大学英语词汇学练习题

大学英语词汇学练习题

1. Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired __B___.

A. associations

B. reference

C. concepts

D. motivation

2. Reference is the relationship between language and __A___.

A. the world

B. the context

C. the sense

D. the concept

3. A concept is universal to all men alike regardless of __D______.

A. culture

B. race

C. language

D. all the above

4. Meaning and concept are ____C______.

A. unrelated

B. identical

C. connected

D. same

5. Unlike reference, “sense” denotes the relationships _A____.

A. inside the language

B. outside the language

C. between the language

D. between symbols and things

6. Every word that has meaning has sense, but not every word has __D___.

A.Meaning

B. sense

C. concept

D. reference

7. The relationship between the word-form and meaning is __C___.

A.logical

B. connected

C. arbitrary

D. consistent

8. ___B____ accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.

A. Concept

B. Motivation

C. Reference

D. Sense

9. Most words can be said to be ____A_____.

A.non-motivated

B. related

C. Motivated

D. logical

10.Echoic words such as bleat, croak, neigh, hiss and the like are largely __A_____.

A. motivated

B. arbitrary

C. logical

D. connected

11.The word “hopeless” with the meaning of “without hope” is a ____B_____ motivated word.

A. semantically

B. morphologically

C. phonetically

D. historically

12.Lexical meaning and __A___ meaning make up the word-meaning.

A. Grammatical

B. conceptual

C. semantic

D. associative

13. Conceptual meaning is also known as __D___ meaning.

A. connotative

B. collocative

C. affective

D. denotative

14. Associative meaning comprises several types except __C___.

A. stylistic meaning

B. affective meaning

C. conceptual meaning

D. collocative meaning

15. The word “tiny” is _____D______.

A. poetic

B. formal

C. dialectal

D. colloquial

1. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of ________, it can refer to something specific. context

2. By means of ________, a speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about. reference

3. Concept, which is beyond __________, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. language

4. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of ________ relationships with other expressions in the language. semantic

5. Semantic motivation explains the connection between the _____ sense and figurative sense of the word. literal

6. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and _________ meaning. associative

7. The same word may have different ________ meanings as shown in “do, does, did, done, doing”. grammatical

8. __B___ accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.

A. Concept

B. Motivation

C. Reference

D. Sense

9. Most words can be said to be __A___.

A. non-motivated

B. related

C. motivated

D. logical

10.Echoic words such as bleat, croak, neigh, hiss and the like are largely __B___.

A. Motivated

B. arbitrary

C. logical

D. connected

11.The word “hopeless” with the meaning of “without hope” is a __B___ motivated word.

A. semantically

B. morphologically

C. phonetically

D. historically

12.Lexical meaning and ___A__ meaning make up the word-meaning.

A. Grammatical

B. conceptual

C. semantic

D. associative

13.Conceptual meaning is also known as _D____ meaning.

A. connotative

B. collocative

C. affective

D. denotative

14.Associative meaning comprises several types except _C____.

A. stylistic meaning

B. affective meaning

C. conceptual meaning

D. collocative meaning

8. _________ meaning is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period and so on. Connotative

9. The word “famous” is appreciative, but the word “notorious” is ____. pejorative

10. The words “swimming-pool” and “airmail” are ___ motivated words. morphologically

1. Grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context. T

2. Functional words have little lexical meaning than content words. T

3. The same word has the same associative meaning to all the speakers of the same language

4. The word “horse” is neutral, but the word “nag” is formal.

5. Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude toward the person or thing in question. T

6. In many cases, the appreciative or pejorative meanings of the words are brought out in context. T

7. There are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and the stylistic meaning. T

8. Associative meaning, which is fixed, differs from the conceptual meaning.

9. The word “mouth” in “the mouth of a river” is an etymologically motivated word.

10. Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and their meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined.

11. Meaning and concept are related indirectly to referents.

12. When a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, the sign becomes meaningful. T

1. What is reference? What are the characteristics of reference?

Reference refers to the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Reference is a kind of abstraction, but with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.

2. What is motivation? How is it classified?

1) Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.

2) Motivation is classified into onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation.

3. What is grammatical meaning?

Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their reflectional forms. Grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context. Different lexical items may have the same grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meanings.

4. What is the difference between conceptual meaning and associative meaning?

Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate.

5. What is collocative meaning?

Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.

Collocative meaning overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocation.

V. Analyze and comment on the following.

1. The pen is mightier than the sword.

What kind of motivation is used in the above sentence? What is the definition of that motivation? What do “pen” and “sword” mean?

1) Semantic motivation is used in the sentence.

2) Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.

3) “Pen” and “sword” are two semantically motivated words. Their literal meanings are “a tool for writing or drawing with ink” and “a weapon with a handle and a long metal blade” respectively, but their figurative meanings are “writing” and “war” respectively.

2. After casting a stone at the cops, they absconded with the loot.

Are all the words used in the above sentence appropriate? If not, explain the reasons and improve the sentence.

1) Structurally, the sentence with a gerund structure is very formal, but the words “cops” and “loot” used in the sentence are all slang/slangy words, and they are not consistent with the gerund structure.

2) The slang/slangy words “cops” and “loot” should be replaced by “police” and “money” respectively. The revised sentence “After casing a stone at the police, they absconded with the money” is appropriate in style.

3. Women are flowers; women are tigers.

Explain the grammatical, conceptual and connotative meaning of the word “women” which appears twice in the above sentence.

1) The word “women” in the first part of the sentence and the one in the second have the same grammatical and conceptual meanings. Their grammatical meanings are: plural nouns and subjects; their conceptual meaning is: female adult.

2) The connotative meaning of the word “women” in the first part is “beautiful”, or “lovely”, and that of the word “women” in the second part is “fierce” or “malicious”.

1. The first meaning of a word is called the __C___ meaning.

A. stylistic

B. affective

C. primary

D. associative

2. __B___ is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages because many words have more than one meaning.

A. Hyponymy

B. Polysemy

C. Homonymy

D. Synonymy

3. The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word is usually dealt with from _A____ different angles.

A. two

B. three

C. four

D. five

4. The basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the _D____ meaning.

A. first

B. primary

C. derived

D. central

5. Of the three types of homonyms, __A___ constitute the largest number and are most common.

A. homophones

B. perfect homonyms

C. homographs

D. homophones and homographs

6. Homographs are words identical only in __B___ but different in two other aspects.

A. sound

B. spelling

C. meaning

D. sense

7. Perfect homonyms and polysemants are __C___ with regard to spelling and pronunciation.

A. fully different

B. slightly different

C. fully identical

D. slightly identical

8. Relative synonyms are similar or nearly the same in __D___.

A. connotative meaning

B. stylistic meaning

C. affective meaning

D. conceptual meaning

9. The most important source of synonyms is perhaps ___D_____.

A. coincidence with idiomatic expressions

B. figurative and euphemistic use of words

C. dialects and regional English

D. borrowing

10. The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas except ___A______.

A. word-class

B. connotation

C. application

D. denotation

11. Antonyms can be defined as words which are ____C_____ in meaning.

A. different

B. identical

C. opposite

D. similar

12. Antonyms can be classified into the following types except __B______.

A. relative terms

B. absolute terms

C. contradictory terms

D. contrary terms

13.___C__ deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.

A. Homonymy

B. Synonymy

C. Hyponymy

D. Polysemy

14. The status of words either as superordinate or subordinate is __B___ to other terms.

A. stable

B. relative

C. absolute

D. fixed

15. All of the following are the sources of homonyms except __D___.

A.change in sound

B. shortening

C. borrowing

D. extension

1. Synonyms share a likeness in __________ as well as in part of speech. denotation

2. Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and ____________ synonyms. relative

3. Based on the degree of ____________, homonyms fall into three classes: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones. similarity

4. Radiation is a semantic process in which each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the _________ meaning. primary

5. Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain ____________ period of time. historical

6. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are _________ in meaning in all its aspects. identical

7. Synonyms may differ in the range and __________ of meaning. intensity

8. Antonymy is concerned with ________ opposition. semantic

9. Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the ________ of words. meanings

10. The meaning of a more ___word is included in that of another more general word. Specific

1. The words “tulip” and “rose” are hyponyms of “flower”. T

2. A word which has more than one meaning can have one antonym.

3. One of the features of the contradictory terms is that such antonyms are gradable.

4. Synonyms form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns. T

5. By connotation we mean the stylistic and conceptual meaning of words.

6. The words “small” and “tiny” are absolute synonyms.

7. Homonyms are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.

8. One of the sources of homonyms is extension.

9. Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains. T

10. Diachronically, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. T

IV. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the difference between radiation and concatenation?

Unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains.

2. What is the main difference between homonyms and polysemants?

The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.

V. Analyze and comment on the following.

1. Comment on the following two sentences in terms of superordinates and subordinates.

a. The man said he would come to our school next week.

b. The visiting scholar said he would come to our university next Monday.

1)In the first sentence, “man”, “school”, and “week” are all superordinates while “visiting

scholar”, “university”, and “Monday” in the second sentence are all subordinates compared with the corresponding expressions in the previous sentence.

2)The second sentence is clearer because subordinates are vivid, precise and concrete.

3)The relationship between some words used in the above two sentences is hyponymy.

2. Male/female

Explain what kind of antonymy they belong to and the characteristics of this kind of antonymy.

1)They are contradictory antonyms.

2)Contradictory antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to

each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. In other words, if one of the pair is true, then the other cannot be.

1. Word-meaning changes by modes of __D__.

A.degradation and elevation B, extension and narrowin C. transfer

D. all the above

2. Extension of meaning is also known as __B___.

A. Transfer

B. generalization

C. degradation

D. elevation

3. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to __A___ factors.

A. psychological

B. historical

C. scientific

D. internal

4. The linguistic factors of the change of meaning include the following types except _A____.

A. Blending

B. shortening

C. analogy

D. borrowing

5. The meaning of “lip” in “the lip of a wound” has experienced __C___.

A. degradation

B. extension

C. associated transfer

D. elevation

6. The original meaning of “silly” is “happy”, but now it means “foolish”. This is __C___ of word-meaning.

A. semantic transfer

B. elevation

C. degradation

D. extension

7. Pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic __B___.

A. narrowing

B. elevation

C. extension

D. transfer

8. __D___is the most unstable element of a language.

A. Grammar

B. Meaning

C. Pronunciation

D. Vocabulary

9. Of all the modes of word-meaning changes, ____D____ are the most common.

A.extension and degradation

B.elevation and narrowing

C.transfer and elevation D,extension and narrowing

10. The so-called “King’s English” serves as a __A_______ reason in word-meaning changes.

A. class

B. historical

C. cultural

D. psychological

1. Extension is a process by which a word that originally had a ___________ meaning has now become generalized. specialized

2. Extension and __________ are thought to be the most common of the modes of word-meaning changes. narrowing

3. Narrowing of meaning is also called _________________. specialization

4. There are generally ________ major factors that cause changes in word-meaning. two

5. The _________ transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors. associated

6. Transfer may also occur between abstract and __________ meanings. concrete

7. The word “clear-sounding” is a good example of transfer of __________. sensations

8. __________ refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. Elevation

9. Changes of word-meaning are due to linguistic factors and ___________________ factors.

extra-linguistic

10. It is much more common for word meanings to change in denotation from _______________ to pejorative than it is for them to go the other way. neutral

III. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Comparatively, the form is even more unstable than the content.

2. Extension and elevation are the most common types of word-meaning changes.

3. Altogether there are four types of changes in word-meaning.

4. Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language, for it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. T

5. The word “barn” originally meant “a place for storing only barley”, but now it means “a storeroom”, so we can say that it has undergone extension of meaning. T

6. The word “fond” formerly meant “foolish”, but now it means “affectionate”, so its meaning has

been narrowed.

7. The word “copperhead” used to refer to those northern informers is a good example of the historical reason accounting for the change of word-meaning.

8. Different social varieties of language have come into being as language records the speech and attitude of different social classes. T

9. Analogy is thought to be one of the linguistic factors. T

10. So far as the change of word-meaning is concerned, increased scientific knowledge and discovery are unimportant factors

1. What is transfer? What are the main types of transfer?

Transfer or semantic transfer refers to a process of the change of word-meaning whereby a word used to designate one thing has been changed to mean something else. The four main types of semantic transfer are: associated transfer, transfer between abstract and concrete meanings, transfer between subjective and objective meanings, and transfer of sensations.

2. What are the two major factors that cause changes in meaning? How are they classified?

The two major factors that cause changes in meaning are: linguistic factors and extra-linguistic factors. Linguistic factors include shortening, the influx of borrowings and analogy. Extra-linguistic factors include the historical reason, the class reason and the psychological reason.

3. What is the difference between elevation and degradation?

Elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance, but degradation of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. Degradation is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.

V. Analyze and comment on the following.

1. The word “deer” originally meant “animal”, but now it refers to a specific animal. What kind of word-meaning change has the word experienced? What accounts for the change of word-meaning?

1)The word “deer” has experienced narrowing or specialization of meaning.

2)The narrowing of word-meaning is caused by the influx of borrowings, one of the major

linguistic factors leading to the change of word-meaning. The word “deer” originally meant “animal”, and later the word “animal” from Latin and the word “beast” from French found their way into English. As the three terms were synonymous, “animal” retained the original

meaning, the meaning of “deer” was narrowed and “beast” changed in colour.

2. The word “nice” formerly meant “ignorant” and “foolish”, but its modern meanings are “delightful” or “pleasant”. What kind of change in meaning has the word undergone? Explain the reasons and then list all the types of word-meaning changes.

1) The word “nice” has undergone elevation or amelioration.

2) The meaning of the word “nice” has been elevated because the word has risen from a humble beginning to the present position of importance.

3) The main types of word-meaning changes are: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer.

1. It is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used in _D________.

A. a speech

B. a lecture

C. situation

D. context

2. In a narrow sense, context refers to _B____ context.

A. non-linguistic

B. linguistic

C. grammatical

D. syntactic

3. Linguistic context may cover the following except __A______.

A. the physical situation

B. the entire book

C. a whole chapter

D. a paragraph

4. Lexical context refers to the __C___ affecting and defining the meaning of the word in question.

A. structure

B. grammar

C. neighbouring words

D. syntax

5. Extra-linguistic context excludes __A____.

A. clauses

B. people

C. time

D. place

6. The meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is known as _C____ context.

A. non-linguistic

B. lexical

C. grammatical

D. situational

7. When a word with __B_____ meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.

A. single

B. multiple

C. plural

D. complicated

8. Ambiguity arises due to the following except _D____.

A. polysemy

B. grammatical structure

C. homonymy

D. synonymy

9. The ambiguity of the sentence, “He is a hard businessman,” is caused by __D___.

A.hyponymy

B. synonymy

C. homonymy

D. polysemy

10. In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation, which is called _A____ context.

A.extra-linguistic

B. situational

C. structural

D. grammatical

1. Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and ________________ context. grammatical

2. The extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire ________ background. cultural

3. When we talk about context, we usually think of _____ context. linguistic

4. It is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used in ___ , context

5. When a word with _________ meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity. multiple

6. Grammatical __________ can also lead to ambiguity. structure

7. Homonymy is another cause of ___ as two separate words share the same form. ambiguity

8. Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the __ of new words. meanings

9. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and ____words, offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words. derived

10. Superordinates and __________ often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue. subordinates

1. Synonyms or synonymous expressions are seldom employed by authors to explain new words

2. Antonyms are not used by authors to explain unknown words.

3. Hyponymy is thought to be an important context clue. T

4. Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing. T

5. The meaning of the sentence, “The fish is ready to eat.”, is not clear because of polysemy.

6. Grammatical structure is the most important cause leading to ambiguity.

7. Clauses are the most important linguistic context

8. Participants are not regarded as linguistic context. T

9. A speaker can be thought to be non-linguistic context. T

10. Extra-linguistic context can often exercise greater influence on the meanings of words than we realize. T

1. How is context classified?

Context is used in different senses. In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the whole book. In a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.

2. What are the main types of linguistic context?

Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. This meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words. Grammatical context refers to the structure in which a word occurs. The meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure. Though less common, it is by no means rare

3. What are the causes of ambiguity?

Ambiguity often arises due to the following three main causes: polysemy, homonymy and grammatical structure. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity. Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as two separate words share the same form. Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.

V. Analize and comment on the following.

1. Peter and Betty are married.

Study the above sentence. If you find anything inappropriate, explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.

1) The sentence is ambiguous, which is caused by grammatical structure.

2) The sentence can be understood as “Both Peter and Betty are married,” or “Betty is married to Peter.”

3) The sentence can be improved as: “Both Peter and Betty are married,” or “Betty is married to Peter.”

2. She is a hard student.

Study the above sentence. If you find anything inadequate, explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.

1) The sentence is ambiguous, which is caused by polysemy.

2) The word “hard” in this sentence can be understood as “hardworking” or “difficult”. The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means. But there would be no misunderstanding if the original sentence is extended as “She is a hard student and she is often praised by her teachers,” or “She is a hard student to deal with.”3. The ball was attractive.

Study the above sentence. If you find anything improper, please explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.

1) The sentence is ambiguous, which is caused by homonymy.

2) The word “ball” in the sentence may mean “a round object to play in a game” or “a dancing party”.

3) The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little as “The ball was attractive with nice music and a lot of people,” or “The ball was attractive with the bright colours.”

IV. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the characteristics of idioms?

English idioms have two major characteristics: semantic unity and structural stability. Semantically, each idiom is a semantic unity although it consists of more than one word. Though the various words forming the idiom have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Quite often an idiom functions as one word. Structurally, each idiom is usually fixed and does not allow changes in most cases.

2. What is the difference between metonymy and synecdoche in English idioms?

Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ from each other. Metonymy, a kind of figures of speech used in English idioms, is a case of using the name of one thing for that of another closely associated with it, but synecdoche is a case of substituting part for the whole or vice versa

3. What are the rhetorical features of idioms?

The rhetorical features of idioms include phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and figures of speech.

Phonetic manipulation includes alliteration and rhyme.

Lexical manipulation includes reiteration, repetition and juxtaposition.

Figures of speech include simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, personification and euphemism. V. Analyze and comment on the following.

1. He is as strong as a horse.

Pick out the idiom in the above sentence, and then point out its structure, grammatical function and figure of speech.

1)The idiom is “as strong as a horse”.

2) Its structure is: as + adj. + as + n.

3) Its grammatical function is that it is an idiom adjectival in nature and it functions as the predicative in the sentence.

4) It is a simile.

2. She has been looking for the lost key here and there for two days.

Pick out the idiom in the above sentence, and then point out its structure, grammatical function and rhetorical feature

1) The idiom is “here and there”.

2) Its structure is “adv. + and + adv.”.

3) Its grammatical function is that it is an idiom adverbial in nature and it functions as adverbial.

4) Its rhetorical feature is juxtaposition

IV. Answer the following questions.

1. What is a dictionary? What is the relationship between a dictionary and lexicology?

A dictionary is a book which presents in alphabetic order the words of English, with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. It is closely related to lexicology, which deals with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary units.

2. What are specialized dictionaries? What are their characteristics?

?Specialized dictionaries concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.

?These dictionaries may not be very large in size, yet each contains much more detailed information on the subject than you can find in a general unabridged one.

海南大学植物学2012年复习题——第二章-植物组织

第二章_植物组织 一、何为植物组织？植物组织与细胞和器官之间的关系如何？ 答：形态结构相似，在个体发育中来源相同，并担负着一定生理功能的细胞群，称为组织。由多种组织有机的结合，紧密地联系，形成各种器官。 二、从功能上区别分生组织和成熟组织。 答：分生组织的主要功能是增加植物体中的细胞数目； 成熟组织则完成植物生长所进行的各种生理活动，如同化、吸收、支持、输导等活动，均是由成熟组织所承担的。 三、试分析植物生长发育的组织学基础。 答：植物个体的长大，主要靠细胞数目的增加和细胞体积的增大，所以分生组织的细胞增殖是植物生长发育的基础。植物在整个生长发育过程中需要完成诸如同化、吸收、支持、输导等各种生理功能。每种功能的完成，都需要专门的组织来承担，所以植物体中各种组织的出现和发展，是植物生长发育的依靠，是植物进化的必然。 四、什么叫脱分化？试述其意义。 答：由成熟细胞转化为具分裂能力的细胞的过程就称为脱分化。 脱分化在侧生分生组织的产生、侧根的形成、创伤后愈伤组织的形成等过程中都起到了决定性的作用。 五、试从结构与功能上区别：同化与贮藏组织，厚角与厚壁组织，表皮与周皮，筛管和导管，筛胞和管胞，木质部和韧皮部。

六、根据输导组织的结构和功能，说明为什么被子植物比裸子植物更进化？ 答：被子植物的木质部中分化出了导管，韧皮部中分化出了筛管，用以输导水分、无机盐。管胞和筛胞仅起着辅助的输导作用。而裸子植物中大多仅有管胞和筛胞。 导管与管胞相比，其导管明显大于管胞，且导管的端壁形成穿孔，筛管的端壁为尖斜状，仅有纹孔而不形成穿孔，输水能力明显大于管胞。筛管的直径也比筛胞大，端壁有筛板，管胞的端壁尖斜，未形成筛板，筛管的输导能力明显大于筛胞。 由上述特点可知，被子植物体内的输导组织结构比裸子植物的更为完善，其功能效率更高，对陆地环境的适应能力更强，由此说明被子植物比裸子植物更进化。 七、简述植物各类型成熟组织的形态学特征和生理功能 植物的成熟组织也称永久组织，它们的特点是丧失分裂能力。 成熟组织按其功能不同可分为：保护组织、薄壁组织、机械组织、输导组织和 分泌组织。 1 保护组织可分为表皮和周皮，覆盖体表，起保护作用。 2 薄壁组织（基本组织）壁薄，排列疏松。据功能不同，又可分为：同化组 织、吸收组织、储藏组织、通气组织和传递组织。 3 机械组织为植物体的支持组织。又可分为厚角组织和厚壁组织（包括石细 胞） 4 输导组织是体内长距离输导水分和有机物的组织。包括导管，筛管和伴胞。 5 分泌组织包括内分泌结构和外分泌结构。

植物学思考题(1)

1、分生组织按在植物体上的位置可分为哪几类在植物生长中各有什么作用 答：(1)分生组织包括顶端分生组织、侧生分生组织、居间分生组织。 (2)顶端分生组织产生初生结构，使根和茎不断伸长，并在茎上形成侧枝、叶和生殖器官。 (3)侧生分生组织形成次生维管组织和周皮。 (4)禾本科植物等单子叶植物借助于居间分生组织的活动，进行拔节和抽穗，使茎急剧长高，葱等因叶基居间分生组织活动，叶剪后仍伸长。 2、从输导组织的结构和组成来分析，为什么说被子植物比裸子植物更高级 答：植物的输导组织，包括木质部和韧皮部二类。裸子植物木质部一般主要由管胞组成，管胞担负了输导与支持双重功能。被子植物的木质部中，导管分子专营输导功能，木纤维专营支持功能，所以被子植物木质部分化程度更高。而且导管分子的管径一般比管胞粗大，因此输水效率更高，被子植物更能适应陆生环境。被子植物韧皮部含筛管分子和伴胞，筛管分子连接成纵行的长管，适于长、短距离运输有机养分，筛管的运输功能与伴胞的代谢密切相关。裸子植物的韧皮部无筛管、伴胞，而具筛胞，筛胞与筛管分子的主要区别在于，筛胞细的胞壁上只有筛域，原生质体中也无P—蛋白体，而且不象筛管那样由许多筛管分子连成纵行的长管，而是由筛胞聚集成群。显然，筛胞是一种比较原始的类型。所以裸子植物的输导组织比被子植物的简单、原始，被子植物比裸子植物更高级。 3、厚角组织与厚壁组织有何不同 厚角组织细胞成熟后有不均匀加厚的初生壁，有活的原生质体，细胞具有潜在的分生能力。厚壁组织细胞成熟后，细胞壁一般有次生壁加厚，没有活的原生质体，成熟后的厚壁组织是只有细胞壁的死细胞，没有分生潜力。 4、筛管和筛胞在结构及分布上有何不同 1)结构:筛管为管状结构，由侧壁和端壁构成，端壁与侧壁以较大的角度结合，端壁上有筛板、筛孔，筛管是特化的细胞，成熟后无细胞核，但有活的原生质体，被称为筛管分子; 筛胞也是管状结构，但筛胞没有端壁，筛胞的两端呈尖斜状，尖斜状的两端侧壁上分布有筛域、筛孔，筛胞运输同化产物是通过侧壁上的筛域、筛孔来完成。 2)分布:筛管分布于被子植物的韧皮部中，筛胞分布于蕨类植物和裸子植物的韧皮部中。 5、什么是组织系统，植物体内的组织系统有哪几类 答：植物体内，承担一定生理功能的不同简单组织和复合组织在植物体内贯穿在一起构成了组织系统。如由贯穿于植物各个器官的维管束构成了植物体的维管系统;覆盖于植物体表的表皮和周皮构成了植物体的皮系统;皮系统与维管系统之间的部分构成了植物体的基本组织系统。 1.根尖分几个区域试述各区细胞特点及活动规律。 答：每条根的顶端根毛生长处及其以下一段，叫根尖。根尖从顶端起，可依次分为根冠、分生区、伸长区、根毛区等四区。根冠：外层细胞排列疏松，外壁有粘液（果胶）易于根尖在土壤中推进、促进离子交换与物质溶解。根冠细胞中有淀粉体，多集中于细胞下侧，被认为与根的向地性生长有关。根冠外层细胞与土壤颗粒磨擦而脱落，可由顶端分生组织产生新细胞，从内侧给予补充。分生区：（又叫生长点）具有分生组织一般特征。分生区先端为原分生组织，常分三层。分别形成原形成层、基本分生组织、根冠原和原表皮等初生分生组织，进一步发育成初生组织。伸长区：分生区向上，细胞分裂活动渐弱，细胞伸长生长，原生韧皮部和原生木质部相继分化出来，形成伸长区，并不断得到分生区初生分生组织分裂出来的细胞的补充。伸长区细胞伸长是根尖深入土壤的推动力。根毛区（也叫成熟区）：伸长区之上，根的表面密生根毛，内部细胞分裂停止，分化为各种成熟组织。根毛不断老化死亡，根毛区下部又产生新的根毛，从而不断得到伸长区的补充，并使根毛区向土层深处移动。根毛区是根吸收水分和无机盐的地方。

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2012 英语词汇学论文 英文版

成绩 Root and Affixation of Lexicology Abstract: It’s important and permanent to master the vocabulary in the English learning. Everyone who has ever set foot on English realizes that it’s somewhat incredible for us to reciting numerous and difficult words. Nevertheless, there are some skills we should acquire to make word-recitation easier and more effective. This paper mainly discusses the using of vocabulary root and affix. Only by having a good knowledge of the roots and affixes, can we prosper our English vocabulary and further our English study. Key words: root; affixation; detailed analysis; difficult words 1Introduction: Blindly reciting numerous and difficult words is a total waste of time and energy. Especially, situation becomes worse for the college students with little words storage and non-interest. However, most of the English words are comprised with roots and affixes, which are limited, stable and short. If we acquire them, it will be much simpler and rapider for us to recognize the unfamiliar and difficult words through the analysis on roots and affixes. If we can master and know how to use them properly, it will be a big step for the further study of this foreign language. A road of a thousand miles begins with each single step, so does the English words. Now we are going to learn the root and affixation respectively. Definition is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity and it carries the main component of meaning in a word. By learning the roots, we will find it not complicated for us to understand the long and difficult words which we often encounter in the tough reading test. However long and tough the word is, we can divide it into several parts, the fundamental part is the root and then we can understand what it means and fluently blurt it out without repeating it. Here are some detail analyses of the examples: Internationalist: nation is the root which means country or state, inter- is prefix meaning between or interactive, -al is the suffix and the –ist is the suffix meaning the person. So you will quite simply find its meaning. Invigorate: the root is vigor similar to power and energy, in- means making sth have the function of verb, here is make sth vigor, -ate is the verb suffix. So invigorate is to make sth vigorous. Antecedent: -ced- is the root referring to motion or going forward, ante- is before, and –ent means somebody. So antecedent is somebody who moves ahead of us, the same as forefather or ancestor. Protract: -tract is the root like pulling sth or extending sth make it wider or longer, pro- is the prefix meaning “ahead”. After analyzing this word, we know that “protract” is similar to prolong meaning make sth longer or longer to live. A lot of words contain this root, such as detract, extract, subtract, attract, tractable, intractable, etc. Arbitrariness: arbitrary is the root indicating to randomness or out of order, -ness is the noun suffix. The profound meaning of learning roots is that you will find it much easy to memorize words because there are so many word share the same root. No matter how long and hoe difficult the word is, the basic meaning of the word is stable and unchangeable. If we recite words according the

医学免疫学第版课后思考题答案重点

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英语词汇学教程(练习答案)(1)解析

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导管与管胞相比，其导管明显大于管胞，且导管的端壁形成穿孔，筛管的端壁为尖斜状，仅有纹孔而不形成穿孔，输水能力明显大于管胞。筛管的直径也比筛胞大，端壁有筛板，管胞的端壁尖斜，未形成筛板，筛管的输导能力明显大于筛胞。 由上述特点可知，被子植物体内的输导组织结构比裸子植物的更为完善，其功能效率更高，对陆地环境的适应能力更强，由此说明被子植物比裸子植物更进化。 七、简述植物各类型成熟组织的形态学特征和生理功能 植物的成熟组织也称永久组织，它们的特点是丧失分裂能力。 成熟组织按其功能不同可分为：保护组织、薄壁组织、机械组织、输导组织和分泌组织。 1 保护组织可分为表皮和周皮，覆盖体表，起保护作用。 2 薄壁组织（基本组织）壁薄，排列疏松。据功能不同，又可分为：同化组织、吸收组织、储藏组织、通气组织和传递组织。 3 机械组织为植物体的支持组织。又可分为厚角组织和厚壁组织（包括石细胞） 4 输导组织是体内长距离输导水分和有机物的组织。包括导管，筛管和伴胞。 5 分泌组织包括内分泌结构和外分泌结构。

英语词汇学论文(浅谈英语词汇的发展)

英语是当今国际性最强的语言。对学习英语的人来说，简单了解一下英语词汇的发展过程，对英语知识的掌握会是一个很大的促进。英语是当今国际性最强的语言。在全世界用得最广的10种语言中，英语居首，虽然说汉语的人数占世界首位，但说英语的人在世界上分布最广。对学英语的人来说，简单了解一下英语词汇的发展过程，对学习英语不仅是一个很大的促进，而且随着英语在我国经济、商业各部门的地位Et趋重要，对英语词汇的发展有个大概的了解，会为较快地扩大词汇量，掌握更多的英语知识铺平道路。一种民族语言及其词汇的发展与民族的历史密切相关。要了解英语词汇的发展史，不可避免地跟整个英语的发展史，及至英国的历史是密不可分的。不列颠群岛的最早居民是克尔特人。公元前55年，罗马人在凯撒大帝的率领下入侵不列颠群岛，克尔特人被赶入威尔士和苏格兰的深山之中。这一时期，在英国历史上称为罗马占领时期。直到公元410年，罗马占领时期才告结束。随后，来自德国北部平原的三个13耳曼部落盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人开始来到不列颠定居，英语就是盎格鲁——撒克逊人的语言。语言史家一般把英语的历史分为三个时期：古英语时期；中古英语时期；现代英语时期。一、古英语时期：又称盎格鲁——撒克逊时期。13耳曼部落在不列颠定居以后，各自占领了一地区。盎格鲁人占领了泰晤士河以北的英格兰大部地区和苏格兰的低地；撤克逊人占领了泰晤士河以南的大部分地区；朱特人占领了肯特郡一带地区。由于全国长期没有统一，所以，古英语时期存在着多种方言，其中撒克逊语曾一度占主导地位，在英语形成过程中起了重要作用。古英语的词汇有着浓厚的13耳曼语族的特点，这主要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法，复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著地位。据统计，在英语史诗《贝奥伍夫》的3000行诗句中，竞有1069个复合词，像fifteen，Sunday，Monday等都在其中。古英语时期有两个重要历史事件给英语词汇带来较大影响。第一件事是基督教传人英国。公元597年，一个名叫奥古斯丁的牧师从罗马来英国传教，罗马文化随着基督教传人英国。与此同时，一批拉丁词汇进入英语，像表示家庭用具的词如kettle，cup；表示植物名称的词有pear，beet；以及street，wall，wine等。此外，还有大批与宗教有关的拉丁词汇进入英语，像creed，pope，priest，gospel等。第二件事是北欧人人侵英国。从公元790年开始，大量斯堪的纳维亚人在英国定居，丹麦国王卡纽特还一度成为英国的君主。斯堪的纳维亚人和英国人交往频繁，很多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入英语。这表现在：1、英语中的一些常用代词(they，them，their，both，same等)都来自斯堪的纳维亚语。2、与普通百姓的13常生活有关的很多词汇来自斯堪的纳维亚语。如：名词有anger，egg，fellow，gate，husband等；形容词有happy，ill，weak，wrong等；动词有call，get，give，lift，raise等。这些斯堪的纳维亚词汇至今仍在英语中广泛使用。二、中古英语时期：公元1066年，诺曼人在威廉率领下，横渡英吉利海峡，在哈斯丁战役中击溃了盎格鲁撒克逊军队。英王哈罗德战死，英国被征服，这在历史上称为诺曼征服。诺曼征服对英语的发展有巨大的影响。早在诺曼征服以前，法语词汇就开始进入英语。英法两国隔海相望，历史上两国交往频繁，在古代和中世纪，两国的王室、贵族通婚时有发生。以诺曼征服为起点的中古英语时期，约有10000多法语词汇进入英语，其中75％流传至今并仍在使用。诺曼征服以后，英国结束了分裂状态，置于中央集权的封建制度统治之下。诺曼人占据了教会和政府的一切重要职务。以后的二、三百年间，诺曼法语成为英国的官方语言，普通人仍然说英语，但英语的文字记载几乎中断。直到1204年以后，英语才逐渐恢复主导地位。15世纪，伦敦标准方言兴起。这一时期，英语词汇的变化相当显著，由于诺曼法语度是英国统治阶级的语言，大批法语词汇涌入英语，这在政治、宗教、法律、军事、社交、服饰、饮食——凡是与统治阶级有关的一切领域都有反映。法语词成为这些领域所用词语的主体。据说，一个受过相当教育的英国人，即使没