单片机与PC的串行通讯 专业外文翻译

专业外文翻译题目Internet Security

系（院）计算机科学技术系专业通信工程

班级2008级2班

学生姓名李华山

学号2008110311

指导教师陈瑞斌

职称讲师

二〇一二年五月二十日

Internet Security

An intruder with the right background and malicious intent has many ways to infiltrate internal company systems and network devices through the Internet connection. Once inside, the hacker has free reign to destroy, change, or steal data and these actions because various sorts of network havoc. The most popular use of the Internet, e-mail, is also insecure. The same hacker with a protocol analyzer and access to routers and other network devices can intercept or change messages. Threats like these confront such industries as Internet commerce and corporations that wish to interconnect their offices through LA Ns via the Internet.

The network security market is quickly responding to the threats by applying authentication and encryption technologies to the Internet and by developing new products. These products come at a time where methods of attacking user networks are more elaborate and vendors are improving their products to keep up with the increased threats. “Users need these tools[because they realize] they can’t use traditional monitoring tools to stop increasingly sophisticated attacks,” says Jim Hurley, an analyst with The Aberdeen Group. This article describes various security threats and solutions needed to protect individuals and companies.

Types of Internet Security Protection

1. Security Policy

Internet connections will never be 100 percent secure. Rather than aiming for total security, an organization has to assess the value of the information it is trying to protect and balance that against the likelihood of a security violation and the cost of implementing various security measures. A company’s first line-of-defense should be either to devise or to revise its security policy for the organization that takes Internet connections into account. This policy should define in detail which employees have rights to specific services. It should also educate employees about their responsibilities for protecting the organization’s information, such as protecting passwords, and clearly spell out actions that will be taken if a security violation is detected. Such a policy can be the first step, explaining to employees where the company stands on misuse of Internet

connections.

Part of the process will require evaluating the cost to the company of different types of security violations. Corporations will want to involve people at the highest levels of the organization in this process. Hiring a computer security consultant may be of some help. Once a companywide policy is implemented, the company then should start evaluating the use of firewalls, encryption, and authentication.

2. Firewall

A firewall is a barrier between two networks, an internal network (trusted network) and an external network (untrusted network). Here the external network is the Internet. Firewalls examine incoming and outgoing packets and according to a set of rules defined by the administrator, either let them through or block them out. Firewalls are not an Internet security remedy, but they are essential to the strategy.

Different kinds of firewalls function differently. They scrutinize, examine, and control the network traffic in numerous ways depending on their software architecture. Below are firewalls that work in different ways.

1）Packet Filtering Firewall Technique

Many routers use a firewall technique called packet filtering, which examines the source and destination addresses and ports of incoming TCP and UDP packets, denying or allowing packets to enter based on a set of predefined rules set by the administrator. Packet filters are inexpensive, transparent to users, and have a negligible impact on network performance. Configuring packet filtering is a relatively complex process, requiring a precise knowledge of network, transport, and even application protocol strategy.

A problem with packet filters is that they are susceptible to“IP spoofing”, a trick that hackers use to gain access to a corporate network. Intruders fool the firewall by changing Internet Protocol addresses in packet headers to ones that are acceptable.

2）The Application-Gateway Firewall

A more sophisticated and secure type of firewall is an application gateway, which is generally considered more secure than packet filters. Application gateways are programs

written for specific Internet services such as HTTP, FTP, and telnet; applications that run on a server with two network connections, acting as a server to the application client and as a client to the application server.

Application gateways evaluate network packets for valid specific data making the proxies more secure than packet filtering. Most application-gateway firewalls also have a feature called network address translation that prevents internal IP addresses from appearing to users outside the trusted network.

There are two primary disadvantages to application gateways. The first disadvantage is a performance decline caused by the proxy function’s double processing. Another is the lag time for the firewall vendor to supply an application proxy for a newly introduced Internet service, such as Real Audio.

3）SOCKS firewall

Another type of application-proxy firewall is the SOCKS firewall. Where normal application-proxy firewalls do not require modifications to network clients, SOCKS firewalls require specially modified network clients. This means users have to modify every system on their internal network that needs to communicate with the external network. On a Windows or OS/2 system, this can be as easy as swapping a few DLLs.

In cases where performance is concerned, organizations using application gateways should not be worried with a 10-Mbps Ethernet or 100-Mbps Fast Ethernet connection. If companies use application proxies within their network, they can consider fast hardware-based solutions such as Cisco’s PIX Firewall or Seattle Software’s Firebox. The company may also consider installing firewall software on a system with multiple processors.

Major firewall vendors have incorporated additional security technologies into their firewall products and partnered with other security vendors to offer complete Internet security solutions. These additional features will be discussed subsequently in this article and include encryption, authentication and protection from malicious Java and ActiveX downloads.

3. Authentication

Firewalls do their authentication using IP addresses, which can be faked. If a company wants to give certain users access over the Internet to sensitive internal files and data, they will want to make sure to authenticate each user. Authentication simply describes the numerous methods that positively identify a user. Passwords are the most common method of authentication used today, but employees are notorious for making poor password choices that can be guessed by an experienced hacker.In addition to passwords, which are often usually “somethin g you know,” many organizations are turning to solutions that also require “something you have,” such as tokens and smart cards.

Tokens are small, credit card or calculator-size devices that the remote user can carry around. Smart cards used for authentication are similar to tokens, except they need a reader to process the authentication request. Both use a challenge response scheme. W hen the user attempts to connect, an authentication server on the network issues a challenge, which the user keys into the token device. The device displays the appropriate response, which the remote user then sends to the server. Many of these tokens may also require the user to type in a PIN. Firewalls can support these authentication products with minor adjustments. The administrator simply configures the firewall to forward authentication for certain services to the designated third-party server, or uses any included authentication service.

4. Encryption

A s offices and organizations connect to the Internet, many will consider the Internet infrastructure an inexpensive way for wide-area and remote connections. In addition to companies, Internet commerce vendors need to protect credit card and order transactions being transferred through the Internet. To use the Internet for these purposes, companies have to protect their information and customers with encryption. Encryption is the process of using an encryption algorithm to translate plain text into an incomprehensible cipher text and then back to plain text again. Essential to encryption is a numeric value called the key that becomes part of the encryption algorithm, setting the encryption process in

motion.

1）The Encryption Process

A pre-hash code is derived mathematically from the message to be sent. The pre-hash code is enc rypted using the sender’s private key. The encrypted pre-hash code and the message are encrypted using the secret key. The sender encrypts the secret key with the recipient’s public key, so only the recipient can decrypt it with his/her private key.

2）The Decryption Process

The decryption process essentially is the encryption process in reverse. The recipient uses his/her private key to decrypt the secret key. The recipient then uses the secret key to decrypt the encrypted message and pre hash code.

5. Virtual private network

Virtual private networking (VPN) is the term used to describe remote access over the Internet, as well as use of the Internet infrastructure for connecting two offices of an organization or even two different organizations. Basically, a VPN is an encrypted connection between private networks over a public network. With remote access, the remote user calls the local ISP, and then connects to the central network over the Internet.

Two industry standards have recently become interoperable to make remote access and connections over virtual private networks a viable strategy: A scends’ and Microsoft’s Point-to-Point Tunneling protocol and Cisco’s Layer Two Forwarding (L2F), now combined by the IETF to form the Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP). This standard essentially allows the authentication and authorization process to be forwarded from the ISP to a server located elsewhere on the Internet; a corporate central office for example. 6. Analyzing Other Security Threats: Java and ActiveX

Even after one has done all possible to block unauthorized users from accessing a network, there is still the danger of viruses, which can enter through e-mail attachments, and malicious Java and ActiveX applications that come into a network as users browse the Net.

When dealing with hostile Java and ActiveX applets, Finjan Software offers

SurfinShield X tra for desktop users as well as Surfin Gate for servers. These unique packages actually maintain a database of known Java and ActiveX problems and monitor incoming and existing applets. Both products block only applets that misbehave, letting all others through.

1）Solutions to 6 Common Threats to Security

Here are six common Internet security problems and their solutions cited in PC Magazine, 1997. Reprinted by permission December 1998

2）Interception of e-mail

Encrypt e-mail using desktop or server encryption hardware or software. Use digital signatures and certificates to authenticate senders and verify that e-mail has not been tampered with.

3）Theft or alteration of corporate information

Use the same procedures as for intrusion. Also use encryption hardware or software to encrypt traffic flowing from office to office across the Internet.

4）Macro viruses from e-mail attachments

Install an e-mail anti-virus gateway to filter incoming email messages.

5）Corporate network intrusion

Protect the perimeter with firewalls. If you want remote users to access sensitive internal data, set up an authentication server on the network and equip remote users with authentication tokens or smart cards.

6）Disruption of network devices and services

Protect the perimeter with firewalls. Set up an authentication server on the network and equip remote users with authentication tokens or smart cards.

7）Misbehaved Java and ActiveX applets

Configure firewalls to block Java and ActiveX applets, or install a Java and ActiveX gateway to filter out bad applets.

Internet Security Products

Security Auditing

SAFEsuite Internet Scanner for Windows NT

SA FEsuite is designed to test security implementation for protection against inside and outside attacks, Internet Security Systems’ SA FEsuite Internet S canner for Windows NT looks for hundreds of vulnerabilities, provides a list of possible holes and suggests corrective actions.

SA FEsuite has three components: the Intranet Scanner, Firewall Scanner, and Web Scanner. The program runs on a single PC loaded with Windows NT 3.51 or 4.0 and comes with a license key based on a single range of IP addresses. To scan multiple networks or segments, multiple licenses are needed.

SA FEsuite’s tests covers known weak spots that internal or external intruders can exploit.

Each of the tests comes with three different settings: light, medium and heavy scan. The light scan looks at the basic vulnerabilities on your network, such as shared resources without passwords, and requires only a few minutes to run. The medium scan looks for the same holes as the light scan, plus a few more. For example, in a light scan of FTP, the test looks for just anonymous connections. A medium scan looks for anonymous and trivial FTP connections. The heavy scan looks for all vulnerabilities and requires the most time.

After all scans have been run, SA FEsuite creates an HTML based report listing the results by level of importance and even provides you with some ideas of how to correct the problem.

SecurIT from Milkyway Networks Corp

SecurIT, among others, is a product that can identify network holes and, like ISS’s SA FEsuite, provide instructions on how to fix them. The product can scan all of a network’s devices, including: firewalls, mail servers, UNIX hosts and Windows NT- and Windows 95-based PCs. And SecurIT Audit can check for vulnerabilities on several platforms, including Linux, Solaris, SunOS, Windows NT and Windows 95. Firewalls

ON Guard by ON Technology Corp

Protecting a network from hacker tricks is easier with ON Guard, a

hardware/software combination, which makes the usually difficult process of installing firewalls easy. This package is designed for administrators who aren’t security gurus and don’t want to be. ON Guard includes dozens of services, powerful event logging, and a util ity that tests one’s security plan. It is also one of the few firewalls currently on the market that can block both IP and IPX network packets.

ON Guard uses Stateful Multi-Layer Inspection (SMLI) technology, a hybrid of packet- and application-level filtering. Unlike application-level filtering, SMLI does not require separate software to block each new Internet services, such as PointCast and Real Audio. This is advantageous, because one does not have to wait for ON Technology to provide software to block these services. The firewall can already handle them.

Unlike The Wall, with which services are either enabled or disabled, ON Guard allows customization of multiple services. The program disables Web, e-mail and FTP access by default. But these services and others, such as Java, Real Audio, and newsgroups, can be enabled and access rules created for users based on an IP address. Once a service is in the list, administrators can enable or disable access for both inbound and outbound traffic. They can also control access to subservices, such as POP and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for e-mail. ON Guard provides detailed logs of major events that take place on the firewall. It can send an Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) alert to a management station or launch a third-party program when a problem occurs.

The Wall

The Wall runs on a Windows NT Server and Workstation 4.0 and includes powerful logging capabilities. In addition, its built-in WebNOT utility blocks access to 15,000 unwanted Web sites. The Wall also disables all outside access by default. W hen first installed, no one can access the company’s LAN, unless the administrator enables e-mail, FTP and Web access for remote users.

Unlike ON Guard, which uses SMLI, The Wall is an application- level firewall that uses proxy servers to protect the network from the Internet. These firewalls have two network adapters to provide a shield. One connects to your LA N, and the other to a

router or other Internet connection.

Server Security

Web Stalker Pro

Web Stalker Pro resides on the web server and protects the data stored from both local users and outside intruders. It does so by letting the company set protection policies. For example, it shuts down your web server in case an intruder tries to access protected data.

Web Stalker Pro also has excellent reporting capabilities, but its primary function is detection and response. It can’t always prevent people from accessing the data on a web server, but it can alert if they do. For added security, it is advisable to use a firewall in conjunction with Web Stalker.

Web Stalker Pro runs on Windows NT 3.51 and 4.0 as an NT service and works with Microsoft’s Internet Information Server (IIS) and Netscape Web servers. It relies on Windows NT’s audit trails and eve nt logs to alert it when a hacker has attempted to access protected data. The audit trails and event logs track everything, but they only show the series of events leading up to an intruder’s entry.

Careers in Internet Security

In short supply and in high demand, systems administrators are prospering. The strong demand for system and security managers has forced salary increases to 15 percent in 1997.

Surveys show that close to 1,600 system and security administrators are responsible for the care of electronic commerce systems, Web servers, enterprise systems and computers used in advanced scientific research.

According to the survey, salaries in New York, Boston, San Francisco and San Jose are the highest, but salaries are increasing all across the US, Canada, Europe, and Asia. Of those Administrators who were surveyed, salaries ranged between $50,000 and $59,999 with an average of $57,346. The greatest salary increase was for employees earning $70,000 to $79,999 with an annual average increase of 14 percent.

The highest salaries ($70,846) were those in research companies with fewer than ten

employees, followed by systems integrators ($70,230) working at firms with 11 to 100 employees.

Lowest salaries reported were in education, ranging from $43, 933 to $47,262. Typically a job posting describes the tasks and skills needed to excel in this field as such: Qualifications: BA /BS degree in Information Systems, computer science or business related fields. Self-motivated, good communications skills and enthusiasm for pursuing a career in Information Systems.

互联网安全

一个有着良好背景但怀着恶意意图的入侵者，有很多方式通过互联网渗透到公司内部系统和网络设备。一旦进入，黑客可以自由支配破坏、改变或者盗窃数据，这种行为导致了多种网络毁灭。由于互联网的广泛应用，电子邮件也变得不安全。带有相同的协议分析仪的黑客和其他网络设备能拦截或者改变信息。面临威胁，像互联网商务公司这种企业，希望通过互联网把他们的办公场所连接在一起组成局域网。

网络安全市场很快做出回应，发展了身份验证和加密技术和新的安全产品。为了应对日益增长的网络攻击，安全产品的供应商正在改善他们的产品，以应对越来越复杂的网络攻击。The Aberdeen Group的一位分析师吉姆.哈雷说：“使用者需要这些工具（他们已经意识到），他们不能使用传统的监测工具来阻止日益增长的网络攻击。”这篇文章描述了多种类型的网络威胁和可以保护个人以及公司的解决方案。

互联网安全保护类型

1．安全策略

互联网永远不会是100%安全。一个组织必须意识到它要保护的信息的价值，平衡安全侵犯事件的可能性和落实安全措施所花费的成本，而不是目标只是总体上安全。公司的第一道防线应该考虑到互联网连接，制定和修改它的安全策略。这项策略应该详细规定哪些员工有权利得到特定服务。它也应该教育员工们意识到有责任保护组织的信息，譬如保护密码以及当发生安全侵犯事件时可以清楚的指明行动。这种类型的策略是第一步，向员工们解释公司对于滥用互联网连接的方针。

这个进程的一部分要求公司估计应对不同类型的安全侵犯所花费的代价。企业想网罗这个进程处于该组织最高水平的人才。雇佣一个电脑安全咨询或许会有些帮助。一旦公司的政策被落实，公司应该开始考虑使用防火墙，加密算法和身份验证。

2．防火墙

防火墙是两个网络之间的屏障，内部网络（可信任网络）和外部网络（不信任网络）。这里的外部网络是指互联网，防火墙根据一套由管理员制定的规则，检查传入和传出的数据包，要么让它们通过，要么阻止他们。防火墙不是互联网

的补救措施，但它们对于策略是不可缺少的。

不同的网络防火墙的功能有所不同。它们用多种方式监测、检查和控制网络传输，这取决于它们的软件架构。下面是几种以不同方式运转的防火墙。

1）包过滤技术防火墙

许多路由器使用一种称为包过滤技术的防火墙，这种技术检查源地址和目的地址，端口传入的TCP和UDP数据包，拒绝或允许包通过一组由管理员事先定义好的规则。包过滤技术对于用户来说花费低廉，透明，对网络性能的影响可以忽略不计。配置过滤包是一个比较复杂的过程，需要精通网络传输的有关知识，甚至应用协议的战略。

数据包过滤器的一个问题是，它们很容易受到“IP欺骗”，黑客利用这种招术进入企业的内部网络。入侵者通过改变可接受的数据包报头中的互联网协议地址骗过防火墙。

2）应用层网关防火墙

一种更复杂并且更安全的防火墙是应用层网关，通常被认为比数据包过滤器更安全。应用层网关防火墙是为像HTTP（超文本传输协议）、FTP（文件传输协议）和Telnet（远程登录）这样的网络服务而写的程序；应用层网关防火墙在连接两个网络的服务器上运行，这个服务器的作用是一个应用程序客户端的服务器，还是应用层服务器的客户端。

应用层网关防火墙评估有效地网络数据包，使代理比数据包过滤器更安全。大多数应用层网关防火墙都有一种称之为网络地址转换的功能，组织内部IP地址出现在外部可信任的网络。

应用层网关有两个主要缺点：第一个缺点是由代理功能的双处理引起的。另一个缺点时间的滞后性，防火墙提供商需要时间研发对于一个新实行的网络服务的应用代理，譬如实时音频。

3）SOCKS防火墙

另一种类型的应用程序代理防火墙是SOCKS防火墙。正常的应用程序代理防火墙不要求修改网络客户端，而SOCKS防火墙需要修改网络客户端。这意味着必须修改内部网络的每个系统，其内部网络需要与外部网络通信。SOCKS代理一般用于使防火墙后面的用户能够以有限的、受控的方式连接到Internet服务器。

在性能方面的情况，如果有10Mbps或者100Mbps以太网连接，组织就不应该担心使用应层网关，如果公司内部使用网络应用程序代理，他们可以考虑基于硬件的快速解决方案，例如思科公司的PIX Firewall或者西雅图软件公司的Firebox。公司可以考虑在有多个处理器的系统上安装防火墙软件。

大多数防火墙供应商已经将额外的安全技术整合到他们的防火墙产品中，并且也与其他安全产品供应商合作，提供完整的互联网安全解决方案。

3．认证

防火墙使用IP地址来认证，但IP地址可以被伪造。如果公司允许特定用户访问公司内部敏感的文件和数据资料，那么它就需对用户进行身份认证。有几种鉴定用户的认证方法。密码是当今最常用的认证方法，但用户使用安全性不高的密码时，这可以被有经验的黑客猜到。除了密码，还可以使用“一些你知道的东西”，许多组织正在使用“一些你拥有的东西”来作为安全解决方案。

令牌是远程用户能随身携带的，信用卡或者计算器大小的设备。智能卡的作用和令牌相似，但他需要用户处理认证请求。二者都使用口令应答机制。当用户尝试连接网络时，网络上的服务器会发出口令，要求用户输入令牌密钥。用户向服务器发出密钥后，服务器做出合适的应答。许多令牌也会要求用户键入PIN 码。略微调整防火墙就可以支持这些认证产品。管理员可以简单配置防火墙，使防火墙通过第三方为特定服务而设计的认证机制，或者使用已包含认证的服务。4．加密

随着办公室和组织连接到网络，许多人考虑把以廉价的方式广域和远程连接互联网基础设施。除了保护公司，互联网商务公司还学要保护通过互联网传输的信用卡和订单。为使用互联网达到这些目的，公司必须使用加密来保护信息和客户。

加密是加密算法的过程，它是把纯文本转化成难以理解的密文，然后再转化成纯文本。加密的关键是使用由加密算法得来的蜜钥，它使加密得以运作。

1）加密过程：

预哈希代码从要发送的信息中产生，发件人使用自己的私钥加密预哈希代码，再次使用密钥加密已经加密的预哈希代码和信息。发件人获得接收人的公共密钥，并根据证书颁发机构验证数字证书的真实性。发件人使用收件人的公钥加密密钥，因此只有收件人用他的私钥可以解密信息。

2）解密过程：

解密过程基本上是加密过程的逆向。收件人使用自己的私钥解密密钥，然后收件人使用密钥解密被加密的信息和预哈希密码。

5．虚拟专用网

虚拟专用网是一种主要以公共电信为基础设施的安全的网络，如因特网，提供远程办公或者使移动用户可以进入中央组织虚拟专用网是在描述互联网上使用远程访问的术语，也就是使用互联网基础设施连接属于一个组织的两个办公地点，甚至两个不同组织。基本上，虚拟专用网是架构在公共网络上的私人网络之间的加密连接。通过远程连接，远程用户调用本地的网络服务提供商，连接到中央网络。虚拟专用网通常要求网络远程用户进行身份验证，并且经常与防火墙及身份验证技术一起确保数据的安全，防止未经授权的个人信息遭到泄露。

远程访问VPN：主要是针对不在固定场合的个人用户，远程或者漫游用户，如销售人员。点对点VPN：主要是针对在固定场合中的多个用户，如某一地区的办公地点。VPN能提供任何网络功能，如分享数据、访问网络资源、打印、数据库、网站等等。VPN用户通常以相同的方式连接到中央网络。VPN技术已经取代了曾经广泛应用的电信链路的连接方式，这减少了租用和维护昂贵的专用线路的费用。VPN技术减少了费用，因为它不需要租用连接远程用户和企业内部网的物理链路。

6．分析其他安全威胁：Java和ActiveX

即使一个做了可能来阻止一切未经授权的用户访问的网络，仍是有危险的病毒的，它可以通过电子邮件附件进入，恶意的Java程序和ActiveX控件可以为网络所应用，为用户网络浏览带来威胁。

当处理恶意的Java和ActiveX程序时候，Finjan软件提供桌面用户以及服务器的SURFIN门SurfinShield X TRA。实际上，这些独特的程序包保持了一个已知的Java和ActiveX问题的数据库，并监视传入和现有的小程序。这两种产品封锁恶意的小程序，让所有的人可以顺利通过。

1）6安全的共同威胁的解决方案

这里有六种常见的网络安全问题及其解决方案列举在PC杂志，1997年出版。2）截取电子邮件

使用台式机或服务器的加密硬件或软件加密电子邮件。使用数字签名和证书

来验证发件人和验证，电子邮件没有被篡改。

3）盗窃或改建的企业信息

使用同一程序入侵，还可以使用加密了的硬件或软件加密互联网上的从一个办公室到另一个办公室的流量流向。

4）宏病毒的电子邮件附件

安装防病毒网关过滤电子邮件传入的电子邮件附件。

5）公司的网络入侵

保护与防火墙的外围。如果你想远程访问用户敏感的内部数据，在网络上设立一个认证服务器和装备远程用户认证令牌或智能卡。

6）网络设备和服务中断

保护防火墙的外围。在网络上建立一个认证服务器，并配备远程用户认证令牌或智能卡。

7）行为不端的Java和ActiveX程序

配置防火墙以阻止Java和ActiveX程序，或安装一个Java和ActiveX网关过滤掉恶意的小程序。

网络安全产品

安全审计

对于Windows NT SA FEsuite互联网扫描器

设计SA FEsuite是测试安全，实施保护的措施，防止内部和外部攻击，互联网安全系统SA FEsuite与互联网扫描仪用于Windows NT，看起来有着数百漏洞，提供了一个可能的保护方法，并提出纠正措施。

SA FEsuite有三个组成部分：内联网扫描，防火墙扫描仪，网络扫描器。程序运行在一台PC与Windows NT 3.51或4.0加载和许可证密钥的基础上，单一的IP地址范围。要扫描多个网络或段，则需要多个许可证。

对SA的FEsuite的测试，发现存在包括内部或外部的入侵者可以利用的薄弱点。

每个测试带有三种不同的设置：轻型，中型和重型扫描。看起来在网络上的基本漏洞，如无密码的共享资源，光扫描，并要求只有几分钟的运行。介质扫描光扫描，再加上一些相同的孔。例如，在一个FTP的光扫描，测试看起来只是匿名连接。中等扫描则需要查找匿名和琐碎的FTP连接。沉重的扫描就是寻找

漏洞，需要的时间比较长。

所有扫描已运行后，SA FEsuite创建一个基于HTML的报告中，列出重要性水平的结果，甚至提供如何纠正问题的一些方法。

来自银河网络公司的SecurIT

SecurIT，除其他外，是一个产品，它可以识别网络漏洞，如ISS的SA FEsuite，提供有关如何解决这些问题的方法。该产品可以扫描所有网络设备，包括：防火墙，邮件服务器，UNIX主机上的Windows NT的和Windows 95的电脑。和SecurIT 审计可以检查多个平台，包括Linux，Solaris和SunOS中，Windows NT和Windows 95中的漏洞。

防火墙

防范性的技术公司

保护网络类似于黑客技巧与防范，这是硬件/软件的结合，这使得通常安装防火墙艰难的过程变得容易。这个包是专为管理员设计。防范包括几十个服务，强大的事件记录，和实用工具，测试自己的安全计划。它也是目前市场上，可以阻止IP和IPX网络包数防火墙之一。

警惕使用状态多层检测（SMLI）技术，包和应用层过滤的混合体。与应用层过滤，SMLI并不需要单独的软件来阻止如PointCast公司和Real Audio，每一个新的互联网服务。这是有利的，因为一个没有等待技术提供软件，以阻止这些服务。防火墙已经可以处理它们了。

不像Wall，能够进行服务启用或禁用，允许多个服务定制防范。该程序禁用Web，电子邮件和默认的FTP访问。但可以启用这些服务和允许其他人的访问，如Java，实时音频，和新闻组，基于IP地址的用户创建和访问规则。一旦进入一个服务列表，管理员可以启用或禁用入站和出站流量的访问。他们还可以控制子服务，如POP和简单邮件传输协议，电子邮件（SMTP）的访问。这就为在防火墙上发生的重大活动提供了详细的日志。它可以在出现问题时发送一个简单网络管理协议（SNMP），警报管理站或启动一个第三方程序。

防火墙

防火墙运行于Windows NT Server和Workstation4.0上，包括强大的记录功能。此外，其内置的WebNOT实用块能够检测出15,000个有害的网站。防火墙也可以禁用在所有的外部访问为默认情况下。当第一次安装防火墙时候，没有人

能够访问公司的局域网，除非管理员启用电子邮件，FTP和远程用户的Web访问。

不像防范技术，用到SMLI，防火墙是使用代理服务器的，以保护互联网的网络应用程序级的防火墙。这些防火墙有两个网络适配器，一个提供了安全盾。一个连接到你的LAN，和其他的路由器或其他互联网连接。

服务器安全

网络潜行者

网页的潜行者临驻留在Web服务器上，并保护存储的数据，从本地用户到外部入侵者。它这样做是让该公司集中保护政策。例如，关闭您的Web服务器的情况下，入侵者试图访问受保护的数据。

网络潜行者还具有优良的报告能力，但其主要功能是检测和响应。它并不总是可以防止Web服务器上访问数据的人，但如果他们这样做，它可以提醒他们。为了增加安全性，最好是使用防火墙结合网络潜行者。

运行网络潜行者的Windows NT 3.51和4.0作为NT服务和与微软的互联网信息服务器（IIS）和Netscape Web服务器的作品。它依赖于Windows NT的审计跟踪和事件日志，提醒黑客正在试图访问受保护的数据。网络潜行者审计跟踪和记录发生的一切事件，但他们只显示一系列事件，无法显示入侵者的入侵过程。互联网安全职业

在供不应求和高需求的时代，系统管理员正在蓬勃发展。对系统和安全管理人员的需求强劲，迫使企业在1997年起加薪15％。

调查显示，全美接近1600个系统和安全管理员负责照顾电子商务系统，Web 服务器，企业的系统和先进的科研用计算机。

据调查，在纽约，波士顿，旧金山和圣何塞的薪水是最高的，但整个美国工资都在提高，加拿大，欧洲和亚洲也是这种情况。那些参与调查的管理员，工资平均$50,000元至$59,999元之间不等。工资增幅最大的员工收入年均增长14％在$ 70,000至$79,999之间不等。

最高薪金为$70,846，在互联网研究性公司，拿到这一薪金的员工不到10人，其次是工作在系统集成商公司的11至100名员工的$70,230。

最低工资出现在教育行业，从$43,933到$47,262不等。通常情况下，互联网安全招聘启事的描述为：学历：BA/BS学位信息系统，参与过计算机科学或商

业相关领域的任务和有着这一方面的技能，需要在这一领域脱颖而出。能够自我激励，拥有良好的沟通技能和热情追求事业性格，有着在信息系统的职业经验。

步进电机及单片机英文文献及翻译

外文文献： Knowledge of the stepper motor What is a stepper motor： Stepper motor is a kind of electrical pulses into angular displacement of the implementing agency. Popular little lesson: When the driver receives a step pulse signal, it will drive a stepper motor to set the direction of rotation at a fixed angle (and the step angle). You can control the number of pulses to control the angular displacement, so as to achieve accurate positioning purposes; the same time you can control the pulse frequency to control the motor rotation speed and acceleration, to achieve speed control purposes. What kinds of stepper motor sub-： In three stepper motors: permanent magnet (PM), reactive (VR) and hybrid (HB) permanent magnet stepper usually two-phase, torque, and smaller, step angle of 7.5 degrees or the general 15 degrees; reaction step is generally three-phase, can achieve high torque output, step angle of 1.5 degrees is generally, but the noise and vibration are large. 80 countries in Europe and America have been eliminated; hybrid stepper is a mix of permanent magnet and reactive advantages. It consists of two phases and the five-phase: two-phase step angle of 1.8 degrees while the general five-phase step angle of 0.72 degrees generally. The most widely used Stepper Motor. What is to keep the torque (HOLDING TORQUE) How much precision stepper motor? Whether the cumulative： The general accuracy of the stepper motor step angle of 3-5%, and not cumulative.

会计内部控制中英文对照外文翻译文献

会计内部控制中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

内部控制透视：理论与概念 摘要：内部控制是会计程序或控制系统，旨在促进效率或保证一个执行政策或保护资产或避免欺诈和错误。内部是一个组织管理的重要组成部分。它包括计划、方法和程序使用，以满足任务，目标和目的，并在这样做，支持基于业绩的管理。内部控制是管理阶层的平等与控制可以帮助管理者实现资源的预期的有效管理的结果通过。内部控制应减少或违规错误的风险关联未被发现的，但设计和建立有效的内部控制不是一个简单的任务，不可能是一个实现通过快速修复短套。在此讨论了内部文件的概念的不同方面的内部控制和管制。 关键词：内部控制，管理控制，控制环境，控制活动，监督 1、介绍 环境需要新的业务控制变量不为任何潜在的股东和管理人士的响应因子为1，另外应执行/她组织了一个很大的控制权。控制是管理活动的东西或以上施加控制。思想的产生和近十年的发展需要有系统的商业资源和控制这种财富一个新的关注。主题之一热一回合管制的商业资源是分析每个控制成本效益。 作为内部控制和欺诈的第一道防线，维护资产以及预防和侦查错误。内部控制，我们可以说是一种控制整个系统的财务和其他方面的管理制定了为企业的顺利运行;它包括内部的脸颊，内部审计和其他形式的控制。 COSO的内部控制描述如下。内部控制是一个客观的方法用来帮助确保实现。在会计和组织理论，内部控制是指或目标目标的过程实施由组织的结构，工作和权力流动，人员和具体的管理信息系统，旨在帮助组织实现。这是一种手段，其中一个组织的资源被定向，监控和测量。它发挥着无形的（重要的作用，预防和侦查欺诈和保护组织的资源，包括生理（如，机械和财产）和乙二醇，声誉或知识产权，如商标）。在组织水平，内部控制目标与可靠性的目标或战略的财务报告，及时反馈业务上的成就，并遵守法律，法规。在具体的交易水平，内部控制是指第三方采取行动以实现一个具体目标（例如，如何确保本组织的款项，在申请服务提供有效的。）内部控制程序reduce程变异，导

单片机外文翻译

杭州电子科技大学信息工程学院毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目用单片机实现的数字时钟电路设计文献综述题目单片机控制系统系电子工程 专业电子信息科学与技术 姓名郭筱楠 班级08091911 学号08919115 指导教师王维平

单片机控制系统 广义地说，微型计算机控制系统（单片机控制系统）是用于处理信息的，这种被用于处理的信息可以是电话交谈，也可以是仪器的读数或者是一个企业的帐户，但是各种情况下都涉及到相同的主要操作：信息的处理、信息的存储和信息的传递。在常规的电子设计中，这些操作都是以功能平台方式组合起来的，例如计数器，无论是电子计数器还是机械计数器，都要存储当前的数值，并且按要求将该数值增加1。一个系统例如采用计数器的电子钟之类的任一系统要使其存储和处理能力遍布整个系统，因为每个计数器都能存储和处理一些数字。 现如今，以微处理器为基础的系统从常规的处理方法中分离了出来，它将信息的处理，信息的存储和信息的传输三个功能分离形成不同的系统单元。这种主要将系统分成三个主要单元的分离方法是冯-诺依曼在20世纪40年代所设想出来的，并且是针对微计算机的设想。从此以后基本上所有制成的计算机都是用这种结构设计的，尽管他们包含着宽广的物理形式与物理结构，但从根本上来说他们均是具有相同基本设计的计算机。 在以微处理器为基础的系统中，处理是由以微处理器为基础的系统自身完成的。存储是利用存储器电路，而从系统中输入和输出的信息传输则是利用特定的输入/输出（I/O）电路。要在一个以微处理器为基础的时钟中找出执行具有计数功能的一个特殊的硬件组成部分是不可能的，因为时间存储在存储器中，而在固定的时间间隔下由微处理器控制增值。但是，规定系统运转过程的软件却规定了包含实现计数器计数功能的单元部分。由于系统几乎完全由软件所定义，所以对微处理器结构和其辅助电路这种看起来非常抽象的处理方法使其在应用时非常灵活。这种设计过程主要是软件工程，而且在生产软件时，就会遇到产生于常规工程中相似的构造和维护问题。 图1.1 微型计算机的三个组成部分 图1.1显示出了微型计算机中这三个单元在一个微处理器控制系统中是如何按照机器中的信息通信方式而联接起来的。该系统由微处理器控制，微处理器能够对其自身的存储器和输入/输出单元的信息传输进行管理。外部的连接部分与

外文翻译--如何监测内部控制

附录A

附录B 如何监测内部控制 内部控制是任何组织有效运行的关键,董事会、执行长和内部审计人员都为实现这个企业的目标而工作;该内部控制系统是使这些团体确保那些目标的达成的一种手段。控制帮助一个企业有效率地运转。此外,运用一种有效的风险系统,风险可被降低到最小。同时,控制促进经营和与经营有关的信息的可靠性。全美反舞弊性财务报告委员会发起组织(COSO；1992) 在它发布的具有开创性的文件《内部控制整合框架》中,将内部控制定义为：企业风险管理是一个过程，受企业董事会、管理层和其他员工的影响，包括内部控制及其在战略和整个公司的应用，旨在为实现经营的效率和效果、财务报告的可靠性以及法规的遵循提供合理保证。该委员会还指出,一个的内部控制的系统包括五个要素。它们是：控制环境、风险评估、信息和沟通、控制活动、监控。 COSO的定义及五个要素已被证明确实对不同的团体,如董事会和首席执行官起到作用。这些群体对内部控制系统的监管以及系统设计与运行有责任。而且,内部审计人员已经发现COSO的指导是有用的。这群人员可能会被董事会或管理层要求去测试控制。COSO最近发布的一份讨论文件，指出五个要素监控,其中的五个要素的确定在1992 frame work COSO原本。中国发展简报的题为《内部控制-整合框架：内部控制体系监督指南》(COSO，2007)。在文件中,COSO 强调监控的重要性，以及这些信息常常被没有充分利用。 因为董事会、执行长,和内部审计人员都在一个公司的内部控制中扮演着重要角色，内部控制的各要素,包括监测,都对所有的团体有着非常重要的意义。同时,外审计人员对监测有兴趣。《萨班斯-奥克斯利法案》（2002）为外部审计师创建了一个新的监督体制。所有的五个要素,包括监测,必须加以考虑。另外,内部控制审计必须结合对财务报告的检查。在一体化审计之前，在首席执行官的领导下，也许也在内部审计活动的支持下的管理，评估了内控制体系的有效性。随后外部审计人员对控制出具意见。起监督角色的董事会，将阅读内部审计、管理层和首席执行官出具的报告。文件关于监测对每一个团体的指导起了帮助,因为他们分别为各自的角色而劳动。 第一，什么是监测。监测的组成可评估内部控制系统在过去一段时间发挥效用的质量。其对控制功能的评估有助于企业确定其控制在有效地运作中。在执行监测活动时，相关人员参与审查系统的设计及其运行效果。这种检查必须进行及时,目的是为了提供给企业最大的利益。管理层负责做出适当的行动以回应这些结果。当事人对内部控制有兴趣,可以充分依赖这个内部控制系统,如果合适的监

单片机外文文献翻译

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附件1：外文资料翻译译文 企业内部控制的决定因素和后果： 一个权变理论为基础的分析 1简介 人们普遍认为，内部控制制度能帮助企业降低风险、保证财务报表的可靠性和加强对法律法规的遵守。因此，一些企业的倒闭现象和一些欺诈行为的广泛宣传逐渐增加，针对企业特定的经营环境，从而使企业对内部控制制度更加重视。有效地管理对加强企业内部控制的有效性，并有效地传达给董事会和股东具有更大的压力。例如审计人员、供应商、顾客跟内部控制也有关系，因为它们可能影响长期财务报告的可信度、管理人员的责任和企业的组织形式。 尽管内部控制是影响公司的一个重要因素，证据表明，内部控制结构的实际表现在组织结构中是不存在的。正如金尼所提到的那样，该议题还未被研究人员所开发。关于内部控制的专业文献对于发展国际管制框架已经取得了一定的进展，但迄今为止，内部控制研究的数量是有限的。Selto和Windener出版的研究和分析的专业文章，发现在管理控制的研究中，关于内部控制专题的文学比实际文学少。人们越来越重视内部控制业务发挥的作用，缺乏现有的研究，所以建立新的研究需要和机会是当务之急。 这项研究有助于了解内部控制结构及其在公司环境中的成效。即使内部控制框架提出了内部控制的一个标准化的结构和目标，他们认为根据公司的特点来判断内部控制的不同需要。然而无论是框架还是先前的文学都不能提供一个适合于企业特点及其控制系统关系的图片。因此，本研究利用一个应急的方法来审查内部控制结构的设计及其在不同环境下观察到的成效。研究报告分析了结构方程关系模型和芬兰提出的741公司的实证结果。这项研究结果使内部控制几个重要方面的研究知识增加了局限性。首先，研究提出利用实证研究结果对内部控制及其在实践中的有效性进行研究。世界各地有一些组织把内部控制框架作为基金会开展活动。无论如何，还有一些关于实践框架以外的证据，从而对模式有一个更深

单片机外文翻译

单片机外文翻译 MICROCONTROLLER 1.MCU A microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer-on-a-chip. It is a type of microprocessor emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC). The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure. An embedded system usually has minimal requirements for memory and program length and may require simple but unusual input/output systems. For example, most embedded systems lack keyboards, screens, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer. They may control electric motors, relays or voltages, and read switches, variable resistors or other electronic devices. Often, the only I/O device readable by a human is a single light-emitting diode, and severe cost or power constraints can even eliminate that. In contrast to general-purpose CPUs, microcontrollers do not have an address bus or a data bus, because they integrate all the RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Because they need fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package. Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system as a whole. (Even