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词汇学复习材料 2

I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement

1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily

through the use of _________construct.

A. sound

B. form

C. morpheme

D. root

2. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns,

verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.

A. functional

B. notional

C. empty

D. formal

3.The prefixes in the words of ir resistible, non classical and a political are called _______.

A.reversative prefixes

B. negative prefixes

C. pejorative prefixes

D. locative prefixes

4.Utopia ,odyssey and Babbit are words from ________.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/57212221.html,s of books

B. names of places

C. names of people

D. tradenames

5.The prefixes in words new-Nazi, autobiography and pan-European are ________.

A.negative prefixes

B. prefixes of degree or size

C. prefixes of time and order

D. miscellaneous prefixes

6.The suffixes in words clockwise, homewards are ______.

A. noun suffixes

B. verb suffixes

C. adverb suffixes

D. adjective suffixes

7.The suffixes in words height en, symbol ize are ________.

A. noun suffixes

B. verb suffixes

C. adverb suffixes

D. adjective suffixes

8. A word is the combination of form and ________.

A. spelling

B. writing

C. meaning

D. denoting

9.Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to ______.

A. English only

B. Chinese only

C. all natural languages

D. some natural languages

10.From the ______ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of

the semantic structure of one and same word .

A. linguistic

B. diachronic

C. synchronic

D. traditional

11._______ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary

meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.

A Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection

12. One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their ______.

A. spelling

B. pronunciation

C. etymology

D. usage

13. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is _______.

A. hyponymy

B. synonymy

C. polysemy

D. antonymy

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/57212221.html,position and compounding in lexicology are words of _______.

A. absolute synonyms

B. relative synonyms

C. relative antonyms

D. contrary antonyms

15.As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly ______, they are often employed in a

conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.

A. homographs

B. homophones

C. absolute homonyms

D. antonyms

16 Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns,

verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.

A. functional

B. notional

C. empty

D. formal

17. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words.

Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.

A. content

B. notional

C. empty

D. new

18.The five Roamance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian all

belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called _______.

A. Sanskrit

B. Latin

C. Celtic

D. Anglo-Saxon

19.The prefixed contained in un wrap, de-compose and dis allow are _________.

A. reversative prefixed

B. negative prefixes

C. pejorative prefixes

D. locative prefixes

20. ________ are contained in words trans-world, intra-party and fore head.

A.Prefixes of orientation and attitude

B. Prefixes of time and order

C. Locative prefixes

D. Prefixes of degree or size

21．The suffixes in words height en, symbol ize are ________.

A. noun suffixes

B. verb suffixes

C. adverb suffixes

D. adjective suffixes

22.A word is the combination of form and ________.

A. spelling

B. writing

C. meaning

D. denoting

23.Functional words possess strong _____ whereas content words have both meanings, and lexical

meaning in particular.

A. arbitrary meaning

B. conceptual meaning

C. associative meaning

D. grammatical meaning

24.From the ______ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of

the semantic structure of one and same word .

A. linguistic

B. diachronic

C. synchronic

D. traditional

25._______ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary

meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.

A Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection

26. _________ is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its

first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.

A. Derivation

B. Radiation

C. Inflection

D. Concatenation

27.One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their ______.

A. spelling

B. pronunciation

C. etymology

D. usage

28. The antonyms: male and female are ______.

A. contradictory terms

B. contrary terms

C. relative terms

D. connected terms

29. In Shakespearean line …rats and mice and such small dee r?, deer obviously designates …_____? in

general.

A. a doe

B.. animal

C. a deerlike animal

D. buck

30 By hook and by crook is an example of ________.

31. A word is ______of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

A. a smallest form

B. a minimal free form

C. a constituent form

D. a part

32. “Nature” in the word “denaturalization” is not_______________.

A. free root

B. free morphemes

C. word

D. bound root

33. Word formation excludes ________________.

A. affixation and compounding

B. conversion and shortening

C. chipping, acronymy and blending

D. repetition and alliteration

34. For the word “political”, its negative form is “_____________”.

A. apolitical

B. ilpolitical

C. inpolitical

D. impolitical

35. Radiation and concatenation are different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally,

radiation __________________ concatenation.

A. is behind

B. precedes

C. is with

D. makes up for

36. The relationship between the sound and meaning of a word is _____________.

A. logical

B. arbitrary, conventional

C. certain

D. objective

37. The chief function of prefixation is to ______________ .

A. change meanings of the stems

B. change the word-class of the stem

C. change grammatical function

D. all the above

38. The grammatical meanings of a word refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates

grammatical concept or relationship such as ____________.

A. part of speech of words

B. singular and plural meaning of nouns

C. tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms

D. all the above

39. In the idiom “earn one?s bread”, ___________ is used.

A. synecdoche

B. personification

C. metonymy

D. simile

40. Homographs are words identical only in _____________ but different in two other aspects.

A. sound

B. meaning

C. spelling

D. sense

II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions

1.. English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the ______ structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantics, relations, _____development, formation and ______.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/57212221.html,nguage study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and_______.

3.Now people generally refer to the language spoken by Anglo-Saxons as _______.

4.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. In other words the history of the

word explains the meaning of the word.

5. __________ is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.

6. According to suffixation theory, “villager”is called denominal noun and “employer”is called

__________ noun.

7. Lexical meaning and ___________ meaning make up the word meaning.

8. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly ___________.

9. Narrowing of meaning is the opposite of ___________ meaning.

10. Linguistic context includes lexical context and __________.

11. As far as sentence types are concerned, they embrace declarative, interrogative, ________and exclamative sentences.

12. One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their ____, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.

13. Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. The general words are called the _____terms and the more specific words are called _____.

14. In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their ______

15. _________ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word . Words formed in this way are called blends or _____words.

III. State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

1. Functional words include adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns.

2. “Nature” in the word “denaturalization” is a free root.

3. Radiation and concatenation are different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation makes up

for concatenation.

4. Back-formation is one of the three major processes of word formation in English

5. The total number of functional words is very limited in English.

6. The meaning of a word, especially that of a polysemous word, is often determined by the context in which it appears.

7. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.

8. All transitive verbs can be used in passive sentences.

9. Descriptive words can be used for evaluation in some contexts.

10. Words from different classes can form a semantic field.

11. The basic word stock of a language is changing rapidly all the time.

12. A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language.

13. Inflectional affixes have only grammatical meanings.

14. There is no intrinsic connection between sound symbols and the sense of all English words.

15. Homophones are words identical in spelling but different in meaning.

16. Root, stem and base refer to the same thing.

17. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are loan words.

18. “Impossible” expresses a stronger negation than “not possible”.

19. Acronymy and derivation are all processes of shortening words or word groups.

20. The three major processes of word-formation are compounding, blending and conversion.

21. A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language.

22. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.

23. Under no circumstances can sound and meaning be logically related.

24. Prepositions, conjunctions, numerals and articles all belong to functional words.

25. Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words.

26. Content words are numerous and more frequently used than functional words on average.

27. The basic word stock enjoys the same features as native words.

28. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary.

29. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000.

30. A word can be defined in different ways from different points of view.

31.When the word “persuader”means “dagger”(匕首）, it is regarded as an argot word.

32.Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words.

33. The word “prisoners” has two morphemes.

34. A word is the minimal meaningful unit of a language.

35. The morphemes which are realized by only one morph are called allomorphs.

IV. Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of synonyms(complete or partial synonyms); 2) origins of homonyms(acronymy, borrowing, homograph, homophone or change in sound

and spelling) ; 3) processes of word-meaning development(radiation or concatenation).

A. acronymy

B. homograph

C. complete synonyms

D. partial synonyms

E. borrowing

F. homophone

G. change in sound and meaning

H. radiation I. concatenation

1.neck ( )

2. word building/word formation ( )

3. candidate ( )

4. bow/bau/ and bow /beu/ ( )

5. NOW ( )

6. dear/ deer ( )

7.ear from ear ( ) 8. fair from feria ( )

9. bank /bank ( ) 10. change / alter/vary ( )

V．Define the following terms .

1. word

2. bound morphemes

3. prefixation

4. hyponymy

5. polysemy

6. antonymy

7. hyponymy

8. free morpheme

9. affixation 10.. root

11．Affixes 12. Acronymy 13. Conversion 14. back-formation 15. semantic field

VI．Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.

1. What are the stylistic features of idioms？

2.. What are the main types of blendings ?

3.. What are the main characteristics of the basic word-stock? Illustrate your points with examples.

4．What are the main types of compounds ?

5. What are the three main sources of new words?

6. Classify the following words and point out the types of words according to notion.

earth, cloud, run, walk, on, of, upon, be, frequently , the, five, but, a,

never.

7 . Write the following words into a tree-like graph:

vegetable, meat, pork, beef, turnip, carrot, bread, food, cake, cornflakes,

cereal.

词汇学试题(1)

哈尔滨商业大学2009-2010学年第二学期《词汇学》期末考试试卷装题订线内不答要一、单项选择题（本大题共40小题，每小题1分，共40 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. 1. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it. A. workers B. criminals C. any person D. policeman 2.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. A. Argot B. Slang C. Jargon D. Dialectal words 3. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. A. common B. little C. slight D. great 4. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings. A. new B. old C. bad D. good 5. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. A. functional B. notional C. empty D. formal 6. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian , Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language,_______. A. Sanskrit B. Latin C. Roman D. Greek 7. Greek is the modern language derived from _______. A. Latin B. Hellenic C. Indian D . Germanic 8. The five Romance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called _______. A. Sanskrit B. Latin C. Celtic D. Anglo-Saxon 9. The ________family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. A. Germanic B. Indo-European C. Albanian D. Hellenic 10. By the end of the _______century , virtually all of the people who held political or social power and many of those in powerful Church positions were of Norman French origin. A. 10th B.11th C.12th D. 13th 11. The prefixes in the words of ir resistible, non classical and a political are called _______. A. reversative prefixes B. negative prefixes C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes 12. The prefixes contained in the following words are called ______: pseudo-friend, mal practice, mis trust. A. reversative prefixed B. negative prefixes C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes 13. The prefixed contained in un wrap, de-compose and dis allow are _________. A. reversative prefixed B. negative prefixes C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes 14. The prefixes in words extra-strong, overweight and arch bishop are _____ . A . negative prefixes B. prefixes of degree or size C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料c h a p t e r 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]

Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.

大学英语词汇学期末考试重点复习资料整理权威版后附试题

2012词汇学复习资料 The development of the English Vocabulary 1.Indo-European Language Family The Indo-European Language Family is considered as one of the most important language families. It includes most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. Those languages, which are believed to have originated from this language family and developed alone different lines, show various degrees of similarity to one another. They fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern Set东部诸语族: Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语, Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族, Armenian 亚美尼亚语族and Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语族; a Western Set: 西部诸语族Celtic凯尔特语族, Italic 意大利语族, Hellenic希腊语族, Germanic日尔曼语族. All the languages in both sets shed some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary. Prussian普鲁士语 Lithuanian立陶宛语 Polish波兰语 Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语Czech捷克斯洛伐克语 Bulgarian保加利亚语 Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语 Russian Albanian阿尔巴尼亚 Persian波斯语 Hindi北印度语 Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系Bengali孟加拉语 Romany，吉卜赛语 Armenian亚美尼亚语 Portuguese Spanish Italic意大利语族Italian Roumanian罗马尼亚语 French Indo-European Language Family Irish Celtic凯尔特语Breton Scottish Norwegian挪威语 Icelandic，冰岛语 Danish丹麦语 Germanic Swedish瑞典语日尔曼语言English Dutch Flemish German Hellenic，古希腊语- Greek

英文专业词汇学考试复习资料

Chapter 1 The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary 1、The Definition of a Word Lexicology focuses on the study of meanings and origins of words. According to semanticists（语义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning. A word is a minimal（最小的）free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function（句法功能）. 2、 Vocabulary All the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary. 3、 Sound and Meaning The relationship between sound and meaning is no logic 4、 Sound and Form There was more agreement between sound and form in Old English than in Modern English. With the development of the language, more and more differences arose between sound and form. （1）、What is the relationship between sound and meaning? Give examples to illustrate it. The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional. In different languages, the same concept can be shown by different sounds. “Woman”, for example, becomes “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “fu nv” in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound [mi:t] is used to mean “meet, meat, mete”, denoting different things.

词汇学复习题

英语词汇学试题 Introduction and Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry（练习1） I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. 1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of _________construct. A. word B. form C. morpheme D. root 2.________ is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. A. Semantics B. Linguistics C. Etymology D. Stylistics 3.Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes. A. Greek B. Roman C. Italian D. Germanic 4. Semantics is the study of meaning of different _________ levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. A. linguistic B. grammatical C. arbitrary D. semantic 5.Stylistics is the study of style . It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular________ for special effects A. situation B. context C. time D. place 6.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form , meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a _______ difference. A . spelling B. semantic C. pronunciation D. pragmatic 7. Terminology consists of _______ terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. A. technical B. artistic C. different D. academic 8. __________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate among themselves. A. Slang B. Jargon C. Dialectal words D. Argot 9 ._________ belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words. A. Jargon B. Argot C. Dialectal words D. Slang 10. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______.Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it. A. workers B. criminals C. any person D. policeman 11.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. A. Argot B. Slang C. Jargon D. Dialectal words 12. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. A. common B. little C. slight D. great 13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings. A. new B. old C. bad D. good 14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.

《英语词汇学》期末考试试卷附答案

《英语词汇学》期末考试试卷附答案 I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers．Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket．(45％) 1．There are two approaches to the study of polysemy．They are_____. A．primary and secondary B．Central and peripheral C．diachronic and synchronic D．Formal and functional 2．Which of the following is NOT a stylistic feature of idioms? A．Colloquial B．Slang C．Negative D．Literary 3．Synonyms can be classified into two major groups，that is：_____. A．absolute and relative B．Absolute and complete C．relative and near D．Complete and identical 4．In the early period of Middle English，English，____existed side by side， A．Celtic and Danish B．Danish and French C．Latin and Celtic D．French and Latin 5． A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single_______morpheme． A．formal B．Concrete C．free D．bound 6．Which of the following groups of words is NOT onomatopoeically motivated? A，croak，drum B．squeak，bleat C．buzz，neigh D．bang，trumpet 7．LDCE is distinctive for its____. A．Clear grammar codes B．usage notes C．language notes D．all of the above 8．From the historical point of view, English is more closely related to A．German B．French C．Scotttish D．Irish 9．Which of the following is NOT an acronym? A．TOEFL B．ODYSSEY C．BASIC D．CCTV 10. In the course book，the author lists____types of context clues for inferring word meaning． A．eight B．Six C．seven D．five 11．Sources of homonyms include____. A．changes in sound and spelling B．borrowing C．shortening D．all of the above

词汇学复习重点

词汇学复习重点 1. jargon------ Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business. 2. translation loans------ Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language. 3. Renaissance------ It is a European movement of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. 4. Allomorph------ one of the variants of the same morpheme 5. inflectional affix------ an affix that indicates grammatical relationships 6. acronyms------ the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations special noun phrases and technical terms 7. back-formation------ the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes 8. polygsemy------ Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 9. morpheme------ It is a minimal meaningful unit of a language, or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 10. grammatical meaning------ that part of the meaning of the word indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. 11. homonym------ Homonyms are words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 12. reference------what a linguistic form refers to in the real word. It is the relationship between language and the world 13. semantic field------ Semantic field is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. 14. motivation------ the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 15. conceptual meaning------ the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 16. amelioration------ or elevation, a process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 17. transfer------ a process whereby words which were used to designate one thing have changed to mean something else.

词汇学期末复习题(附参考答案)

名词解释（10选5，一个4分）词=The minimal free form of a language, which has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 词根=The basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word. 词缀=Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 一词多义=Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 同形异义=Homonyms are different words with the same form (spelling or pronunciation) 完全同形异义=Perfect homonyms are different words identical both in sound and spelling, though different in meaning. 同音异形异义=Homophones are different words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. 同形异音异义=Homographs are different words identical in spelling, but different in sound or meaning. 同义关系=Synonymy is a relationship of “sameness of meaning” that may hold between two words. 反义关系=Antonymy is a relationship of “meaning opposition” that may hold between two words.

词汇学复习重点(精心挑选整理过的)

Motivation of words分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,) Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created. Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time. 同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 3.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 4.What are the characteristics of antonyms? 1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 5.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning 6.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes 7.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy). 8.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less 9.Definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was

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