英语文体学Chapter 9 Implications of Stylistics for Teaching English Literature

Chapter 9 Implications of Stylistics for Teaching English Literature Our task in this chapter is to explore the implications of stylistics for teaching English literature to advanced Chinese EFL students. Stylisticians abroad, especially in Britain, have enthusiastically started to apply stylistics to the teaching of English literature to both home and foreign students. The works based on their teaching experience of such scholars as H. G. Widdowson, A. Rodger and R. Carter are indeed invaluable and insightful. Much of what is said in this chapter results from the inspiration received from reading these works.

To examine the implications of a particular theory for teaching, it makes sense to first find out as much as possible about the target students.

9.1 Brief Description of Students

According to the most recent "National Syllabus for University English Majors" (National Advisory Board on University Foreign Language Teaching, 2000), there are two required English literature courses: "British Literature" and "American Literature". These are one-year courses and designed to be taught to the third-year and fourth-year students. The students are mostly over twenty years of age, and are therefore physically and emotionally mature. When they graduate, most of them will work as "Foreign Language Workers" - an umbrella term for foreign language teachers, translators, interpreters and researchers. Some may go on to postgraduate studies. As we know, most of these professions ask for a basic literary competence.

Our students are usually highly motivated to study, though a small number of them are less motivated for one reason or another. Nevertheless, even the less motivated students are often interested in English literature for the pleasure it provides and out of love and respect for great literature in general. The English literature that the students have encountered by the third year of their study consists mostly of simplified or abridged short stories, novels and some short poems. Their reading is oriented to language study, not to thematic message. Students may have, however, read a fair amount of Chinese literature and the translated versions of some English literary works. As far as the students' English language proficiency is concerned, it is assumed that they have moved into the advanced stage of learning. In the first two years of their college work, according to the new national syllabus, they should have acquired a good mastery of basic English pronunciation and intonation and the essentials of English grammar. They should have covered 5,500 ～6,500 English words and be able to fluently and appropriately use 3,000 ～4,000 of them and their collocations. In short, they should have acquired a good grammatical competence and even a fairly good communicative competence.

With the above-mentioned characteristics of the target students in mind, we are now in a better position to start to explore the implications of stylistics which affect all aspects of literature teaching. In this chapter, we will be able to discuss only two aspects, namely, defining the aims of teaching literature and devising classroom literary exercises.

9.2 Implications of Stylistics for Defining the Aims of Teaching Literature

It is of paramount importance for the teacher to have a clear idea of the aims of the course he or she is teaching. It is even more important, however, for the aims to be defined appropriately on the basis of theory and practice. The failure to do so will necessarily lead to the failure of the course.

How might we define the aims of teaching English literature in the light of the theory and methods of stylistics? As discussed in Chapter One, an important assumption of a stylistic approach is that literature is made of language. The medium of the literary writer is very different from the medium of the sculptor or painter. It is already meaningfully structured and systematized. As the most complex mode of human communication, language already has its own built-in rules and conventions. This the literary writer may exploit and arrange in unusual ways to create a fictional world independent of any concrete situation. But the meaning of a piece of work unquestionably depends on the norms of that language even where it most deviates from them. Thus, the facts of a literary text are linguistic facts. Everything else in a work is only inference from these facts. In conventional discourse, concrete situations are given; we understand the text or conversation partly because we know what to expect in those situations. In Widdowson's (1983) words, we "count on schematic knowledge". For example, if we listen to the weatherman on a summer's day in Beijing, we will not be surprised to hear that there will be rain or a storm. But we will be surprised to hear of a heavy snow coming up. In literature, however, there are no established conventional schemata of this sort. Literature is contextually dislocated. The context of situation in literature is only created from the clues supplied by the language of the text. Therefore, our understanding of a piece of literary work relies heavily on a highly developed awareness of the workings of language in everyday communicative situations as well as in literary discourse.

Based on this analysis, we may now suggest that what is of primary concern for a literary course is the development of a keen awareness in the student of how language works in literary discourse. Widdowson has made the point explicitly, "literature as a subject has as its principal aim the development of the capacity for individual response to language use" (1975: 76).

The adoption of the above aim as the primary goal of a literary course would mean that the teacher should focus the students' attention mainly on the intrinsic facts of a text as opposed to extrinsic facts such as those about the lives and opinions of authors, about sources and influence, about genres, fashions, schools and movements. The teacher must realize that these extrinsic facts are only secondary to the intrinsic facts.

The adoption of such a primary aim would also mean that the chief criterion for selecting the teaching content should be different from that of a knowledge-oriented course. It should not be the classic status of the texts, "but has to do with whether the work can be used to develop sensitivity to language in the most effective way" (Widdowson, 1975: 85). A selection made chiefly according to this criterion may not contain as many classics as was usually the case, but is nevertheless suitable for preparing the way for a meaningful and enjoyable reading of them at a future date.

The adoption of such an aim does not mean the rejection of other teaching aims such as 'the acquisition of literary knowledge', 'the learning of cultural facts' and 'the cultivation of morality'. But it should be realized that these aims cannot be achieved if the student is unable to understand the language of the texts. Putting it in another way, the realization of the primary aim can facilitate the attainment of other aims.

9.3 Implications of Stylistics for Devising Classroom Literary Exercises

We briefly discussed the implications of stylistics for defining aims of teaching literature in the preceding section. In this section we will explore the implications of stylistics for devising literary exercises for classroom use.

We made the point in Section 1.5 that to ascertain the style or uniqueness of a text naturally involves comparisons of language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and concluded that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature. In Section 1.3, we examined the assumption that literature is made of language. In the preceding section, we further pointed out that the facts of a literary text are linguistic facts and everything else in it is only inference from these. The understanding of a literary text thus relies heavily on a highly developed awareness of the workings of language in everyday communicative situations as well as in literary discourse. The points we made in these sections have many implications for devising classroom literary exercises. What we said chiefly implies that the exercises we devise for our students should be in some way comparative and should help the students make sense of literary discourse through utilizing the clues supplied by the language of the text.

One type of literary exercise that Widdowson advocates is the setting of examples of literary discourse alongside examples of conventional discourse in order to demonstrate the differences in the way the language system is realized for communicative purposes (1975). For example, for teaching Tennyson's poem The Eagle, we may select from an encyclopaedia the description of the eagle and then present it to the students together with the poem.

The Eagle

He clasps the crags with crooked hands,

Close to the sun in lonely lands,

Ring'd with the azure world, he stands.

The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls;

He watches from his mountain walls,

And like a thunderbolt he falls.

eagle (e'gel), the popular name for any of several large birds of prey that belong to the hawk family. Eagles are found throughout much of the world. Some live in open mountainous areas, others inhabit forests, and still others live near the sea.

Most eagles range in length from 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 0.9 meters), and their broad wings may span more than 6 feet (1.8 meters). Like most of the hawks, the female

eagle is slightly larger than the male. All eagles have a heavy, sharply hooked bill and strong sharp claws, called talons, which they use to seize and kill prey. The eagle's plumage is usually brown, gray, or black, and it is sometimes marked with white.

Eagles hunt in the daytime. They have very sharp sight, and some eagles can spot a running rabbit at a distance of 3 miles (4.8 km). Several species of eagles prey on small game birds or animals, others eat fish, and some eat reptiles. One species, the monkey-eating eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), feeds almost exclusively on monkeys. The monkey-eating eagle is a native of the Philippines.

The eagle's nest, called an aerie, is usually built in an inaccessible place, such as a high treetop or rocky cliff ledge. The nest is a large, bulky structure, made of sticks and often lined with ferns and grass. Many eagles return to the same nest every year, repairing it and adding sticks before they lay their eggs. One of the largest known aeries was 20 feet (6 meters) deep and 9.5 feet (2.9 meters) across the top. It consisted of 2 tons of sticks and had been used for 36 years.

Eagles lay one to four white eggs, which may be speckled with brown. The male rarely incubates the eggs, but both parents care for the young until they are able to fly, usually about 11 weeks after hatching.

(Merit Student Encyclopedia, Vol. 6, p. 146, Macmillan, 1979)

Using the above-listed type of exercise implies that we should not ask students questions of a factual kind such as, 'Where does the eagle stand?' or 'How does the eagle fall?'. Instead, we should ask the kind of questions that direct students' attention to how the language of the text being discussed functions to produce its unique literary message. Thus, for the set of texts on the eagle the following questions might be asked.

1) In Tennyson's poem, eagle is modified by the definite article the, whereas in the encyclopedic version it is either in its plural form they or modified by the. How do you account for this? Can you perceive the multiple meanings in the title of the poem?

2) In Tennyson's poem, the masculine third-person pronoun he stands for the eagle, while in the encyclopedic version, the pronouns used are it and they. What special effect does Tennyson's use of he for the eagle create in the poem?

3) In line one of Tennyson's poem, there is a recurrence of plosives, e.g. /t/, /k/ and /g/. What effects do they produce?

4) The closing line of the first stanza and that of the last stanza structurally run parallel to each other. How do we interpret this?

This type of exercise is both interesting and helpful, and may be used as the major type of exercise in the classroom. It is also relatively easy to devise for there is a great variety of non-literary texts to choose from. However, there are other types of exercises which are useful and can be employed by the classroom teacher. In what follows, we will briefly introduce four of them.

1) Original text - Translation text

e.g.

Original text:

Four Orders

I am a trembling leaf

I am a withered arm

I am a sunken reef

I am a trampled worm.

Leaf, be the caterpillar's joy

Arm, enfold the new-born boy

Reef, flower into a coral isle

Worm, fertilize the soil.

(Ronald Bottral)

Translation text:

四条法规

我是一片瑟瑟发抖的树叶

我是一只枯干衰老的胳膊

我是一块沉入大海的礁石

我是一条被践踏过的虫子。

树叶，去做毛虫的美餐

胳膊，扶抱新生的婴男

礁石，变成一座珊瑚岛

虫子，快做大地的肥料。

This type of exercise is very effective in that it can help students to see how putting literary discourse into another code may alter or lose part of its original meaning. It thus enables students to appreciate the artistic value of the language of literature. The word order in the title of the poem for example is ambiguous. It may be interpreted in at least three ways: a) the condition in which laws and rules of nature are obeyed, b) a command or direction given by nature, c) the form of sentence which is commonly known as imperative. However, once it has undergone translation, only the first layer of meaning remains. Under such a circumstance, the teacher should perhaps inform the students that in translating literary works one should first achieve a good understanding of the original text and then try to find the expressions and structures that best keep the meaning of the original text.

2) Authentic text - Pseudo-text

e.g.

Authentic text:

Thunder and Lightning

Blood punches through every vein

As lightning strips the windowpane,

Under its flashing whip, a white

Village leaps to light.

On tubs of thunder, fists of rain

Slog it out of sight again.

Blood punches the heart with fright

As the rain belts the village night.

(James Kircup)

Pseudo-text:

The Tempest

When lightning lit my windowpanes,

My blood flowed fast through all my veins.

Underneath its flash so bright,

The white-washed village came to light.

While thunder rumbled, showers of rain

Concealed it from my sight again.

My blood filled all my heart with fright,

When rain poured down on us that night.

(A. Rodger)

This type of exercise is also a very interesting and useful exercise. The idea is again to show how the pseudo-text may lose or distort much of the poetic meaning of the authentic text.

The example of this type of exercise listed above is designed by Alex Rodger. It may be done by engaging the students in comparing the texts in several aspects. For example, we may guide the students to compare the tenses used in the two poems. Kircup in his poem has used the present tense, whereas Rodger has used the past tense. Stylistically, the present tense usually has the function of bringing immediacy to a text and may make the reader feel that what is described is actually happening before his eyes. The past tense on the other hand may produce a sense of detachment.

The second aspect that may be compared is the choice of verbs. The verbs used in Kircup's poem require the head word in the subject noun phrase to have the semantic feature /+animate/. However, those head words do not possess this feature and cannot normally perform the actions designated by the verbs. We made the point in Chapter Seven that a careful examination of these verbs reveals that there is cohesion among them. All these verbs except leaps denote punitive violent actions of human beings. The attribution of this quality to natural phenomena such as rain and lightning suggests that nature has a terrifying power and is able to punish the human world.

However, there is nothing unusual about the uses of verbs in Rodger's text. Thus,

the immediacy and the powerful and frightful image created of nature are totally lost.

The teacher may also draw students' attention to the fact that there is a recurrence of the first person possessive pronoun my in the pseudo-text whereas this pronoun is absent in Kircup's poem. The repeated use of my seems to be redundant and may thus make the text unpoetic. More significantly, the repeated occurrence of this pronoun may give an impression that this text describes a personal experience of the speaker Ⅰ. This together with the use of the past tense may create a strong spatial and temporal detachment.

3) Topic-related texts

e.g.

Text One:

The Monuments of Hiroshima

The roughly estimated ones, who do not sort well with our common phrases,

Who are by no means eating roots of dandelion, or pushing up the daisies.

The more or less anonymous, to whom no human idiom can apply

Who neither passed away, or on, nor went before, nor vanished on a sigh.

Little of peace for them to rest in, less of them to rest in peace,

Dust to dust a swift transition, ashes to ash with awful ease.

Their only monument will be of others' casting-

A Tower of Peace, a Hall of Peace, a Bridge of Peace-

who might have wished for something lasting,

Like a wooden box.

(D. J. Enright)

Text Two:

Hiroshima

Noon, and hazy heat;

A single silver sliver and a dull drone;

The gloved finger poised, pressed,

A second's silence, and

Oblivion.

(Anonymous)

The aim of this exercise is to demonstrate how the writers may exploit similar or different linguistic devices to express the same topic. What the above two texts have in common is that there are hardly any finite verbs in them. This phenomenon here functions to produce a mood of 'inaction'. It greatly reinforces the powerful impact of a single atom bomb depicted in both poems. However, the writers have also employed different linguistic devices. In Text One, Enright has used several idioms such as sort well with, pushing up the daisies, etc. These create a cynical tone, showing that the

writer is very much against the use of nuclear weapons. The second poem has exploited some phonological features such as semi-alliteration. In line two there are two groups of semi-alliteration which form a contrast in meaning: the plane is minute, but the noise it makes is enormous. This may suggest to the reader that the minute flying object, insignificant as it may seem to be, should be watched, for its action may cause instant destruction.

4) Feature-related texts

e.g.

Text One:

Reflections on Ice-breaking

Candy

Is dandy

But liquor

Is quicker.

(Ogden Nash)

Text Two:

My heart leaps up when I behold

A rainbow in the sky,

So was it when my life began;

So is it now I am a man;

So be it when I shall grow old,

Or let me die!

The Child is father of the Man

And I could wish my days to be

Bound each to each by natural piety.

(William Wordsworth)

This type of exercise can be used to demonstrate how similar stylistic features may be employed to produce similar or different effects. We briefly discussed Text Two in Chapter Six. What the two texts have in common is that they both contain parallelism. The parallelism in Text One is a small-scale parallelism containing only two juxtaposed units. It functions to form a connection of both similarity and contrast. What Nash seems to say is that both candy and liquor can be used for socialization, but liquor works better.

The parallelism in Text Two is a large-scale parallelism consisting of three juxtaposed units. It chiefly functions to bring about a climax which fully expresses the speaker's strong wish to always retain his faith in nature.

9.4 The Advantages and Challenges of a Stylistic Approach to Teaching Literature

In the preceding sections of this chapter, we explored the implications of stylistics for defining the aims of teaching literature and for devising literary exercises for classroom use. In this concluding section, let us briefly discuss the advantages and challenges of a stylistic approach to the teaching of English literature to advanced EFL students.

One obvious advantage of a stylistic approach to the teaching of English literature to advanced Chinese EFL students can be identified from the arguments we advanced in Section 1.5 and the two preceding sections of this chapter. That is, the discovery of unique literary meaning requires the students to relate literary uses of English to their uses in conventional forms of discourse. By this comparison process, students can not only discover what it is that is peculiar to literary uses of language, but they can also find out more about the uses of English in non-literary discourse. In other words, this approach enables students both to understand and appreciate literary works, and to improve their competence in the English language. Short (1983) refers to such an approach as "a powerful double-edged tool" for the teacher. He explains that "By showing how meanings come about he increases enjoyment and sensitivity to good literature; at the same time he increases the students' explicit awareness of the general norms and conventions governing English usage" (1983: 73).

Another advantage of this approach is that it is particularly suitable to Chinese students. Chinese students have been learning English grammar carefully and systematically in such courses as 'Intensive Reading' and 'Practical Grammar' and they have courses in linguistics that run parallel to their literature courses. Their familiarity with linguistic terminology will enable them to cope with the detailed and fairly technical stylistic description with little difficulty.

This approach has a third advantage. Stylisticians believe that literary meanings can only be derived from intra-textual features and not from extrinsic facts of literature. Therefore, in stylistic analysis students are always asked to base their interpretation and comment on careful and systematic analysis of the language of the text so as to eliminate impressionistic remarks. This requirement will enable students to learn to substantiate argument with evidence. It also helps students to cultivate habits of logical thinking and objective analysis. Thus, it lays a good foundation for students to carry out research in a scientific way in the future.

The last advantage of the approach we want to mention here is that it emphasizes the training of 'the capacity for individual response'. This is only consistent with the general aim of most college courses to help students acquire the ability to analyze and solve problems for themselves so that when they leave college they can 'walk on their own without the support of the stick' (the teacher).

The stylistic approach to literature presents two challenges. Firstly, it demands much of the literature teacher. In order to apply this approach, the teacher should take re-orientation courses when possible. If such courses are unavailable, self-study is suggested. Although this does place added demands on limited time, the rewards of a fresh approach are worth it. Throwing away old lecture notes and replacing them with new materials may prove to be an exhilarating experience to both teachers and students.

Secondly, the approach requires students to actively participate in classroom discussion and to produce written assignments for which they cannot turn to received opinions about the work. Less motivated students may initially feel reluctant to take the challenge, but most students will acquire a feeling of achievement as a result of thinking for themselves.

Finally, we wish to point out that what we have said in this chapter does not suggest a total rejection of all the other approaches to literature and the teaching of literature, whether biographical, historical, psychological, or any other kind. We believe that each approach has some contribution to make to the understanding of literature and to the teaching of literature. For example, we feel that it is often helpful to provide the students with some background knowledge of the text they are studying. What we are really trying to show and voice in this chapter is that in order to improve the teaching of English literature in China, it is worth trying to incorporate the insights and methods of stylistics.

Exercises

1. How do you define the aims of a literary course at the college level in China in the light of your knowledge about stylistics?

2. What is the chief implication of stylistics for devising classroom literary exercises?

3. Comment on the effectiveness of the types of exercises we proposed in this chapter and suggest some other types of exercises for use in the classroom.

4. Discuss the advantages and challenges of a stylistic approach to the teaching of English literature in the Chinese context.

模式识别实验指导书

类别1234 样本x 1x 2x 1x 2x 1x 2x 1x 2 10.1 1.17.1 4.2-3.0-2.9-2.0-8.4 2 6.87.1-1.4-4.30.58.7-8.90.23-3.5-4.1 4.50.0 2.9 2.1-4.2-7.74 2.0 2.7 6. 3 1.6-0.1 5.2-8.5-3.25 4.1 2.8 4.2 1.9-4.0 2.2-6.7-4.06 3.1 5.0 1.4-3.2-1.3 3.7-0.5-9.27-0.8-1.3 2.4-4.0-3. 4 6.2-5.3-6.7 80.9 1.2 2.5-6.1-4.1 3.4-8.7-6.4 9 5.0 6.48.4 3.7-5.1 1.6-7.1-9.7 10 3.9 4.0 4.1-2.2 1.9 5.1-8.0-6.3 实验一 感知器准则算法实验 一、实验目的： 贝叶斯分类方法是基于后验概率的大小进行分类的方法，有时需要进行概率密度函数的估计，而概率密度函数的估计通常需要大量样本才能进行，随着特征空间维数的增加，这种估计所需要的样本数急剧增加，使计算量大增。 在实际问题中，人们可以不去估计概率密度，而直接通过与样本和类别标号有关的判别函数来直接将未知样本进行分类。这种思路就是判别函数法，最简单的判别函数是线性判别函数。采用判别函数法的关键在于利用样本找到判别函数的系数，模式识别课程中的感知器算法是一种求解判别函数系数的有效方法。本实验的目的是通过编制程序，实现感知器准则算法，并实现线性可分样本的分类。 二、实验内容： 实验所用样本数据如表2-1给出（其中每个样本空间（数据）为两维，x 1表示第一维的值、x 2表示第二维的值），编制程序实现1、 2类2、 3类的分类。分析分类器算法的性能。 2-1 感知器算法实验数据 具体要求 1、复习 感知器算法；2、写出实现批处理感 知器算法的程序1）从a=0开 始，将你的程序应用在和的训练数据上。记下收敛的步数。2）将你的程序应用在和类上，同样记下收敛的步数。3）试解释它们收敛步数的差别。 3、提高部分：和的前5个点不是线性可分的，请手工构造非线性映射，使这些点在映射后的特征空间中是线性可分的，并对它们训练一个感知

破产清算会计

二、破产清算会计的一般核算程序见课本 （二）清算组接管破产企业后，应设置新的会计科目，建立新的帐户体系，对破产清算进行核算。 破产清算会计核算的一般程序是：见课本 三、破产清算的会计核算 （一）设置破产清算会计科目并建立新的帐户体系 1.资产类会计科目—— （1）核算内容与原企业相应科目的核算内容一致的资产类科目。如“现金”、“应收票据”、“在建工程”、“无形资产”等科目。 （2）对原企业核算内容相近科目进行合并而设置的资产类科目。如： A、“投资”科目是原“长期投资”科目和“短期投资”科目的合并； B、“银行存款”包括各种存款与汇票、本票存款等； C、“应收款”核算清算企业除应收票据之外的各种应收款项。 （4）将原科目与其备抵科目合并后设立的资产类科目，如：“固定资产”科目是原“固定资产”科目和“累计折旧”科目的合并（即净额）； 2.负债类会计科目—— （1）与原企业相应科目的核算内容一致的负债类科目。如“应付票据”、“应付工资”、“应付福利费”、“应交税金”、“应付利润”、“其他应交款（应交的教育费附加）”、“应付债券”等科目。 （2）对原企业有关科目的合并而设立的负债类科目。如“借款”科目核算被清算企业需要偿还的各种借款，包括长期借款和短期借款；“其他应付款”科目核算被清算企业需要偿付的除应付票据之外的各种款项。 3.损益类会计科目 （1）破产企业原来的各损益类科目和“本年利润”科目不再设置。 （2）增设“清算费用”科目，核算被清算企业在清算期间发生的各项费用。支付各项清算费用时，记入该帐户的借方；清算结束时，应将该帐户余额从贷方转入“清算损益”帐户。

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