语言学复习

What would you say about and for or against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

Sapir-whorf Hypothesis is a belief that our languages help mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On one hand, language determine our way of thinking, on the other hand, similarity between languages are relative, the greater their structural difference is, the more diverse their conception of world will be. As the hypothesis was put forward by Sapir and whorf, so, it is called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Arguments against S-w Hypothesis: the arguments are directed at strong version of s-w hypothesis, language determinism. It concerns excessively with surface structures of individual languages. In fact all languages are fundamental of the same universal human character. The flaws of that hypothesis can be revealed through the following analysis. One, Different grammatical structures do not mean that speakers of different languages differ in thinking logic. Two, Equivalent translation is always possible in spite of the fact that in practice there are hardly any people in perfect control of two different languages. Three, People who have good command of 2 genetic-unrelated languages do not have “double minds”.

2How would you summarize the concept of situation as proposed by Firth?

?A: Firth was strongly influenced by the Anthropological view of language and he was fully aware of the importance of the context in the study of language use, so he tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and its co-occurent factors. In the end, he developed his theory of “context of situation” which can be summarized as follows: 1, The relevant features of the participants, person, personalities. 2, the relevant objects. 3, The effects of the verbal action. ?

3Does woman register differ from linguistic sexism?

?A: Woman register means that the language used by woman shares some characters which distinguish it from the language used by man. Woman register is a kind of speech variety, because of having a number of distinctive words or by using the words in a unique way or special grammatical structures, but linguistic sexism, is the discrimination against woman. Actually, all the woman register is the weaker-register, the difference between woman and man are governed by society. So, if we want to change the linguistic sexism we need to change the society

4) How would you describe and evaluated the theory of illocutionary acts?

?1) locutionary act:The performance of an utterance. The term equally refers to the surface meaning of an utterance. (We move our vocal organs and produce sounds, organized in a certain way and with certain meaning.)?2) illocutionary act:The semantic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning. (The intention and function of an utterance)To say sth is to do sth and act performed is known as an illocutionary act.?3) perlocutionary act: Its actual, consequential effect, whether intended or not.(its psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something.

5 How would you discuss the maxims of the cooperative principle and illustratewith your

own example the violation of the maxim?

?A: CP is proposed by English philosopher Grice, its purpose is to explain the course of natural conversation, the participants must first be willing to cooperate, It goes as follows: 1, Maxims of quantity, 2, Maxims of quality, 3, Maxims of relation, 4, Maxims of manner. ?Violations: boys are boys; wars are wars----Maxims of quantity. ?He is made of iron----Maxims of quality?(at a party) A: “Mr.C is an old dog.” B: “It is a fine day.” ----Maxims of relation?A: “Let?s get kids something.” B: “Yes, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M”----Maxims of manner

6. How is poetry analyzed at phonological level?

?First step: to find where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns.?Second step: to analyse the form of sound patterning, there are 7 types of sound patterning: rhyme, alliteration, consonance, reverse rhyme, pararhyme and repetition.?Third step: to analyse the stress and metrical pattering to work out the number of syllables in each line and to fell the stressed or unstressed syllables, when stress is organized to form a regular rhythms, it is called meter, the unit of meter is called feet. So we analyse both the number and the type of feet, there are 6 types of feet, iamb, trochee, the melody, meter, crecotes, rhythm.

7. How would you illustrate the differences between different methods of speech presentation?

?The speech presentation continuum may have the following possibilities:Direct speech

: a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:

“Am I too late?” she asked.

Free direct speech

a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:

“Am I too late?”

Indirect speech

: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.

?Free indirect speech: closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.

Was she too late? She asked.

Narrator?s representation of speech acts (NRSA): a summery of a piece of discourse.

She asked him a question.

Narrato r?s representation of speech (NRS): telling us that speech occurs.

She talked with him for a while.

?

8. How would the innateness hypothesis influence your understanding of child first acquisition?

?According to Chomsky, language is innate and children are born with Language Acquisition Device. Innateness Hypothesis is based on 3 facts.?First: children learn their first language very fast with little effort. ?Second: although children learn their first language in quite different environments, the results are the same.?Third: children learn the total grammar of the language during a very limited time, from limited exposure to speech. So although children are not born with a language, they are born with a language, they are born with the device to acquire a

language. Chomsky argues that LAD consists of 3 elements: a hypothesis-

maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure.

Children is the hypothesis maker, they look for regularizes in speech and make hypothesis about how to use the language and children must be equipped with an evaluation procedure, which allow them to choose a number of possible grammars.

9) How would you describe the distinction between deep structures and surface structures in TG grammar?

?Every sentence exists on two levels: Surface structures are sentences or phrases which are pronounced or written and Deep structuresare the structures contain all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.[Examples: Boy loves Girl (deep structure). The boy kissed the girl (surface structure). The boy was kissing the girl. The girl was kissed by the boy. (Surface and deep structure)]. The deep structure shows the semantic components but the surface structure shows the proper phonological information in order to express that thought. Thus deep structures generate surface structures through some transformational rules. ?The ambiguity is due to the fact that the same surface structure derives from two deep structures. Chomsky has proposed an additional level of rules which can help transform the deep structure into the surface structure, for instance, the manipulation of verb tenses is one of the aspect of …transformational rules?( present tense, past tense, subjunctive, past perfect tense, future tense derive through transformational rules).

10) How would you illustrate the differences between the subject predicate analysis and the theme-rheme analysis of sentences?

?Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case. Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that relate to the subject. ?Theme is thepoint of discourse which is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer. Rheme is the goalof departurewhich presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. Theme offers known information that is not new to the reader or hearer. Rheme offers the new information that is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer. ?The difference is clea r in the example:?(a) Sally stands on the table.

?Subject Predicate?Theme Rheme?(b) On the table stands Sally

?Predicate Subject?Theme Rheme

(完整版)语言学练习题及答案

练习1 1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is one of the design features of language.A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 3. ___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation .A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 4. __ __ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost. A. duality B. arbitrariness C. productivity D. displacement 5. ______ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 6. ______ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. A. duality B. Arbitrariness C. interchangeability D. cultural transmission 7. To say “How are you.” “Hi” to your friends is the ____ __of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 8. “Tell me the result when you finish.” If you want to get your hearer to do something, y ou should use the _____ of language. A. directive function B. informative function C. phatic function D. interrogative function 9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __ ___. A. unnatural B. something to be feared C. natural D. abnormal 10. A linguist is interested in ___A. speech sounds only B. all sounds C. vowels only 11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A. [t] B. [m] C. [b] D. [p 12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate? A. [y] B. [t∫] C. [z] D. [dЗ] 13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel? A. [ ? ] B. [ i ] C. [ou] D. [a: ] 14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ? A. [ s ] B. [∫] C. [ l ] D. [θ] 15. In the following sounds, _____ is a voiceless affricative? A. [dЗ] B. [v] C. [t∫] D. [θ] 16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a __ __. A. fricative B. nasal sound C. semi-vowel D. vowel 17. Of the “words” listed below___ is not an English word A. [r∧b ] B. [ l? b ] C. [m?sta:∫] D. [lm?p] 18. ___ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released. A. Back vowels B. Stops C. Fricatives D. Glides 19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in _____. A. 1965 B. 1957 C. 1888 D. 1788 20. ___ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A. Phone B. Phoneme C. Allophone D. Sound 1. [ f ] is a dental consonant. F 2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. F 7. The three / p / are allophones. T 3. Phoneme is a phonological unit. T 4. Phone is a phonetic unit. T

语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)

题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。

语言学概论 复习总结

英语语言学概论 期中作业 专业：英语（翻译）学号：20131311202 姓名：汤汪

第七章语言、文化与社会 1、语言与文化 (1)语言 语言有广义和狭义之分。 狭义的语言包括口头语言、书面语言和书面语的物质载体——文字。最狭义的语言不包括文字，只包括口语和书面语，口语和书面语是人类社会用来进行交际和思维的最重要、最常用、最发达、最严密的符号体系。 广义的语言不仅包括狭义语言，而且还包括准语言。准语言又称副语言、类语言，根据诉诸感官的不同，准语言又可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。 广义的语言其实包括了人类用于交际的所有手段，因此可以将广义的语言定义为“人类使用的一切符号”。 (2)文化 文化是社会成员共同拥有的生活方式和为满足这些方式而共同创造的事事物物，以及基于这些方式而形成的心理和行为。 广义的文化可以分为物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个层次。物质文化是一种可见的显性文化。制度文化和心理文化是不可见的隐性文化或曰潜在文化。 物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明。诸如生产和交通工具，武器，日用器具，服饰，居住、饮食和其他人类行为所需要的物品等等。 制度文化是指种种制度和理论体系。诸如饮食习惯、建筑工艺、卫生管理、娱乐方式等生活制度，婚姻形式、亲属关系、家庭财产分配等家庭制度，劳动管理、艺术生产、教育、道德、风俗、宗教、利益、法律、政治、警察、军队等社会制度，以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系。 心理文化包括思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰、价值观念等等，比之物质文化和制度文化，心理文化处于更深的层次上。 (3)语言与文化的关系 语言与文化相互依赖、相互影响.语言是文化的重要载体；文化对语言有制约作用.本文对语言的内在系统,从语言的形式和结构上作了分析,并对语言的社会功能和其它外在因素进行了探讨。 语言在人类的一切活动中都起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分。自古以来,语言学家们都试图从多方面对语言进行探讨,形成了许多语言学流派。归纳起来,现代语言学主要来源于两大传统：语文学传统和人类学传统。语文学传统从比较语言学和历史语言学开始,根据文学作品和书面文献的研究对语言进行分析和比较。19世纪语文学家的工作为现代语言学的独立研究奠定了基础,后来发展到布龙菲尔德的结构主义和乔姆斯基的转换生成语法。这一传统的继承者强调语言的自然属性,把语言看成是一个封闭的,独立的系统,把语言学看成是一门横跨人文科学和自然科学的独立的边缘科学。人类学传统指运用人类学方法去研究没有书写系统和文字传统的社会集团的语言。自20世纪初

语言学复习资料

下定义： 1.IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法) the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.Direct from the external form of syntactic structure, analyze the direct component of the sentence. 2. Endocentric Constructions (向心结构) ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD. 3.Exocentric Constructions (离心结构) EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is funct ionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including：the basic sentence ；the prepositional phrase the predicate (verb + object) construction the connective (be + complement) construction 4.Relations of Position（位置关系） Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5a17291078.html,positionality组合原则--- a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. 6.Performatives(施为句): Utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5a17291078.html,ngue（语言）--refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 8.Parole --refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/5a17291078.html,petence: a language user?s underlying knowled ge about the system of rules. 10. Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations. 11.Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 12.Bound morphemes--Morphemes which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. 13.Variable words(可变化词) --- they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may

语言学大题

32. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts. (1) The room is messy. (2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on. Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by both the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. Context determ ines the speaker’s use of language and also hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. It may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used. (1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room. b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.” c. The room was wanted for a meeting. (2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance. b.A regret that the customer had not taken the dress. c.That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion. Suprasegamental feature(definition, category) S uprasegmental features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, pitch etc. ⑴Stress: definition is the intensity or prominence given to a syllable at the word level right (argument; Example;explain how) at the sentence level peter left direction for mary to follow peter left direction for mary to follow (argument; Example;explain how) (The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect.(argument) Take the sentence “He is driving MY car.” for example.To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun “my”, which under normal circumstances is not stressed. (explain how) ⑵Pitch: (definition;argument; Example;explain how) ⑶Tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.(definition;argument; Example;explain how) ⑷(definition;argument; Example;explain how) ⑸Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black. 2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain

语言学概论复习要点

合作原则—— 基本点：交际双方为使交际能够顺利下去，双方必须合作。 具体内容由美国语言学家格赖斯提出，其认为交际双方的合作，必须遵循四项准则： （1）量的准则：所说的话提供的信息要与交际的目的相适应，不超出不少于交际目的需要（2）质的准则：所说的话是真实的 （3）相关准则：所说的话同对方的话题相关联 （4）方式准则：说话简明清楚 问多答少、言语晦涩、含混啰嗦等都不利于交际的进行。 变异概说—— 任何一种语言都不是绝对划一的统一体，语言随着时间、地点和环境的改变而变化，处于一种缓变的状态中。 语言在共时层面的差异称为语言的差异。 语言的变异受到三种情况的影响： （1）说话者的地区背景和社会背景（母语、教育程度、职业等） （2）产生言语行为的实际情景，需要采取什么言语表达方式和超语言特征 （3）谈论的话题是什么 语言的变异分为三类： （1）地域变异：形成地域方言，即属于某一地域的群体使用的语言 （2社会变异：指不同社会地位、职业、行帮、种族、性别的区别在语言使用上产生的差异（3）功能变异：指说话人为了某一目的使受话人受到影响、产生反应而使用的言语方式 地域变异—— 语言的地域变异表现为地域方言，包括次方言，与之相对的有共同语和规范语言。 （方言—次方言—土语） 方言变异的表现（主要表现在语音和词汇上） 1、语音方面 闽方言、粤方言的变异较大，吴方言次之，客家方言、赣方言、湘方言又次之。 2、词汇方面 主要表现为同一意义用不同词语表现。 3、语法方面 主要表现在词序、虚词方面。粤方言中这种双音节词中修饰性词素位于被修饰性词素之后，是语法上的一个特点。例如：客人—人客、干菜—菜干 方言的形成与发展 汉语言发源地：黄河流域。秦汉以前，楚国南迁，吴方言、湘方言可能在东南部地区形成方言的形成除了由于移民、山川阻隔、政治经济的原因外，与异民族语言的接触和土著语言的混合也有一定的关系。 语言的分化和产生变异的程度，通常取决于共同语对方言的约束力。 方言发展的前途： 1、在社会封闭，甚至分裂的情况下，共同约束力减弱，语言分化的结果导致差别扩大，有可能形成独立的语言。 2、继续保持已有的地域差异状态，在地域范围内，优势扩大或者缩小自己的覆盖范围。 3、由于共同语的强大影响、社会的统一和发展，方言的使用范围逐渐缩小，或者方言本身逐渐向共同语靠拢。

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