罪羊
语言学纲要名词解释.
语言学纲要名词解释 导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。
2010年中国传媒大学考博语言学理论试题及答案
中国传媒大学2010年攻读博士学位研究生入学考 试 语言学理论试题 一.论述题。 1.必答题(40分) 就语言规划或语言规范化问题尽你所知进行论述。 2.选答题(30分,任选其一回答) A.就话语(也叫篇章、语篇)研究进行论述。 B.就形式主义语言学和功能主义语言学进行论述。 二.分析题(30分,每小题10分) 1.指出下面三个四字格之间的联系,分析形成的原因,并说明各自的表达效果。喜鹊登枝 喜上眉梢 喜上眉梢 2.下面两组句子,一组可逆,一组不可逆,请从认知角度解释。 我后悔死这件事了——这件事后悔死我了 我后悔这件事了——★这件事后悔我了 3.运用预设理论解释下面句子。
北京又要打击非法一日游了 中国传媒大学2010年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试 语言学理论试题 二.论述题。 1.必答题(40分) 就语言规划或语言规范化问题尽你所知进行论述。 (1)语言文字的合理发展,对一个国家或民族的发展具有不可估量的作用。国家或社会为了管理社会语言生活,对语言的现状及发展施加有计划有目的的影响以促进语言文字健康发展使其更好的尾社会服务而进行的各种工作就是语言规划。 (2)语言规划涉及的内容很多,主要包括民族共同语的确立和推广,民族共同语的规范和完善,语言选择,语言协调,语言调查,科技术语的统一和标准化,文字的创制和改革等。 (3)①语言文字立法是语言规划的一种体现。《中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法》是语言政策的法律体现,对于加强语言文字工作有重要意义。②政府对语言的管理和影响表现在官方语言的选择上,外语教育也有语言选择问题,除了语言选择以外还有标准化问题,包括科技术语的标准化和语言规范化。 (4)语言规划的原则:语言规划必须尊重并且符合语言发展的客观规律,符合社会发展的需要,符合广大人民群众的意愿。避免两种倾向:一种是人在语言文字面前无能为力,无所作为;一种是过于夸大人的作用。
英语专业翻译类论文参考文献
参考文献 一、翻译理论与实践相关书目 谢天振主编. 《当代国外翻译理论导读》. 天津：南开大学出版社，2008. Jeremy Munday. 《翻译学导论——理论与实践》Introducing Translation Studies---Theories and Applications. 李德凤等译. 北京：商务印书馆，2007. 包惠南、包昂. 《中国文化与汉英翻译》. 北京：外文出版社, 2004. 包惠南. 《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 2001. 毕继万. 《世界文化史故事大系——英国卷》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2003. 蔡基刚. 《英汉汉英段落翻译与实践》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英汉写作对比研究》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英语写作与抽象名词表达》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2003. 曹雪芹、高鄂. 《红楼梦》. 陈定安. 《英汉比较与翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1991. 陈福康. 《中国译学理论史稿》（修订本）. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2000. 陈生保. 《英汉翻译津指》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 陈廷祐. 《英文汉译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2001. 陈望道. 《修辞学发凡》. 上海：上海教育出版社, 1979. 陈文伯. 《英汉翻译技法与练习》. 北京：世界知识出版社. 1998. 陈中绳、吴娟. 《英汉新词新义佳译》. 上海：上海翻译出版公司. 1990. 陈忠诚. 《词语翻译丛谈》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1983. 程希岚. 《修辞学新编》. 吉林：吉林人民出版社, 1984. 程镇球. 《翻译论文集》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2002. 程镇球. 《翻译问题探索》. 北京：商务印书馆, 1980. 崔刚. 《广告英语》. 北京：北京理工大学出版社, 1993. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1990. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译讲评》. 北京：对外贸易教育出版社. 1989. 邓炎昌、刘润清. 《语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1989. 丁树德. 《英汉汉英翻译教学综合指导》. 天津：天津大学出版社, 1996. 杜承南等，《中国当代翻译百论》. 重庆：重庆大学出版社, 1994. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集（1894-1948）》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集（1949-1983）》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. . 范勇主编. 《新编汉英翻译教程》. 天津：南开大学出版社. 2006. 方梦之、马秉义（编选）. 《汉译英实践与技巧》. 北京：旅游教育出版社. 1996. 方梦之. 《英语汉译实践与技巧》. 天津：天津科技翻译出版公司. 1994. 方梦之主编. 《译学辞典》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. 冯翠华. 《英语修辞大全》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1995. 冯庆华. 《文体与翻译》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2002. 冯庆华主编. 《文体翻译论》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2002. 冯胜利. 《汉语的韵律、词法与句法》. 北京：北京大学出版社, 1997. 冯志杰. 《汉英科技翻译指要》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 耿占春. 《隐喻》. 北京：东方出版社, 1993.
至万吨有机肥生产的工艺流程
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中国传媒06语言学及应用语言学
中国传媒大学2006年应用语言学考研试题 语言学理论 解释下列概念 互补分布 2、语义特征 3、屈折语 4、自源文字 5、隐喻 二、单项选择题 1、历史比较语言学出现在--------- A、19世纪中叶 B、20世纪初 C、19世纪初 D、20世纪中叶 3、从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位是----------- A、音渡 B、音素 C、音位 D、音节 4、[p、t’、ts、k]这一组音的共同的区别特征是----------- A、不送气 B、清音 C、塞音 D、擦音 5、下列词语中的“子”是实语素的是---------- A、鸽子 B、傻子 C、莲子 D、日子 6、下列说法中正确的是 A、“老”可以同“新、旧、少、嫩”等构成反义词 B、“大”和“小”是绝对对立的反义词 C、“红”与“黑”这对反义词具有非此即彼的关系 D、“冷”和“热”是相对反义词 7、英语代词“我”，作主语时写作I，作宾语时写作me。这种变化时语法范畴中---------的表现。 A、性 B、树 C、格 D、人称 8、关于社会方言的形成，下列说法不正确的一项是--------- A、社会方言大多是在语言的相互接触中形成的 B、社会方言是随着社会的社群分化而产生的 C、一种语言的内部有可能形成社会方言 D、一种方言的内部有可能形成社会方言 9、克里奥尔语是指----------- A、用于特殊交际场合的皮钦语 B、功能单一，只能用于口头交际的一种混合语 C、结构简单，不可能得到充分发展的一种混合语 D、母语分化的皮钦语 10、下列各组内三个合成词构词类型不一致的是----------- A、天地宇宙阴阳 B、鱼子花儿锄头 C、改善揭露纠正 D、爸爸哥哥姐姐 三、分析题 1、请证明下列各组音素在汉语普通话中属于不同音位，还是同一音位的不同变体。[ t ]—[ t’ ] [ b ]—[ p ] [ i ]—[ u ] [ a ]—[ α ] 2用层次分析法分析下列词组（要求分析到词） 词汇是语言中反映社会发展变化最敏感的要素。 像流水一般晶莹剔透的月光。 3指出下列句子中划线词语的语义指向 小王把酒喝光了。 新买的球鞋也踢坏了。 4设置不同的语境，使“我等你半天了”这个语句形式表达不同的意思，呈现不同的交际效果（至少三个）。 5判断正误并说明理由。 语言是语言，言语是言语，二者完全不同，没有任何关系。 任何一种符号，都是由形式和内容两方面组成的。
英汉翻译的差异
地域政治与社会生活差异对翻译的影响 莎士比亚十四行诗中把情人比作夏天可爱而温柔Shall compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate：Rough wind do shake the darling buds of May And summer’s lease hath all too short a date(译文:我可否将你比作夏日?你更可爱，更温柔:暴风摇撼五月钟爱的嫩芽,而夏日的周期太过短暂)。由于地理位置的关系,“夏天”带给中国人和英国人的联想和感受是不相同的。在中国,情人象夏日,有你受的。 风俗习惯差异对翻译的影响 同一件事物, 不同的文化背景, 看法大相径庭。在汉文化中龙(dragon) 凤( phoenix) 是一个图腾形象。在封建社会, 龙比喻是皇帝, 凤比喻皇后, 帝王成婚称龙凤呈祥。在汉语中, 龙和凤都用于好的意思。如龙凤, 龙虎、凤毛、山窝里飞出金凤凰。汉语中还有不少表示欢乐、愿望而气势磅礴带龙的成语: 龙飞凤舞、龙盘虎跃、生龙活虎、藏龙卧虎、攀龙附凤、望子成龙。龙在中华民族的心目中是顶礼膜拜的, 所以称自己是龙的传人。但在圣经中, 与上帝作对的恶魔撒旦(San tan) 被称为the Great Dragon. Dragon 总是代表邪恶, 令人感到恐怖。说一个人象龙不是一句好话, 尤其是讲女人象龙, 指的是又凶恶又歹毒、令人讨厌。She is a bit of a dragon around this place. (她是一个很专横跋扈的人)。Phoenix 在西方的传说中是一种鸟, 在沙漠中生存了五、六百年后, 将自己烧成灰烬, 然后从中又诞生一只的Phoenix, 所以英语中Phoenix, 有再生、复活的意思。英语习俗差异是多方面的, 最典型的莫过于对狗这种动物的态度上。西方人把狗当作宠物来养, 狗是人类最好的朋友, 所以, 英语中大部分用狗的形象词语比喻的是普通人的形象, 毫无侮辱的意思。如love me love my dog. 爱屋及乌。Every dog has its day. 凡人皆有得意日。He works like a dog.他干得十分卖力。Dog doesn’t eat dog. 同类不相残。Y ou lucky dog . 你这个家伙真走运!中国人当然也养狗, 但对狗的看法大不相同, 与狗的成语总是含贬义, 表示坏人恶行,典型的如走狗、狗仗人势、狗眼看人低、狗嘴里长不出象牙来、狼心狗肺、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗改不了吃屎、狗娘养的、狗屁等。孔雀(peacock) , 汉文化中,peacock 是吉祥的象征, 孔雀开屏是大吉大利的事。傣族人跳孔雀舞来表达自己美好的愿望。在英语中, 孔雀的意义基本上是否定的, 强调它骄傲的一面。如: He attempted to peacock his way through the world。他想名扬世界。Mary was peacocking about in the classroom. 玛丽在教室里趾高气扬地走来走去。 3宗教信仰与历史典故、谚语对翻译的影响 中西文化的历史渊源不同, 宗教信仰不同, 典故、谚语的来源不同。汉英语言中涉及宗教的词语数目庞大,蔚为壮观。大多数西方人信基督教, 崇拜的神称为上帝(God) , 上帝只有一个, 但包括三个位格(Person) 即: 上帝圣父(God the Father)、上帝圣子(God the Son )、上帝圣灵(God the Holy Ghost ) , 统称为三位一体(Trinity). 这三位不是三个神, 而是同具一个本体的独一真神。中国有盘古开天、道教的玉帝, 有佛教的阎王和观音(Buddhism Guan Ying, the Goddess of Mercy) 有神话的龙王。典故、谚语是每个民族文化的一个重要组成部分, 也是语言的重要组成部分, 人们常常在不自觉运用各民族文化遗产的典故、谚语。中国人常说“东施效颦”“叶公好龙”“真是马后炮”“原来又是个空城计”。中国人的典故多来自于《诗经》和中国的四大名著等。西方人的典故则来自于《圣经》和莎士比亚及希腊、罗马神话和传说。若缺乏对中西文化不同的宗教信仰和历史典故、谚语的个性深刻了解, 难以翻译出词语中的文化内涵。比如“Being a teacher is being at present at the creation, when the clay begins to breathe. ”要翻译出这个句子, 首先要弄清上帝之创造(Creation of God)。上帝用六天的时间创造了世界。第一天, 创造光, 划分昼夜。第二天, 创造空气, 划分天地。第三天, 划分海陆, 使陆地长植物。第四天, 创造日月星辰, 划分季节。第五天, 创造鸟类与鱼类。第六天, 创造昆虫、兽类, 并按照自己的形象造人。第七天, 安息日(Sabbath)。其次要明白(clay) 指的是人体(clay figure)。据圣经记载, 上帝用泥土造一个人形, 再在人体的鼻孔吹一口气, 人体就
语言学纲要各章名词解释
导言 *中国、印度、希腊、罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地之。 *形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。 *语言本身的构造很复杂，对它的研究大致可以分为语言、词汇和语义、语法三个部分。 *运用语言交际的过程是瞬间的事情，但却包含着一系列复杂的问题。如果借用信息论的术语来说，这一过程大体上可以分为“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”五个阶段。 第一章 *语言研究的任务就是要把说话中反复使用的材料和规则找出来，把那些隐藏在无数话语中的坚守不见尾的语言找出来，使它的整体和每一片鳞甲都清清楚楚地展现在人们的面前。这当然是复杂细致的任务。 *除了语言之外，人们还可以使用其他的交际工具：文字，旗语，红绿灯，电报代码，数字符号，化学公式等。人们在使用语言进行交际的时候，不但要动嘴，而且要面部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都会参加进来。（非语言：手、眼神） *思维能力是全人类共同的，语言的各组民族不同的。 *为什么语言是人类最重要的交际工具？ 1、语言是最灵活的，最方便的，信息量最大的，所以是最重要的。语言是组成社会不可少的因素，人与人之间的联系要靠语言来维持。 2、语言是为满足人类交际的组要而产生的，其他动物是没有的。 3、其他的交际工具是建立在一定的语言基础上的语言或语言成分的代用品，而且都有特殊的服务领域。 第二章 *符号：是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号标记。符号应该具备的条件：约定俗成、重复使用。语言符号的特点是：任意性和线条性。 *语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。语言必须是一种经济有效而又富于弹性和灵活性的装置。这装置的重要特点就是分层。 *语言的底层是一套音位，一种语言的音位的数目虽然只有几十个却能构成数目众多的组合，这些组合为语言符号准备了形式的部分。语言的上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，这一层又氛围若干级。第一级是语素，意义在这里被装进形式的口袋，成了音义结合的最小的符号。第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。词和句子都是符号的序列。 *组合关系和聚合关系是语言两种最根本关系。 第三章 *音素：是从音节中划分出来的最小的语音单位。（从音质角度划分出来） *音标：记录音素的标写符号。国际音标：是国际语言协会于1888年制定的并开始使用的一套记录音素的标写符号。 *语音的发音---传递---感知三个环节，分别对应于语音的生理---物理---心理三个方面的属性，由发音学---音响学---听觉语音学三门学科加以研究，标志着人们研究语言的的进展过程。三个环节，三个方面，三门学科的研究都是自然科学和语言学的交界领域，都要利用大量的实验手段。生理、物理、心理的研究可以说是语音的自然属性的研究。 *元音和辅音的区别是什么？ 1、气流是否受阻，发元音气流不受阻，辅音受阻。 2、发音器官紧张状况。发元音时各器官的各部分都保持均衡紧张，发辅音时只有形成阻碍的那一部分特别紧张。 3、气流强弱不同，发元音气流弱，发辅音气流强。 *音位：是具体语言中有区别的语音形式的作用的最小语音单位。音位的分析对拼音文字的
论文化因素对英汉翻译的影响
论文化因素对英汉翻译的影响 院系 专业班级 姓名 _ 学号 年月日
目录 摘要 (2) ABSTRACT (3) 引言 (4) 一、绪论 (6) (一) 文化的概念 (6) (二) 翻译的概念 (6) 二、分论 (6) (一) 文化内涵的差异对翻译的影响 (7) 1 宗教文化的差异对翻译的影响 (7) 2 历史文化的差异对翻译的影响 (8) (二) 生活方式的差异对英汉翻译的影响 (6) (三) 价值观的差异对翻译的影响 (10) 三、结语 (11) 参考文献 (12)
文化（culture)是一个内涵丰富而又复杂的概念。语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化的载体和核心，也是文化赖以语言传播的物质表达形式。翻译是两种语言之间的转换活动，是信息和思想的交流，是语言表达的艺术再创造，而不是文字上的对译。语言与文化的密切关系注定了翻译与文化的密切关系。翻译是把一种语言转换成另一种语言。不言而喻，两种语言转换的过程中必然涉及到两种文化。翻译实质上是不同文化间的交流。 本文在阐述文化和翻译概念的基础上，试从中西文化的相似和差异性，包括不同的文化内涵、生活方式以及价值观等方面，对此问题进行深入的分析和探讨，指出两种语言翻译中应注意的文化问题。 关键词：英汉翻译；文化因素；影响
Culture is a complex conception. Language is a very important part of culture. It is the core of culture. Translation is a transfer activity of two languages. It is the exchange between information and thoughts, but not the direct translation. The close relationship between the language and the culture means the close relationship between the translation and culture. In fact, translation is a kind of tool for us to communicate. This article tries to point out the problem, what cultural factors should be noticed during the translation, will be analyzed and discussed from the aspects of similarity and difference of eastern and western culture, including different cultural connotation, life-style, outlook on values in foundation of explaining idea of culture and translation. Key words: English-Chinese Translation; Cultural Factor；Effects