hnd经济学2世界经济学

Economics2: The World Economy

F86E 35

Candidate Name: REN LU

Grade and Class: 2013 BA1

Introduction (3)

1. Free trade (4)

2. Absolute advantages and comparative advantages (4)

3. The benefits of free trade (5)

4. The purpose of carrying out trade protectionism (7)

5．One Mechanism of the World Trade Organization (8)

6. One measure of European Union promotes economic integration (9)

7. Balance of payments (10)

8. The general trends in UK trade over the last 30 year (13)

9. The balance of payments affected by exchange rates (14)

10. Advantages and disadvantages of fixed rate and floating rate (16)

11. Effects of fixed rate and floating rate on individuals and company (18)

12. The characteristics of the newly industrialized countries and the developing countries (19)

13. The issues of the newly industrialized countries and the developing countries (20)

14. The influences Multi-National Corporations bring to newly industrialized countries. (21)

Conclusion (23)

Reference (24)

Introduction

This report has introduced the world economics simply. The content includes: International trade, free trade, Protectionism, the role of WTO and under-developed nation, UK absolute and comparative advantage, the protectionism and two recent examples about demonstrate arguments which government may put forward for its use, two barriers of trade, a EU initiative about the role of the EU in promoting trade, the composition of the balance of payments, the general trends in UK trade over the last 30 years, the way which the balance of payments affected by exchange rates, an analysis of two current issues that face LDCs, and the aid of recent examples about two impacts of multinationals on NICs and LDCs.

I. Free trade

(1). Free trade is a type of trade policy that allows traders to act and transact without interference from government. Thus, the policy permits trading partners mutual gains from trade, with goods and services produced according to the theory of comparative advantage.

China-ASEAN free trade area was formally established in January 1, 2010, covering a population of 1900000000. China-ASEAN free trade area’s GDP amounted to $6 and trade amounted to $4.5. It is the largest free trade zone among developing countries. After the establishment of CAFTA, more than 90% products are carried out for zero tariffs on both sides. Average tariffs from Chinese to ASEAN decrease from 9.8% to 0.1%, Average tariffs from ASEAN’s six old members to Chinese decrease from 12.8% to 0.6%. Tariffs’ huge reduction promoted the rapid growth of bilateral trade. China and ASEAN countries’ trade investment grows, economic integration deepens, companies and people are widely benefit, realizing goals of mutual benefit and win-win cooperation and common development. China and ASEAN’s total quantity of bilateral trade grows rapidly. From January to October this year, the bilateral trade volume has reached to $295900000000, a year-on-year growth of 25.7%.

(2). Absolute advantages and comparative advantages

Absolute advantages is said to occur when one country can produce a good or service to pre-determined quality with less resources or more cheaply than another country.

Even when a country has an absolute advantage over another country in terms of commodities they wish to trade it will still be to their mutual advantage to trade

providing each country has the comparative advantages.

UK is a major importer of manufacturing goods such clothes, shoes, toys, electronic produces etc. as these labor oriented consumer goods will cost more in UK before 1980s. UK has the With the development of service, the advantage of trade is service trade.

The goods that courtry import and export change over time as the goods in which they have a comparative advantage change over time. Before 1970s, manufacturing industry is its absolute advantage. After 1970s, service industry is more competitive for international trade such as computer software, business service and pharmaceuticals. These industry are seen to bring the possibility of long term growth, while the industries based on heavy capital investment or requiring relatively cheap labor will not be competitive with developing countries.

2. The benefits of free trade

(1). Goods and services produced at lower cost. Free trade can promote the cooperation of different countries in the world. It can decrease the cost of producing goods.

(2). Greater range of commodities for consumers, more choice. Any countries cannot produce all products, they all have products which are unable to produce. Trade allow us to buy all of them. Greater range of commodities provide customers with more choice.

(3). Increased world-wide output. Each country producing according to their

respective advantages has high efficiency. Under the same resources, it has high yield. Therefore, international trade increased world-wide output.

3.Barriers to International Trade

Trade barriers are government-induced restrictions on international trade. The barriers can take many forms, including the following tariffs and non tariffs.

Non Tarriff Barriers-exchange controls

In a real world, there is and should be a certain degree of government intervention on foreign exchange. Imports need foreign currencies to buy gooods and services from abroad.Importers must apply to the cenytal bank for the currency they need to purchase goods in that country, The Central bank can erxert control over the variety and volume of both imports and exports by controlling the quantity of foreign cuurency it will issue to exporters and importers.

Non Tarriff Barriers-Import Depoits

Government requires importers to lodge a non-interest bearing deposit in advance with its Central Bank before they can buy goods and services from abroad. Besides, the deposit is usually in an amount equal to all or part of the cost of imported goods. This is time consuming and obviously expensive since it reduces the liquidity of the importing firms, which tend to hinder their importing activities. Before 1984, the Nigerian advanced import deposit ranged from 50% to 200% of the value of a list of import items.

Give a example about tariffs, 35% tariffs on Chinese tyres imposed on the United States on 11th September in 2009. It make Chinese tyres firms have to increase price if sales in America.

For example, t non tariffs in Russia to Ukraine for embargoes which suspension of Ukraine imports of juice on 29th July in 2014. It make Ukraine’s juice not allow sale in Russia.

4. The purpose of raising barriers to International Trade

(1) The purpose is to protect employment.

Footwear manufactureers associations of Italy, Spain ad Portugal are reported to have field applications to the EU to curb footwear imports from China. Local shoemarkers in Elche, the capital of Spain’s once flourishing footwear industry, argue that “made in China”is taking away their jobs by that Chinese shoes have been booming in Spain just because of good quality and reasonable prices.

(2) The purpose is to anti-dumping. In July 2012, SolarWorld AG, a German

giant, led a consortium of around 25 EU solar panel producers to file a complaint to the EU Commission to investigate whether there has been distortion of competition by Chinese counterparts due to dumping. Soon Germany against China low price.

5．The Role of WTO

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, signed by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT), which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.

The WTO dispute settlement mechanism is measures of dealing with trade disputes between members.It is the effective way for countries especially the developing countries to resolve the economic friction and safeguard their legitimate rights and interests.It is very unfavorable for the developing countries to resolve trade disputes especially trade disputes with the developed countries through bilateral channels. The bilateral approach pursues strength doctrine. Involved in trade disputes among developing countries, the WTO dispute settlement mechanism ruling is comparatively fair and reasonable. As either the complainant or respondent, the legitimate interests of the developing countries have been effectively protected. It is because the WTO dispute adjudication has very strong fairness, developing countries generally have a high enthusiasm to use the WTO dispute settlement mechanism. Some larger economic scale developing countries is more active in the use of WTO dispute settlement mechanism.It helps to reduce the economic friction between countries, and promote friendly relations among nations.

The Uruguay Round was the 8th round of multilateral trade negotiations (MTN) conducted within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and

Trade(GATT), spanning from 1986 to 1994 and embracing 123 countries as "contracting parties". The Round led to the creation of the World Trade Organization, withGATT remaining as an integral part of the WTO agreements. The broad mandate of the Round had been to extend GATT trade rules to areas previously exempted as too difficult to liberalize (agriculture, textiles) and increasingly important new areas previously not included (trade in services, intellectual property,investment policy trade distortions)

Here are some others areas the WTO has dealt with in attempts to establish itself as the policing body promoting free trade. The Banana Dispute. The WTO ruled that the European Union discriminated unfairly against the US with its banana import rules. The WTO allowed the US to slap a $191 million sanction on the EU. Was it paid? We do not know but probably not so.

6. One measure of European Union promotes economic integration

The European Union (EU) is a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The EU operates through a system of supranational institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states. The institutions are: the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank, the Court of Auditors, and the European Parliament. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens

(1)EU can eliminate customers duties and quotas on imports and exports of goods

between member states and eliminate tariffs between EU members. Though the institutions, members can establish common policies for agriculture and transport for free trade.

(2)It can accelerate the investment from a wide range of contries. With the rising

status of the euro and d evelopment of European capital market, members’ cost of capital will decline, which is conducive to investment and economic growth. The European Central Bank (ECB) develop and implement a unified monetary policy, each country’s interest rates, prices and i nvestment returns will gradually narrow the differences or reach to unanimous, leading to an overall decline of price and the level of interest rates.

7. Balance of payments

()

The balance of payments (BOP) of a country is the record of all economic transactions between the residents of a country and the rest of the world in a particular period (over a quarter of a year or more commonly over a year). These transactions are made by individuals, firms and government bodies. Thus the balance of payments includes all external visible and non-visible transactions of a country during a given period, usually a year. It represents a summation of country's current demand and supply of the claims on foreign currencies and of foreign claims on its currency

This table illustrates current account, capital account and financial account in UK during the 20 years from 1980 to 2010. In terms of current account, there just four years the figure is positive when between 1980 and 1983. And then the figure almost negative from 1984 to 2010. And the figure achieves the lowest number about -55190 million in 2008. This situation illustrate that the economy of UK develop not very well.

As for capital account, the data shows that this account experience a fluctuate trend. First, the figure was -4 million in 1980 and then the figure decrease to -79 million in 1981. After that the figure was 6 million in 1982 increase to 159 million in 1987. What is funny thing is the figure fall again to -39 million in 1988. After that the figure experience a fluctuate and what is no table is the figure gain a lowest number -1527 million in 2006.

In terms of financial account, the figure see an positive trend from 2157 million in 1980 to 122 million in 1986. And then the figure experience a negative trend between

-9690 million in 1987 and -23296 million in 1993. And from -20261 million in 1999 to -30276 million in 2010 this account experience negative trend again, and get the lowest number in 2008 because of the financial crisis the figure was -39301 million.

8. The general trends in UK trade over the last 30 year

Overall, the evolution of trade in goods show an upward trend. With the quick development , UK need to keep up with the times, the country must through trade in good to increase country’s income so with the passage of time, there are more and more trade in UK.

The table shows the evolution of trade in goods and services in UK between 1980 and 2008. The trade in goods account stand 20 billion in 1980. The trade in goods account

has remained in deficit. The deficit grew remarkable in the late 1980s to reach a peak of about 24 billion in 1989. And then decreased back to 20 billion in early 1990s and keep a stable at 10 billion from 1991 to 1998. In 1998 the deficit jumped by over 9 billion, and it has continued to rise since, reaching a cash record of 92.9 billion in 2008.

The chart shows that the total goods exports are less than imports, which leads to deficit.However, the total service exports are more than total service imports, which results in surplus.

It shows United Kingdom is in a large fiscal deficit in the last 30 years. The highest surplus is in 1981, however the current balance deficit from 1984 to 1990. From 1984 to 1989, the current balance deficit and in 1987, the deficit increase quickly. The current balance deficit fell sharply from 1990 to 1991. From 1992 to 1997, the current balance slightly fluctuates. Then from 2000 to 2006, the deficit increased substantially, although from 2002 to 2004, there is a slight decline. From 2007 to 2008 deficit has a steep decline. Main reason may be in goods trade balance deficits, while the surplus on trade in services, especially in the last 30 years growth.

In the past 30 years Britain's merchandise trade decreased, because of the high cost of HR, the UK is few to doing the manufacture, most goods is depend on imported, no exported. But the financial services, renting and business, is totally increased, so in the past 30 years, the UK financial has been steadily increasing.

9. The balance of payments affected by exchange rates

(1) The effects of exchange rates for trade

a. Imported goods will be dearer, therefore the Trade in Goods is likely to move into deficit. Consumers may turn to consume more imported goods; Inflation may be lower because domestic firms may reduce prices. The price of imported raw materials may go down again affecting the Trade aspect. Consumers may find it easier to buy imported goods.

b. Domestic goods and services will be cheaper both in foreign and domestic markets. A country which has reduced the value of its currency would certainly be looking to sell more abroad. This should mean an improvement in Trade in Goods.

Cheaper currency helps boost the export

See an example: A UK firm manufactures hard discs for a computer firm in the USA. Selling price: 100 pounds.

Exchange rate: 1 pounds = $1.5

Cost to the American: $150.

Exchange rate: 1 pounds = $2

Cost to the American: $200

The American firm may consider this to be too expensive and look elsewhere for a cheaper alternative.

If:

Exchange rate: 1 pounds =$1

Cost to the American: $100

The American firm may consider this to be cheaper, and buy more.

(2)The effects of exchange rates for capital accounts

a. Manufacturing firms might for example build up stocks at te cheaper price and

foreign investment may increase because profits sent back will be worth more in

their domestic currency.

b.It could encourage firms and individuals to invest abroad in that the forign

currency earned will be worth more when sent back to the domestic market. 10. Advantages and disadvantages of fixed rate and floating rate

Floating exchange rate or fluctuating exchange rate is a type of exchange-rate regime in which a currency's value is allowed to fluctuate in response to market mechanisms of the foreign-exchange market. A currency that uses a floating exchange rate is known as a floating currency. A floating currency is contrasted with a fixed currency.

Advantages.

Large reserves will not be necessary to protect the currency against changes or speculation. A country has no obligation to maintain exchange rate stability, and therefore it does not need foreign exchange reserve as much as in the fixed exchange rates, which can save foreign exchange funds.

The exchange rate will not become a target because whichever way it moves, the mechanism should start to operate quickly to restore equilibrium. The imbalance of a country's international balance of payments can be eliminated by free fluctuation of exchange rate.

Governments do not have to introduce measures to keep the value at a fixed rate, which might be harmful to other sections of the economy. Because the balance of payments of each country can adjust by themselves, which ensures the stability of foreign exchange market in a certain extent.

Disadvantages.

The futures market is designed to prevent this. By buying forward for commodities a price is agreed which does not change when the commodity is delivered. It causes all countries' instability of ability of international settlement and commodity price .

Demand may be unstable because external prices of domestic goods will be subject to change. Planning production may be difficult. The instability of exchange rate increases the risk of international trade

If there is inflation a floating exchange rate will not always deal with it effectively because the depreciation of the currency in the foreign exchange markets will make imports dearer and assist possible cost push inflation.

Fixed exchange rate, sometimes called a pegged exchange rate, is a type of exchange rate regime where a currency's value is fixed against either the value of another single currency, to a basket of other currencies, or to another measure of value

Advantages.

They reduce uncertainty, this makes trade and investments between the two countries easier and more external and more predictable and is especially useful for small economies in which external trade forms a large part of their GDP.

Long term granting of credits, long-term contracts and investment overseas are seen to carry less risk. It makes the capacity of the international settlement and the price of import and export goods be stable.

The fixed rate played a crucial role in achieving this growth in FDI. The stability of the exchange rate suppressed the speculation of foreign exchange market to a certain extent.

Disadvantages.

If deficits persist then reserves of foreign currency may be used up quite quickly. It leads to reduction of exports, the deficit of international balance of payments and more unstablethe currency.

Countries which have a persistent deficit or surplus will have to take some action which may have severe impacts upon exports and imports or both.

If inflation occurs the underlying cause will need to be tackled. Countries cannot rely on devaluing the currency to get rid of the problem. It weakened the autonomy of domestic monetary policy.

11. Effects of fixed rate and floating rate on individuals and company Floating Exchange

Company.

Floating exchange rate system put forward higher requirements for company's macro-economic management capacity and development of financial market.

It increases company’s management and operation cost.

The company directly produces exchange loss.

Individuals.In the floating exchange rate system, exchange rate tend to fluctuate significantly, which is not conducive to individuals investment With floating exchange rates, individuals might speculate in financial markets Individuals are beginning to realize the challenge of price advantage recession and the necessity of improving non price competitiveness.

The individuals began to realize the importance of monetary settlement timing.

The individuals began to realize the importance of monetary currency selection.

Fixed Exchange

C ompany. Rigid exchange rate arrangements may be considered implicit exchange rate guarantee, so as to encourage capital inflows in the short term and no hedging of foreign debt, damaging the company’s health of the financial system. Fixed rate makes the company’s adjustment of rela tive price be easier and smoother.

It is beneficial to a long-term stable development of company’s economic.

It is directly generate the exchange rate losses

I ndividuals. It Is conducive for individuals to make cost and profit accounting, which avoids the risk of exchange rate fluctuations.

It easily leads to currency overvaluation and weaken the competitiveness of local exports, causing personal imbalances of long-term current-account.

It helps individuals to eliminate the risk of exchange rate and reduce the transaction cost of international trade and investment.

12. The characteristics of the newly industrialized countries and the developing countries

Newly industrialized countries’economic structure especially industrial and agricultural structure changes significantly, and the proportion of industry is larger than agriculture. In total exports, the proportion of manufactured goods increased, getting rid of the situation of a half of the developing countries depending on primary products. Many intermediate products and machinery and equipment required for production is still in the hands of the developed countries. In some production of

manufactured goods, Brazil is only developed countries’ assembly processing factory. Due to the introduction of a large number of foreign capital, Brazil has large foreign debts, and the amount of principal and interest is huge. From 2011 to 2014, the economy of Brazil is not optimistic the situation of the period for these four years, the average economic was only 1.4%.

The developing countries rely heavily on agricultural production. From the production structure of agriculture, low-income countries’ share of agriculture in the GDP is much higher than that of developed countries; from the employment structure, the proportion of agricultural labor in India up to 50% ~ 70%; from the urbanization level, the proportion of urban population in total population of low and middle income is much lower than those of high income countries. Underdeveloped market economy is the nat ure of India’s economy. Due to the long suffering bound colonial plunder and feudal relations of production, as well as government’s improper intervention after independence, the market of India failed to operate and was distorted severely, unable to function as the basic means of resource allocation.

13. The issues of the newly industrialized countries and the developing countries

Newly industrializing country:

While Brazil introducing large-scale foreign capital and borrowing from the international financial capital, Brazil can not solve the problem of excessive dependence on international capital in the economy and can not solve the problem of establishing independent economic system in the international division of labor. Brazil's wealth gap is 21 times that of France, in Brazil's 1.6 billion of the national population, "marginalized people" with no fixed income was highly up to 50%. Brazil is not only the country with the most capital in the third world, but also the country

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Content Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------3 Section 1: International Trade Three gains from trading internationally---------------------------------------3 Free Trade--------------------------------------------------------------------------3 Absolute and Comparative Advantage-----------------------------------------3 Protectionism----------------------------------------------------------------------4 Barriers to trade-------------------------------------------------------------------4 WTO and EU----------------------------------------------------------------------5 Section 2: International Finance Balance of Payments and General trends in UK Trade----------------------6

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当今世界著名经济学家简介

当今世界著名经济学家简介 亚当·斯密（Adam Smith，1723～1790），经济学鼻祖。英国人，古典经济学的代表人物。1759年出版的《道德情操论》获得学术界极高评价。1776年3月，他所著述《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》简称《国富论》出版后引起大众广泛的讨论，世人尊称亚当·斯密为“现代经济学之父”和“自由企业的守护神”。 大卫·李嘉图(David Ricardo,1772～1823年)，李嘉图是英国产业革命高潮时期的资产阶级经济学家，他继承和发展了斯密经济理论中的精华，使古典政治经济学达到了最高峰，是英国资产阶级古典政治经济学的杰出代表和完成者。1817年他发表了代表作《政治经济学及赋税原理》，其比较优势学说构成了现代贸易理论的基石。

阿尔弗雷德·马歇尔(Alfred Marshall,1842～1924)，剑桥学派的创建人，是19世纪末20世纪初英国著名的经济学家，其供给与需求的概念，以及综合边际效用学派的观点，提出均衡价格理论，构成了微观经济学的基础。1890年发表《经济学原理》，他的理论及其追随者被称为新古典理论和新古典学派。 琼·罗宾逊 琼·罗宾逊（Joan Robinson，1903～1983）（琼·罗宾逊夫人），英国著名女经济学家，新剑桥学派的代表人物，与美国的张伯伦一起提出了厂商均衡理论，标志着微观经济学体系的最终确立。琼·罗宾逊著述甚多，除《不完全竞争经济学》外，其他主要著作有：《就业理论引论》、《论马克思主义经济学》、《资本积累论》、《经济增长论文集》、《经济哲学》、《经济学的异端》、《现代经济学导论》等。 约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯（John Maynard Keynes,1883～1946），英国人，现代西方经济学最有影响的经济学家之一，他创立的宏观经济学与弗洛伊德所创的精神分析法和爱因斯坦发现的相对论一起并称为二十世纪人类知识界的三大革命。1936年，,凯恩斯的代表作《就业、利息与货币通论》发表，被西方学者认为“凯恩斯是在致命危机威胁资本主义世界时挽救和巩固了这个社会”。另外两部重要著作是《论货币改革》和《货币论》。 保罗·萨缪尔森（Paul A.Samuelson，1915～2009)，美国诺贝尔经济学奖第一人萨缪尔森和他的导师汉森是凯恩斯主义在美国的主要代表人物，被称为新古典综合派，实质

HND_经济学导论_outcome2_标答

Outcome 2 1. 书178，179二个图 Households buy commodities from firms, using the income individuals receive for their labour and capital supplied to firms The firms use the income received from the sale of commodities to pay for the labour and to invest in new premises,plant and equipment. 2. Injections： Investments：Loan from banks, building societies, insurance companies etc. Money saved by household can be re-injected back into the inner flow as investment by business sector (firms) after they borrow the money out of financial institutions. Government Spending：Roads, hospitals, https://www.wendangku.net/doc/59839292.html,ing the fund largely collected through taxation, the government can be the biggest buyer spending money on the products and services provided by firms If government wishes to expend the flow of income in circulation, it may choose to increase the amount of its spending and probably adopt a tax-cutting. Exports：These are goods and services that are sold abroad. The payment for them will return to the firms in this country. For example, if someone buys textiles of China, then the proceeds of the sale belong to our country. This increases the circular flow and creates more economic activity in the economy for our country. Withdraws： Savings：Amount of income that consumers choose not to spend but retain for the future uses (normally deposit in financial institutions, e.g. banks and building society). Ability or desire to save out of income is measured by …marginal propensity to save (MPS)?. Level of income is the biggest factor affects level of savings, i.e. the higher the income is, the greater savings (withdrawal) out of circular. Taxation：Through forms as personal income tax, V AT, corporate income tax, the disposable money circulated in the economy is drawn out by the government as its revenue. This can be in the form of direct tax on our income or indirect tax on purchases, for example V AT. Imports：Part of the consumption of both households and firms are on foreign products or products contain imported components. So that portion of expenditure will eventually go into foreigners? pockets therefore reduce the total income circulated

HND 大二经济学

The micro economic about Sony 詻筱敉 Summary: As a manager of a company, he should consider the economic of scale. It relation to many problems, like the range of cost in the long run, how to get the profit maximization, how to choose the market structure and the characters of the market and so on. This report will relation to these problems. Also it will talk about the alternatives to profit maximization. Key words: cost, profit, price and output, the structure of market Sony is a famous company in the world. The play station 2 represents a huge gamble that will pay off only if it sells in vast quantities. Sony is conscious that if the product sells in limited quantities, that its costs will be about $ 100 per unit, however , if they sell about 50 million worldwide, that its costs will drop to about $ 10 per unit. Long run is defined as that period of time when all the factors of production can be varied. If for example, a firm had been restricted because of space and now finds it can expand or move to a bigger production unit it could also perhaps purchase more equipment, employ more labor. All the factors of production can be varied a firm should be able to expand the scale of its operations to continue obtaining falling costs as output level increases. These activities should allow reductions in costs, coming about because of size and know as economies of scale. The purpose of a company is to get more profit. Sony hope that their new machine will be a focal point for devices such as TVs, audio systems, digital cameras and will connect customers to the internet. Profits can also be termed ‘Normal’or ‘Supernormal’. Profit is the reward to entrepreneurs and the incentive that encourages them to take risks. It has two functions, one hand is that for an entrepreneur profit is an incentive to undertake a risk in the belief that a gain can be made. On the other hand, profit is also a reward. It must be earned, as we have seen, generally in an imperfect competitive situation. Many business fail and for many different reasons. To some extent we have already touched on this premise in suggesting that profit maximization is not always the main goal of a firm. This relate to alternatives to profit maximization. I will give two theory-Satisficing Behaviour Theory and Sales Revenue Maximization Theory. Satisficing Behaviour theory This particular theory was expounded by H A Simon and his colleague A Cyert. It is based on the fact that achieving specific targets with regard to sale, profit and market share will result in ‘satisficed behaviour’ by those who own and those who run firms. They know that it may be possible to do better but in the long run to press for further profit may result in unintended damage. Sales Revenue Maximization theory Propounded by Professor W J Boumal based on the following: 1. Managers get better perks and salaries from sales than profit. 2. Market share is considered a better sign of progress of a firm. 3. Because of the above, heavy adverting will take place to maximise sales.

世界经济学答案

2．世界经济的形成经历了哪几个历史阶段？ 世界经济的形成大体上经历了三个历史阶段：（1）萌芽期。这一时期开始于15世纪末16世纪初的“地理大发现”，一直延续到18世纪中后期，前后经历了近300年的时间。（2）初步形成期。这一时期开始于18世纪60年代前后的英国产业革命，完成于19世纪70年代前后工业社会在欧美国家的建立，包括整个资本主义确立时期，经历了大约100年的时间。这一时期世界经济的形成是在机器大工业的基础上以国际分工体系的建立和世界市场的开拓为主要标志的。（3）最终形成期。从19世纪70年代开始，到20世纪初，随着国际分工的深化和世界市场范围的扩大，特别是以资本输出为特征的生产和资本国际化的巨大进展，以及世界领土被瓜分完毕，名副其实的世界经济最终形成了。 2．战后经济全球化进程加快的原因和表现。 原因：（1）．科技革命的大发展（2）．市场经济体制向全球扩展（3）．西方国家贸易、投资、金融自由化的发展（4）．跨国公司的大发展。 表现：（1）．贸易自由化与全球网络化：贸易自由化和信息网络化，世界贸易的范围和规模急剧扩大（2）．金融、货币、投资市场的全球化：金融市场的全球化，货币流通的全球化，投资活动的全球化（3）．人力资源流动的全球化：世界性移民数量和范围的扩增，人才跨国培养和流动大幅增加，人才“隐性跨国流动”趋势增强（4）．全球产业链的的形成和国际生产体系的全球化：全球工业化的展开和世界范围梯次继起的产业链的形成；全球生产体系的形成（５）．国际经济协调机制逐步形成。 3．怎样认识经济全球化给发展中国家带来的机遇和挑战？ 机遇：发展中国家和地区适应经济全球化的大趋势，积极利用国际分工深化和世界性产业结构调整的机会，采取符合本国国情的对外开放战略和政策，引进外国资本、技术和管理经验，提升本国的产业结构和产品质量，尽快地提高本国民族企业的竞争力大力发展对外贸易，使国内资源得到充分合理配置，实现本国经济的快速发展。此外，经济全球化也可推进发展中国家的政治改革，加速民主化进程。 挑战：（1）发展中国家在当前经济全球化进程中处于不利地位。随着全球贸易和全球生产体系的迅速发展，以及跨国公司及其资本的不断扩张，使发展中国家的民族经济面临着越来越大的压力和冲击，对发达国家的依附性也不断增大。（2）经济全球化导致和加剧了世界经济发展的进一步不平衡，南北差距不断扩大，发展中国家更加落后于发达国家，尤其是造成那些处于最底层的发展中国家更加贫穷落后。（3）发展中国家内部不平衡发展也在加剧发展的不平衡趋势如不设法解决或抑制，将对投资构成潜在的威胁，刺激泡沫经济的发展，为金融危机埋下隐患。（4）经济全球化带给发展中国家的最大问题或者说最大威胁，是它们的国家主权受到冲击和削弱，国家经济安全受到挑战。（5）对发展中国家的改革带来巨大的压力。经济全球化使得经济传递和同步性加强，如何接受经济的正传递，抑制副传递，成为发展中国家急需解决的重大难题。 1．战后科技革命的基本特点有哪些？它对国民经济和世界经济发展产生了哪些影响？ 综观战后科技革命的形成与发展，与历史上前两次科技革命相比，具有如下几个突出的特点：（1）全面性和世界性。（2）科学革命和技术革命同步发展，并形成科学——技术——生产一体化。（3）革新了机器体系、劳动方式和生活方式。（4）科技发展和在生产中的应用得到了政府的有力支持。 影响：战后科技革命的直接结果，是使社会生产力获得了空前的巨大发展，使生产力结构发生了空前的巨大变化。（１）生产力的巨大发展。极大地提高了劳动生产率，扩大了资本积累，改善了扩大再生产所必需的物质条件，保证了劳动力的供应，扩大了商品市场（2）生产力实体要素的变革：劳动者日益智力化，劳动工具日趋自动化，劳动对象日趋人工化。（3）生产力非实体要素的强化：科学技术成为第一生产力，教育成为现代生产力中重要的

HND经济学2

Q1: 1. 原因In article unemployment is structural unemployment. Liverpool was originally a port city, dominated by heavy industry. The industry will shift to the tertiary industry,because of the development of tourism, the unemployment rate in 1996 rose by 22%.And in the supermarket Linda passed the Diploma in hotel management that explain the concern of the hotel industry is also increasing. Structural unemployment is changes in industry demand result of long-term unemployed, people's incomes and consumption levels will have a certain impact. The hazards of unemployment for different age groups are not the same. New industry needs to work experience, pre-employment training, and learning ability of young people is barrier-free. While the elderly will not be able to learn new skills for re-employment, so the structure unemployment for the old age is larger impact. The original industry recession because impact of international competitiveness; such as the American impact of heavy industry, Japan impact of the automotive industry. 2. The New Deal is a programmer of active labor market policies. The purpose is to reduce unemployment by providing training. The New Deal has include: New Deal for Young People, New Deal 25+, New Deal for Lone Parents, New Deal for the Disabled, New Deal 50+, New Deal for Partners and New Deal for Musicians. New deal for unemployed young people is In order to provide policy support for young people 18-24 years of age out of unemployment, promotion of employment. Participate in the project more Dole six months is mandatory. Specifically divided into three stages. A. Gateway stage: this stage no more than four months, every participant can get job-seekers allowance. This training is provided by an external organization such as CSV, YMCA Training. B. Options stage: After the gateway stage, also unemployed young people can choose training. 1) Employment option, The subsidy is ￡60 per week, and lasts 6 months; a ￡750 training allowance. 2) Full time education and training, this is basic vocational skills and human resources to strengthen.time up to 12 months. the people can get NVQ and subsidies. 3) V oluntary sector option, to gain work experience and skills.it maintain at least 13 months, participants can get outside in addition to grants of ￡ 400 to support. 4) Environment task force option, there is work experience, career awareness and the common development of the ecological environment. This is a continuous six months, and will get two weeks officially recognized vocational training oriented courses. C. Follow-through: this is personalized tracking courses. This phase lasted for four months, if you have not found work after 26 weeks to re-enter the New Deal. New Deal 50+ is for the crowd is over 50 years of age but not yet reached retirement age, middle-aged unemployed. This policy is not mandatory, participants must be at least 50 years . The government will send a personal adviser employment assistance to help participants : (1) An established employment plans. (2) to help them find employment for job preparation.(3) Improve their skills, seek training opportunities.(4) seek any voluntary activities. (5) in the plan adjusted to meet market demand. 3. From a personal point of view, unemployment will lose a lot; salaries, and self-esteem, partners and friends. family members are consciously cut spending. Long-term unemployment will cause a decline in the level of consumption.

HND经济学答案

Economics 2: The World Economy Outcome1, 2 and 3 Candidate Name: Xu Lun SCN: 095352561 Due Date: January 4th 2011 Tutor Name: Zhang Ju

Outcome 1

This report is aiming to use tables and figures to present Premier a clear picture of what the real world economy is and help him to make a major choice of weather or not join the European Union. I am a member of government, I will use my knowledge and skills to help Mr Premier have a better understanding of the world economy rules and I hope which can help a little. First of all, when countries trade goods and services without wishing, or being able, to impose any barrier to the trade, which is called Free Trade. The reasons why we do Free Trade business are a lot, but to obtain more financial resources is believed more important. And their goal of Free Trade is never changed-to reduce non-tariff barriers. For instance: in 2009, there’s an agreement about Free Trade was signed between South Korea and East Asia Union. It can helps a lot on both sides economy development. Free Trade is the main reason why we should join European Union, and which has also been called International Trade, originally focus on goods and services could be exchanged freely between two countries without any barriers. Before compare or explain, there needs two assumptions. First one is no barriers of any kind would be imposed upon entry of the goods to any market. Second is the selling price would be the “economists price”which we can understand as price is uncertainty. Recently, there are some popular topics has been discussed a lot. Like Free Trade always talked with Trade Protection, Non-tariff banners and Tariff banners. What’s more, Free Trade also can bring us a lot of benefits. Increase the world-wide output is one the key benefits. Also, it can increase the foreign currency reservation. Everything has two sides, Free Trade brings the culture erosion too. On the International Trade, there are two kinds of policy: liberalization and protectionism. Let’s take a look at their history, in 1815, the British Corn Laws took effect, which can ensuring self-sufficiency, then in 1846 it was abolished. There was a time of Free Trade until 1914, especially in the exchange between UK and it colony.