英语词汇学总结复习资料
大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。
第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary
1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.
3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.
（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）
a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.
b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling
c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500
d）. Borrowing of foreign language
4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.
The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.
5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin
the English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.
基本词汇的特点
1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.
1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomena
most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations
world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.
2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.
e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now
3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.
e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer
4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.
e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove
5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others
基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性
The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .
e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold
Non-basic vocabulary ——(例子)
1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine
photoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus
2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.
Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid
3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasions
dough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.
4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups
can-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.
5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialect
beauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog
6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.
7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail
old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor
2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.
Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.
a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.
Functional words are in a small number.
b. Content words are growing.
Functional words remain stable.
c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.
3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000
What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are
1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）
2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）
Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%
本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性
Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.
According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.
1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.
e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）
2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spelling
e.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo
3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.
1）. Word translated according to the meaning
e.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece
2）. Words translated according to the sound
e.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea
4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another language
e.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky
第二章The Development of the English
1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）
It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、Germanic
In the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively
,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.
In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.
2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）
1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 words
The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words by
combining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.
特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）
2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，French
Until 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.
By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.
Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.
As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending
3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）
late modern English（1700-up to now）
The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.
From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .
The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.
After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.
More words are created by means of word-formation.
thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.
more words are created by means of word-formation.
in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.
science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .
mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.
特点：ending are almost lost.
3. Three main sources new words
当代英语词汇发展的现状
New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .
词汇发展的主要原因
1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages
4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）
1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）
2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.
3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）
4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）
French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%
第三章Word Formation
*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）
*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.
3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.
4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.
5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.
6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.
7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。Contradict ― speak against‖。Bound roots are either Latin or Greek.
Although they are limited in number，their productive power is amazing.
8. Affixes——Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes. Most all affixes and bound morphemes .
9.Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes—— Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional，thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.
a. There is the regular plural suffix -s（-es）which is added to nouns such as machines，desks.
b. Simple present for the third person singular. –s（-es）
c. The possessive case of nouns. ’s
d. –er and –est to show comparative and superlative degree
e. The past tense marker –ed
f. –ing to form present participles or gerunds.
10. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes—— Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
11. Prefixes—— Prefixes are affixes that come before the word，such as，pre+war，sub+sea
12. Suffixes —— suffixes are affixes that come after the word，for instance，blood+y.
13. Root —— A root is the basic form of a word，which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. （What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.）.e.g. ―internationalists‖ removing inter-，-al-，-ist，-s，leaves the root nation.
14. Stem ——a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. E.g. ―internationalists‖，nation is a root and a stem as well. a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix. a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.
第四章 word formation
The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. Not all the words that are produced by applying the rules are acceptable. Rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words are created from day to day. Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes. affixation 30%-40% compounding 28%-30% conversion 26% shortening 8%-10% （clipping and acronymy ） blending and others 1%-5%
4.1. Affixation （Derivation ）词缀法 —— the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. （derivative 派生词）
According to their position ， affixation falls into ： prefixation and suffixation.
4.1.1. Prefixation —— the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.
1. Negative prefixes – a- （abnormal ）， dis- （disobey ）， in- （il-， ir-， im-） （injustice ）， non- （non-smoker ）， un- （unwilling ） un- are the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adj.
2. Reversative prefixes – de- （decentralize ）， dis- （disunite ）， un- （unwrap ）
3. Pejorative prefixes – mal- （maltreat ）， mis- （mistrust ）， pseudo- （pseudo-science ）
4. Prefixes of degree or size – arch- （archbishop ）， extra-（extra-strong ）， hyper-（hyperactive ）， macro- （macrocosm ）， micro- （microcomputer ）， mini- （mini-election ）， out- （outlive ）， over- （overweigh ）， sub- （subheading ）， super- （superfreeze ）， sur- （surtax ）， ultra- （ultra-conservative ）， under-（underdeveloped ）
5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude – anti- （anti-nuclear ）， contra- （contraflow ）， counter-， pro-（pro-student ）
6. Locative prefixes – extra- （extraordinary ）， fore- （forehead ）， inter- （inter-city ）， intra- （intra-party ）， tele-，
trans- morphemes Free =free root
bound
Bound root affix
derivationa inflectional prefix
suffix
7. Prefixes of time and order – ex- （ex-wife），fore- （foretell），pre-，re- （reconsider）
8. Number Prefixes – bi-，multi- （poly-）（multi-purpose），semi- （hemi-），tri- （tricycle），uni-（mono-）（uniform）
9. Miscellaneous prefixes – auto-，neo- （neo-Nazi），pan- （pan-European），vice-
4.1.2 Suffixation ——Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems （the word class）. Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.
1.Noun suffixes
Denominal nouns （名词+suffix ——名词）
a. Concrete —— -eer （engineer），-er （teenager），-ess （hostess），-ette （cigarette），-let （booklet）
b. Abstract —— -age （wastage），-dom （处于…状态）（officialdom），-ery （slavery），-ery （-ry），-hood （childhood），-ing （farming），- ism（…主义）（terrorism），-ship（状态）（sportsmanship）
Deverbal nouns （动词+suffix——名词）
a. Denoting people —— -ant （assistant），-ee （trainee），-ent （respondent），-er （-or）
b. Denoting action，result，process，state，ect. ——-age （linkage），-al （dismissal），-ance （attendance），-ation（-ition，-tion，-sion，-ion），-ence （existence），-ing （savings），-ment （statement）
De-adjective nouns （形容词+suffix——名词）—— -ity （popularity），-ness （happiness）
Nouns and adjectives suffixes —— -ese （Chinese），-an （Australian），-ist （主义）（socialist）
2.Adjective suffixes
Denominal suffixes —— -ed （wooded），-ful （successful），-ish （foolish），-less （priceless），-like （lady-like），-ly （friendly），-y （smoky）
-al（-ial，-ical）（cultural，residential），-esque （picturesque），-ic （economic），-ous（-eous，-ious）（coutageous）-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases，but differ in meaning. Historic （important in history）historical （of history）Classic （great，memorable）classical （of Latin or Greek）Comic （of comedy）comical （funny）Economic （in the economy）economical （money-saving）Electric （powered by electricity）electrical （of electricity）
Deverbal suffixes —— -able （-ible）（washable），-ive（-ative，-sive）（active，decisive）
Adverb suffixes —— -ly （calmly），-ward（s）（homewards），-wise （clockwise）
Verb suffixes —— -ate（originate），-en （darken），-（i）fy （beautify），-ize （ise）（modernize）
-nik most of them are considered slang.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/603630790.html,pounding （Composition）复合法——Compounding is a formation of new words by joining two or more stems.
A Compound is a ‘lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word’.
三种形式solid，hyphenated，open
4.2.1 Characteristics （differ from free phrases）
Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: a) Phonetic features Compound （not absolute）Free phrase ,Stress on the first element Stress on the second element.
b) Semantic features : Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. A lot of compounds are transparent and the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds. c) Grammatical features: A compound plays a single grammatical role in a sentence. In adjective-noun compounds，the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. Compound Free phrase, fine art finer art.
4.2.2 Formation of Compounds
Most compounds consist of 2 stems，but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationship within the words is considered complex.
Noun compounds ;Adjective compounds ; Verb compounds （through conversion and back formation）p54 Back formed verb compounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes，-er，-ing，-ion，-etc.
4.3.Conversion （zero-derivation，functional shift）转类法——Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs. A change of grammatical function ；The different range of meaning
Conversion to noun
Verb to noun almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.
1. State （of mind or sensation）
2. Event or activity
3. Result of the action
4. Doer of the action
5. Tool or instrument
6. Place of the action
Adjective to noun （full conversion，partial conversion）
1. Words fully converted-a noun converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an identical article or –e（s）.
2. Words partially converted – do not possess all
the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. They retain some of the adjective features. Words of this class generally refer to a group of the kind.
Miscellaneous conversion ( this covers nouns converted from conjunctions, modals, finite verbs, prepositions , etc.)
Conversion to verbs
1. Noun to verb-verbs of this kind are all transitive.
2. Adjective to verb
3. Miscellaneous conversion p62
4.4.Blending—拼缀法is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.
Head + tail for example :autocide / motel/ slurb / cremains / chunnel Head + head for example : comsat / telex / Amerind / sitcom / FORTRAM Head + word for example :medicare / Eurasia / telequiz / atuocamp Word + tail for example :lunarnaut / bookmobile / workfare / tourmobile ;;The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns，very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.
4.5.Clipping截短法– shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the original and using what remains instead. People tend to ve economical in writing and speech to keep up the tempo of new life style.
Front clipping Quake （earthquake）/ Copter（helicopter）/ scope （telescope）/ phone （telephone）Back clipping Dorm（dormitory）/ momo（）/stereo（）/gent（）/fan（）/disco（）Front and back clipping Phrase clipping Pub（）/pop（）/zoo（）/perm （）p65
4.6.Acronymy首字母缩略法–is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms.
4.6.1Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. It’s one of the word formations of acronymy. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund. P66
4.6.2Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. . It’s one of the word formations of acronymy. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
4.7.Back-formation逆生法——is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.. words created through back-formation are mostly verbs. there are only a few that can be used as nouns or as both nouns and verbs .
4.8.Words from proper names modern English has a large number of words which come from proper nouns. They include : 1. Names of people a) Words of this group are
from names of scientists，investors，etc. these terms are used as measurements.////b) Some words are from characters in mythology.//// c)Some are from historical figures.///d)Some words are from characters in literary books. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/603630790.html,s of places Many words denoting products，objects or materials come from the names of places where they were first produced.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/603630790.html,s of books
4.Tradenames
When proper nouns are communized，many of them have lost their original identity. They can be converted to other classes. These words can also take suffixes.
Words that are communized from proper nouns have rich culture associations and thus stylistically vivid，impressive and though-provoking.
第五章Word Meaning
（领会）5.1.1Reference 所指– the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference，a speaker indicates which things in the world （including persons）are being talked about.The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction.Although reference is abstract，yet with the help of context，it can refer to something specific.
（领会）5.1.2Concept（概念）– which beyond language is the result of human cognition refl ecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn’t affected by language. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. Meaning belongs to language，so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.
（领会）5.1.3 Sense(语义) – denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense.The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.It is also abstraction.
5.2Motivation理据——accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.English does have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. Most words are non-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning dose not have a logical explanation.
5.2.1Onomatopoeic Motivation（拟声理据）–the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. （Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning）. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example，bang，ping-pang，crow by cocks，etc.Such echoic words are also conventional for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other language.
5.2.2Morphological Motivation（形态理据）——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning）. For
instance，airmail means to ―mail by air‖，miniskirt is ―a small skirt‖。There are a lot of words whose structures are opaque，their meanings are not the combinations of the separate words.
5.2.3Semantic Motivation（语义理据）——refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explained the connection between literal sense and figurative sense of a word）. E.g. When we say the mouth of a river，we associate the opening part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.
5.2.4Etymological Motivation（词源理据）——The history of the word explains the meaning of the word. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and its origin）. E.g. the word ’laconic’ meaning ’brief’ or ’short’ is derived from Laconic，a tribe of people who were known for their ’brevity of speech’ and for their habit of never using more words than necessary. Hence a laconic answer is a ’short answer’。All the words communized from proper nouns can be interpreted in terms of their origins.
5.3Types of meaning （领会，运用）
Word-formation is not monogamous but a composite consisting of different parts.
5.3.1Grammatical meaning（语法意义）– refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships，such as part of speech of words，singular and plural meanings of nouns，tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. Grammatical meaning becomes important only used in actual context.Different Lexical meaning may have different grammatical meaning.The same word may have different grammatical meaning.(p86)Functional words，though having little lexical meaning，posses strong grammatical meaning，content words have both meanings and lexical meaning in particular.
Lexical meaning —— is constant in all the words within or without context related to the notion that the word conveys. It has two components conceptual meaning and associative meaning.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning.
Grammatical meaning surfaces only in use.
5.3.2Conceptual meaning （denotative meaning）(概念意义)– the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.It is constant and relative stable. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication. e.g. The sun rises in the East. the ―sun‖
5.3.3 Associative meaning（关联意义）–the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.It is open-ended and indeterminate
Connotative meaning （connotation）（内涵意义）——the overtones or association suggested by the conceptual meaning. It is not an essential part of the word- meaning，but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular use in the language. e.g. Mother——a female parent —— love，care，tenderness，forgiving Home —— a dwelling
place —— family，friends，warmth，safety. It is unstable varying considerably according to situations.
Stylistic meaning（文本意义）– stylistic features make the words appropriate for different contexts.（in some dictionaries ,these stylistic are clearly marked as ‘informal，formal，literary，archaic. Slang’and soon）e.g. pregnant，expecting，knock up，in the club，The stylistic difference is true of synonyms. There are few words have both the same Conceptual meaning and Stylistic meaning.
分析： 1. they chucked a stone at the cops，and then did a bunk with the loot . 2. after costing a stone at the police，they absconded with the money.
The stylistic features of words are obvious.Sentence 1 could be said by 2 criminals，all the words used in italics are slangy，sentence 2 might be said by the chief inspector in making his official report and the words used are literary （cast，abscond）or neutral （police，money）.
Affective meaning(感情意义) –the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Interjections are affective words as they are expression of emotions.
Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories：appreciative and pejorative. Words of positive overtones are used show appreciation or the attitude of approval. Those of negative connotations imply disapproval，contempt or criticism.Affective meaning varies from individual to individual，from culture to culture … e.g. revolution，democracy，imperialism，dog loyalty，faithfulness，a close companion （western）but useful animal （Chinese）
Collocative meaning（搭配意义）– the associations a word acquires in its collocation. It is that part of the word—meaning suggested by the word before or after the word in discussion. There is some overlaps between the collcations of the two words. e.g. pretty and handsome = goodlooking（conceptual meaning）pretty woman stress the attractiveness of facial feature. handsome woman may not be facial beautiful，yet is attractive in other respects.//// tremble/quiver = shake involuntary tremble with fear/quiver with excitement
Function：Collocative meaning overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.
Form – by form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling. A word is the combination of form and meaning. Form is the carrier of meaning.
第六章Sense Relations and Semantic Field
6.1. Polysemy(多义关系)（识记）—polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. When a words is first coined，it always monosemic，but tin the course of development ，the same word may have two or more different meanings. e.g. The word ―flight‖ may mean ―passing through the air‖，―power of flying‖，―air of journey‖，etc.
Two approaches（识记）（两种研究方法）
Diachronic approach – Diachronically，polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. This first meaning is the primary meaning. With the advance of time and the development of language，it took on more and more meanings. These latter meanings are called derived meanings. E.g. face、、The primary meaning gave birth to new meaning.The primary meaning become either absolute or disappeared altogether E.g. harvest time of cutting reaping and gathering the crops a season’s yield of grain or fruit Pain penalty or punishment pains and penalty upon/under pain of suffering
Synchronic approach –synchronically，polysemy is viewed as the coexistent of various meaning of the same word in a certain historical period of time. The basic meaning of a word is the core of word meaning. The core of word meaning called the central meaning （the derived meanings ,no matter how many are secondary meaning in comparison）.The central meaning has gradually diminished in currency with the changes and one of the derived meanings has become dominant. E.g. gay
Two process of development（领会）
Radiation (辐射型发展)– a semantic process which shows that the primary meaning stands at the center and each of the derived meanings proceed out of in every direction like rays.The meanings are independent of one another，but can all be tracked back to the central meaning.
e.g. Neck1）That part of a man or animal jointing the head to the body2）That part of the garments3）The neck of an animal used as food4）A narrow part between the head and body or base of any object5）The part of anything
Of the 5 meanings 1）is the primary and all the rest are derived but each of the other four is directly related to 1）. Therefore，we say neck has developed through the process of radiation.
Concatenation（连锁型发展）–meaning ―linking together‖，is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until，in many cases，there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the tern had at the beginning. e.g. candidate1）White-robed2）Office seeker in white gowns3）A person who seeks an office4）A person proposed for a place，award，etc.
Of the 4 meanings，1）is the primary meaning and the other three are derived，but each of the derived meaning is only directly related to the preceding one and there is no direct connection between 1）and 4）. Therefore，we say candidate has developed through the process of concatenation.
Difference:Radiation is concatenation is closely related，being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.Radiation，each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.Concatenation，each of the later meaning is related only to the
preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be tracked to the original，there’s no direct connection in between.The two processes work together，complementing each other. Radiation precedes concatenation.
6.2.Homonyms（同音同形异义关系）——are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
Perfect Homonyms（完全同形同音词）——are words identical both in sound and spelling，but different in meaning. e.g. bank/bank bear/bear date/date
Homographs（同形词）——are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. e.g. Bow/bow Sow/sow
Homophones（同音词）（most common）——are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. e.g. Dear/dear Right/rite Son/sun
Origins of Homonyms （识记）
1. Change in sound and spelling （homonyms are native by origin，derived from different earlier forms in Old English. The change in sound and spelling gradually made then identical in modern English.） e.g. ear/ear long/long
2. Borrowing （many words of foreign origin coincide in sound and/or spelling with those of native origin with those of other foreign origin.） e.g. fair/fair ball/ball
3. Shortening （many shortened forms of words happen to be identical with other words in spelling or sound） e.g. ad/add rock/rock NOW/now
Differentiation of Homonyms and polysemants （领会）
Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical regard to spelling and pronunciation.
Homonyms refer to different word，which happen to share the same forms. Polysemant is the one and some word，which has several meanings.One important criterion is to see their etymology. Homonyms are from different sources. A polysemant is from the same source，which has acquired different meaning in the course of development.The second principle is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to some central meaning to a greater or less degree. Meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.
Rhetoric feature（修辞特色）
They create puns for desired effect of，say，humour，sarcasm or ridicule.
6.3.Synonyms（同义关系）—are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. Synonyms share a likeness in denotation and in part of speech.
Types of Synonyms
1.Absolute （Complete）Synonyms——are words，which are identical in meaning in all its aspects，i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning，including conceptual and associative meanings. Absolute （Complete）Synonyms are restricted to high-specialized vocabulary.For instance，composition / compounding. They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.
2.Relative （Near）synonyms——are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. e.g. Change/alter/vary Take stagger/reel/totter for example.Stagger implies unsteady movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load；Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall；Totter indicates the uncertain，faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.
Sources of Synonyms
The richness of English in synonyms is largely due to the happy mingling of Latin ,French and native elements.
。Borrowing：（the most important source）
Native ForeignRoom chamberFoe enemyHelp aidLeave departWise sageBodily corporalEarthly terrestrialWarlike bellicoseBuy purchase Native French LatinAsk question interrogateFast firm secureFire flame conflagrationFear terror trepidationHoly sacred consecratedGoodness virtue probityTime age epoch
。Dialects and regional English：
Railway （BrE）railroad （AmE）///Mother （BrE）minny （ScotE）///Charm （BrE）glamour （ScotE）///Ranch （AmE）run （AusE）////Job （StandE）gig （BlackE）////Jim （BlachE）mal person （StandE）
。Figurative「a. 比喻的，象征的」and euphemistic 「a.委婉的」use of words：
Occupation walk of life （fig.）Dreamer star-gazer （fig.）Drunk elevated （euph.）Lie distort the fact （euph.）
。Coincidence with idiomatic expressions：
Win gain the upper hand Decide make up one’s mind Finish get through Hesitate be in two minds Help lend one a hand p108-111
Discrimination of Synonyms （运用）
1）Difference in denotation：differ in the range and intensity of meaning.
Range （some words have a wider range of meaning than others） e.g. timid——timorous Timid is applied to the state of minds in which a person may happen to be at the moment，ant to
the habitual disposition.Timorous is only to the https://www.wendangku.net/doc/603630790.html,prehend/ understand extend—increase—expand The owner of the restaurant is going to extend the kitchen by ten feet this year.The company has decided to increase its sales by ten percent next year.The metal will expand if heated.Extent increase expand Differ in degree of intensity e.g. wealth—rich The wealth person is to posses more money and property than a rich man. work –toil Work is a general term having no special implications as ’light’ or ’heavy’，and ’mental’ or ’ physical’。Toil suggests ’heavy and tiring work’，associated with more with manual than mental labor.want—wish—desire Want is the most general and has the widest range of meaning.Wish and desire are much narrow in sense.
2）Difference in connotation：differ in the stylistic and emotive coloring.
Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. E.g. The words borrowed from French and Latin are more formal than native words.These borrowings are more appropriate formal and technical writing.policeman – constable – bobby – cop policeman（neutral）– constable（neutral）– bobby（colloquial）– cop（slangy）ask —— beg —— request ask （neutral）；beg （colloquial）；request （formal）archaic and poetic，which are self-suggestive. e.g. ire/anger，bliss/happiness，forlorn/distressed，dire/dreadful，list/listen，enow/enough，save/expect，mere/lake and such like are all synonyms，but in each the second is standard in usage whereas the first one is old-fashioned and archaic，only found in poetry，earlier writing，etc.Many synonyms have clear affective values result – consequence result（neutral ）– consequence（negative implication）big – great big（the bigness of size，volume and so on，without any emotive coloring）– great（suggest distinguished，eminent，outstanding）little –small –tiny little （attractiveness，pleasantness）– small（not big）– tiny（abnormal growth of the child）
3）Difference in application：differ in usage.
Many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns E.g.allow – let allow sb to so sth. –let sb. do sth.answer –reply answer（transitive v.）the letter –reply （intransitive v.）to the letter sense – meaning He is a man of sense.empty ——vacant empty box/street/room （no one or nothing inside）；vacant seat/chair/apartment （not occupied）lump – slice – chunk – sheet –cake a lump sugar– a slice of meat – a chunk of wood – a sheet of paper –a cake of soap
6.4.Antonymy(反义关系)——is concerned with semantic opposition.
Antonyms——are words which are opposite in meaning.
6.4.1 Types of Antonyms（according to the semantic opposition ）
1）Contradictory terms (矛盾反义词)– these antonyms are truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no
possibility between them. They assertion of one is the denial of the other. E.g. alive—dead，present——absent，male – female，boy – girl，true – false，same – different，imperfect –perfect.Such antonyms are non-gradable. They can not be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs like ―very‖ to qualify them. Single/married
特点：对立的/不可分级
2）Contrary terms (对立反义词)—— a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other. E.g. rich——（well-to-do）——poor；old –（middle-aged）—— young，open –（ajar）—close，beautiful –（good-looking）–（plain）– ugly，hot——（warm，cool）——cold verbs. E.g. love –（attachment）–（liking）–（indifferent）–（antipathy）—— hate
3）Relative terms（关系反义词）– consist of relational oppositeness. The pairs of words indicate such a social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other，the type is also reverse terms. The two words of each pair interdependent. E.g. parent——child；husband——wife；predecessor –successor，employer ——employee sell—buy，give –receive，
方位词
Difference between relative terms and contradictory terms
There is an absolute opposite between relative terms and contradictory terms. In the case of relative terms，the opposition is only relational.contradictory terms – e.g. if the adult is not a man，then the adult must be a woman.relative terms – the opposition is relational.
6.4.2The characteristics of antonyms
1）. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.
形容词（most）——动词–名词（least）There are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.Words denoting nature，quality or state of things have many antonyms. This accounts for the large number of antonyms are adjectives.
2）. A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
e.g. fast – firm/secure loose quick slow pleasure-seeking/wild sober bull —— boring interesting She became dull and silent during the last part of the journey. lively dull weather sunny dull noise sharp dull pain acute these factors affect both intelligent and dull children. Intelligent
3）Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms. One member is more specific than the other and the meaning of the specific is included in that of the general. e.g. man –woman There has been no man in the island. （man signifies human being，including
women，but not vice versa）.dog ——娃哈哈male/ female dog tall—short How tall is his brother？（includes the meaning of next one）How short is his brother？（more restricted in sense）
4）. Contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity，so each has its own corresponding opposition. e.g. hot –cold，warm –cool，rich –poor，destitute –opulent Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time，one being negative and the other opposite. e.g. happy—unhappy-sad productive—unproductive—destructive free——unfree-enslaved the use of antonyms
6.4.3 The Use of Antonyms
。Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of words.fresh bread – stale bread，fresh air – stuff air，fresh flower – faded flower，fresh look – tired look
。Antonyms are useful to express economically the opposition of a particular thought，often for the sake of contrast. They look neat and pleasant，and sound rhythmic.
。Many idioms are formed with antonyms. They look neat and pleasant，and sound rhythmic.Rain and shine无论如何Here and there到处Weal and woe祸福Friend and foe 敌友Now or never机不可失Thick and thin不顾艰难，险阻High and low到处Give an take 互让，平等
Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together.Easy come，easy go. 来的易，去得快。More haste，less speed. 欲速则不达。United we stand，divided we fall.团结则存，分裂则亡。
6.5.Hyponymy(上下义关系)——deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is，the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms（下义词）. For instance，tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term（上义词）and the specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms（下义词）.
Hyponymy can be descried in terms of tree-like graph，with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates.
The sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive and productive processing of language. In reading comprehension，coherence by hyponymy is an important key.
In production，knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness，exactness，and concreteness.
The status either as superordinate and sobordinate is relative to other terms.
6. semantic field（语义场）p120
(完整word版)英语词汇学复习大纲整理
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料c h a p t e r 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]
Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
小学英语工作总结
小学英语工作总结 ——WORD文档，下载后可编辑修改—— 眨眼之间，一个学期过去了，总的来说，我在这个学校已经工作了四年多了，由当初的的不成熟到现在的成熟，的的确确有了很多的改变，也有很多的感触，现将本学期的工作总结如下： 一、政治思想方面：我认真学习新的教育理论，及时更新教育理念，积极参加继续教育与校本培训。在学习的过程中自己也积累了不少别人的经验，也了解到新的教育形式不允许我们在课堂上重复讲书，我们必须具有先进的教育观念，才能适应教育的发展。所以我不但注重集体的政治理论学习，还注意从书本中汲取营养，认真学习仔细体会新形势下怎样做一名好教师。 二、教育教学方面：要提高教学质量，关键是上好课。为了上好课，我做了下面的工作： 1、课前准备：备好课。备课不仅仅是备教材，备教学步骤，真正的是要备到学生，想学生所想，他们喜欢什么样的课，什么样的课才吸引他们，上课过程中学生遇到类似的情况会有怎么样的反应，而教师又要根据学生的反应作出相对应的反应。 2、认真钻研教材，对教材的基本思想、基本概念，每句话、每个字都弄清楚，了解教材的结构，重点与难点，那样就避免了以往要学生掌握过多内容，产生畏难情绪的缺点，同时掌握知识的逻辑，新旧知识的联系，知道让学生学好当前知识，要从哪方面下手，应补充哪些资料，怎样才能教好。
3、了解学生原有的知识技能的质量，他们的兴趣、需要、方法、习惯，学习新知识可能会有哪些困难，采取相应的预防措施。二年级学生刚接触英语不久，对学习英语有极大的兴趣，因此课堂气氛一定要活跃，以吸引他们的注意力;五年级学生已经学习了两年英语，他们对学习英语有持续的兴趣，渴望学到更多的英语知识，因此在备课是应该注重对语法的讲解。 4、考虑教法，解决如何把已掌握的教材传授给学生，包括如何组织教材、如何安排每节课的活动。 5、课堂上的情况。我注重组织好课堂教学，关注全体学生，注意信息反馈，调动学生的有意注意，使其保持相对稳定性，同时，激发学生的情感，使他们产生愉悦的心境，创造良好的课堂气氛，课堂语言简洁明了，克服了以前重复的毛病，课堂提问面向全体学生，注意引发学生学英语的兴趣，课堂上游戏，歌曲结合，布置好家庭作业，让学生回家读读英语，说说英语。 6、要提高教学质量，还要做好课后辅导工作，小学生爱动、好玩，缺乏自控能力，常在学习上不能按时完成作业，有的学生回家不肯读书，复习，针对这种问题，就要抓好学生的思想教育，并使这一工作惯彻到对学生的学习指导中去，还要做好对学生学习的辅导和帮助工作，尤其在后进生的转化上，对后进生努力做到从友善开始，比如，握握他的手，摸摸他的头，或帮助整理衣服。从赞美着手，所有的人都渴望得到别人的理解和尊重，所以，和差生交谈时，对他的处境、想法表示深刻的理解和尊重。
英语语言学词汇汇总
现代语言学术语总结 A abbreviation缩写法 acculturation语言文化移入 acoustic phonetics声学语言学 acronym词首字母缩略词 address term称谓语 addresser发话人 addressee受话人 adjacency毗邻 Adjacency Condition毗邻条件 Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数 Affix词缀 Affixation加词缀法 Affricate塞擦音 Afroasiatic非亚语系 agreement rule一致关系规则 allophone音位变体 alveolar齿龈音 alveolus齿龈 angular gyrus角形脑回 antonymy反义现象 antonym反以词 apocope词尾音脱落 aphasia失语症 aphasic失语症患者 applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性 argument论元 articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项 aspiration送气 assimilation同化 approximation近似化 auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系 B Babbling咿呀学语 back-formation逆向构词法 back vowel后元音 Behaviorism行为主义 Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学
《英语词汇学教程》论文(中文版)
英语词汇学论文(中文版) 单词记忆法细谈 一，读音规则记忆法 它就是按照元音字母、元音字母组合、辅音字母及辅音字母组合在开音节和闭音节的读音规律记忆。例如：ea，ee，er，ir，ur，or分别能发［i：］［：］［：］等。还有些固定的字母组合，例如：ing发［i］，ly发［li］，ty发［ti］和各种前缀、后缀，例如：a-，re-，un-，dis-，im-；-ed，-ing，-ly，-er，-or，-ful，-y等都有其比较固定的发音。掌握了这些规则，记单 词时就不必一个字母一个字母地记忆了。 二.字母变化记忆法 英语单词中以某个单词为基础，加、减、换、调一个字母就成了另一个新单词。具体方法 如下： 1.前面加字母。例如：is/his，ear/near/hear，read/bread 2.后面加字母。例如：hear/heart，you/your，plane/planet 3.中间加字母。例如：though/through，tree/three，for/four 4.减字母。例如：she/he，close/lose，star/tstar 5.换字母。例如：book/look/cook，cake/lake/wake/make/take 6.调字母（即改变字母顺序）。例如：blow/bowl，sing/sign， from/form 三.联想记忆法
在日常生活中可以根据所处的环境，所见到、所摸到的事物，联想相关的英语单词。例如： 打球时联想到：ball，(play)basketball，(play)football，(play)volleyball，playground等等；吃饭时联想到：dining-room，(have)breakfast，(have)lunch，(have)supper等等；睡觉 时联想到：bed，bedroom，gotobed，sleep，gotosleep，fallasleep等等。如果长期坚持下支，效果就会很好。 四.归类记忆法 众所周知，单词本身、单词与单词之间都存在着或多或少的联系，英语词汇中 有许多单词有着其近义词、反义词、一词多义、一词多音、同音词或形音形似词等内 在或外在的联系。因此，记忆单词的主要方法是把单词之间存在的这种联系挖掘归纳 出来，通过对比、对照的方式把学过的单词从各个方面进行归类 1.按词的构造归类 按词跟、前缀、后缀、合成词归类，找出词与词最本质 的联系。这种联系不仅使新词记得快、记得牢、记得久，而 且也同时复习了大量的旧词。合成词，如： schoolbag,school-boy,classroom,football,blackboard,etc. 前缀后缀词，如：unhappy,unhealthy,unfriendly,unlucky,worker,writer,visitor,us
小学英语学科工作总结
小学英语学科工作总结 一、常规工作，扎实完成各项工作。 1.一学期教研员走遍全区30所学校，听课近200节，组织承办了两次市级研讨活动，12次区级研讨会和集备活动。研讨中以研读教材为重点，以“如何落实目标”为核心开展了一系列专题研讨活动，注重研讨实效性，以提高全区英语课堂教学效率。将跟踪联系学校作为本学年提高教学质量的一项重要措施，结合学校实际情况，多次参与、指导了宁二、燕儿岛、莱芜等学校的校本教研活动。组织区六年级总复习研讨，明确复习方向并邀请区七年级教师参与研讨，扎实落实初小衔接工作。 2.命题工作：本学期进行了各年级期中、期末命题、随机质检、毕业考试以及初一新生分班考试命题，均能做到确保质量，高效完成。 二、圆满完成教体局、教育研究指导中心的专题工作。 1.教师素养提升活动：举行了小学英语教师“教师素养提升”口语技能展示活动。并组织了全员教师素养测试，全区200余位小学在职英语教师参与了此次活动。掀起了全区小学英语教师大练基本功的热潮。 2.生活化素材搜集工作：给学校提供了案例的撰写模式，此模式与以往备课的不同点在于对课文的背景、教学内容、学情分析和设计理念等方面结合生活情境作了详尽的分析，在重点目标的落实中更加突出了设计意图，针对语言的拓展与运用进行相关的教学反思，案例
最后要求提供与学习内容有关的文化背景介绍，为今后的教学提供更为真实有效的素材。在案例征集活动中，各校教师积极参与，共有17所学校的教师上交了生活化案例54篇，针对这些案例结合下发的模板要求，教研员都分别给予了评价。 三、培训练兵，完善梯队建设，取得佳绩。 1.本年度组织、参加、承办了区、市、省各级优质课比赛，选拔出4位教师参加市级优质课比赛，4位老师全部通过市优质课理论测试，进入上课比赛，即均取得了市优质课一、二等奖的好成绩。 2.承办省小学英语优质课比赛。4月25日至30日，市教研室委托我区承办了省优质课比赛。比赛的筹备，包括场地的准备、选手的抽签程序、上课学生的组织、省领导及评委的作息、食宿等安排一直有条不紊。我区周到、细致、得体的组织工作给来自全省的评委及教师们留下深刻印象。市实验小学、嘉峪关学校严密、忙而不乱的组织工作以及学生们在课堂上积极踊跃的参与教学活动的状态，标准、流利的语音语调和用英语表达思想的表现，展现了良好的学习风貌，体现了我区较高的小学英语教学水平。 同时，我区两位选手参加了省小学英语优质课比赛。山东省小学英语优质课比赛每两年举行一次，是全省最高水平的教学大赛，选手均为各地、市英语优质课比赛中选拔出的最优秀的选手。本届比赛由青岛市教研室承办，赛场分别设在市实验小学和嘉峪关学校。来自全省的50名选手分两个场地，采用现场抽课、36小时备课后直接上课的形式参赛。我区两位选手以较高的专业素质、大方得体的教态、娴
(完整版)语言学组合与聚合总结
一、组合关系和和聚合关系的提出 组合关系和聚合关系是索绪尔提出来的现代语言学结构主义的一个重要原理。 组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。例如"学习外语"，"学习"与"外语"组合，形成述宾关系。 聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。例如"学习外语"，其中"学习"可以用"研究"替换。 语言的组合关系说明了语言结构的规则，语言的聚合关系说明了替换规则。 二、语音的组合与聚合关系 语音中的每一个音素（音位），它总是处在相邻的音素之间。通过音素组合关系的研究，建立起来音位。 例如：北京话有几个与[a]发音比较接近的元音，从音质角度看，它们是不同的音，它们分别为[a]、[ɑ]、[A]、[ε]。[a]只出现在i和n 的前面，如bai 、ai、ban、an等；[ɑ]只出现在u和ng的前面，如gao、yang、ao、gang等；[A]只出现在音节的最后，如jia、hua、ba 等；。根据这些组合规律我们就可以把它们归纳成为一个音位[a]。汉语拼音方案就是按音位设计的。
聚合关系是出现在一定组合中相同位置上的各语言成分所具有的类聚会同的关系。聚合关系是在对立互补原则的基础上建立的，我们把能够出现在一个音节开头的那个辅音归成一类，那就是声母。声母之间是聚合关系。如有的辅音只出现在i和ü前面，像j、q、x，我们把这三个辅音看作是一个小的类聚，它们在发音上有共同的特点称为舌面音。其他如舌尖前音、舌尖中音、舌尖后音、双唇音、舌根音等类聚。现代汉语中的辅音大部分有双向的聚合。我们可以看下面的z c s 、zh ch sh、j q x。 从可以看到，横向的三个辅音也分别是一种聚合，第一行是舌尖前音的聚合，第二行是舌尖后音的聚合，第三行是舌面音的聚合；同样纵向的三个音也是一种聚合，第一列的三个音是不送气塞擦音的聚合，第二列是送气塞擦音的聚合，第三列是擦音的聚合。 三、词（语素）的组合关系和聚合关系 语素是语言中最小的音义结合体，或者说是最小的语言单位。在语言中，语素不可再分，因为切分语素得到的是音素。语素和语素可组合成词语。 语素的组合和聚合不像语音那样有严整的规律。语素的组合有许多制约的因素。语素组合比较有规律的是一些虚语素，即词缀。如现代汉语中的“阿”总是和表人的语素组合在一起，构成“阿公、阿婆阿Q、阿姨”等。与此类似的还有，例如：子——矮子、才子、担子、胆子、桌子。
考研英语词汇复习笔记
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
自考英语词汇学复习大纲自己整理
11 C h a p t e r 1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 p ol ysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 semantic-loans 借义词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点
小学英语学科工作总结
小学英语学科工作总结 本学期是我担任小学三年级英语教学工作。根据小学英语教学的实际情况，踏着新一轮课程改革的浪潮，以活动为载体，扎实有效地开展了本学期的英语教学工作，在本学期的教学中，我严格遵循教学五环节，课前认真备课，做到既备教材，又备学生，因材施教，努力实施课堂改革，积极探索小学英语快乐课堂，小学阶段英语教学的目的是：激发学生学习英语的兴趣，培养学生学习英语的积极性，使他们树立学习英语的自信心，同时培养学生一定的语感和良好的语音、语调基础，为进一步学习打下基础。在英语课堂教学中，怎样创设良好的学习氛围、激发学生的兴趣是搞好小学英语教学的重要一环。结合本学期教学实践总结教学情况如下： 一、政治思想方面：我认真学习新的教育理论，及时更新教育理念，积极参加继续教育与校本培训。在学习的过程中自己也积累了不少经验，也了解到新的教育形式不允许我们在课堂上重复讲书，我们必须具有先进的教育观念，才能适应教育的发展。所以我不但注重集体的政治理论学习，还注意从书本中汲取营养，认真学习仔细体会新形势下怎样做一名好教师。 二、认真备课，以活动为载体，面向全体授课，师生共同发展。 教学中，备课是一个必不可少，十分重要的环节，备学生，又要备教法。备课不充分或者备得不好，会严重影响课堂气氛和积极性，曾有一位老同事说：“备课备不好，倒不如不上课，否则就是白费心机。”因此，每天我都花费大量的时间在备课之上，认认真真钻研教材和教法，不满意就不收工。虽然辛苦，但事实证明是值得的。学校方面，为了切实抓好课堂教学，本学期多次组织集团教师开展同课异构活动，教师利用定期的开课日，由集团统一安排时间。开课的这一天，所有英语教师都准时参加，而且集团的领导也参加这项活动，这些说明学校领导对英语这一学科的重视。上完课后，学校领导及各位教师共同评课，共同探讨如何上好英语课。每一次活动都能使各位教师学到新的东西，并激励着自己在平时的教学中认真认真实践，不断探索。
语言学心得
语义研究历史分期中的语文学时期 专业：英美文学学号：20140601012 姓名：任雪娇 自1897年法国学者Michael Breal(布雷尔，1832-1915)发表的《语义学探索》以来，语义学作为语言学的一门独立学科宣告成立。此后，哲学家、逻辑学家、社会学家、语言学家们就开始注意语义研究。那么，首先，什么是语义学呢？语义学又叫词义学，它是以词的内容为研究对象的学科，它的任务是研究词义的性质，词义的发展、演变以及词语词义之间的种种关系，并揭示词义的一般规律。 而我今天将要对语言学时期中的一个时期——传统语言学时期，也就是语文学时期的发展与演变做一个简要的梳理。 （一）语文学时期的四个阶段 在欧洲大陆，语文学时期指的是整个18世纪以前的语言研究。同时，在这一时期，语言学家及哲学家们对文学作品尤其是古希腊--罗马时代的文学作品也进行学术研究，这包括以文学文献为基础的文化研究。从历史上看，“语文学时期”是一个生机勃勃的历史时期，它包括一下几个阶段：古希腊罗马时期、中世纪、文艺复兴时期、现代时期的前夕。 古希腊罗马时期 首先，我们都知道欧洲语言学始于希腊。而古希腊罗马时期的语文学主要是在哲学框架内进行的，因此对语言的本质问题、词源问题、修辞问题以及语音、语法等问题都进行了认真的探讨和研究。在这一时期出现了多种语言学流派，例如：斯多葛学派、亚历山大学派等等。中世纪时期 语法是中世纪学术语言的基础，也是七艺（语法、雄辩术、修辞学、音乐、几何、算术、天文）之一。对于语言学历史来说，中世纪的后半期，也就是我们称为“经院哲学时期”具有很重要的意义。经院哲学非常重视语言学研究，进行了大量的研究工作。在它兴盛时期的研究成果很多，比如说思辨语法（思辨语法是语言学理论发展的一个明确而特殊的阶段，它受到当时基督信仰的加强，同时又反过来加强了基督信仰，它把人类知识所有的分支和学科都统一在它的体系里，是理性的主张与宗教的信仰可以在这一体系内和谐一致。） 文艺复兴时期 文艺复兴运动可以看作是一场发源于14世纪的意大利，然后向外扩展，特别是在欧洲向北扩展的运动。文艺复兴时期学术方面最重要的部分--从意大利开始的对古拉丁语和古希腊语的研究得到了恢复。文艺复兴时期的语法家中，最著名的是彼得罗·拉穆斯，他被称为现代结构主义的先驱。他积极提倡用人文主义方法教授古典语言，主张通过文学作品，而不是通过经院哲学的亚里士多德学说进行教学。 现代时期前夕 到18世纪，欧洲语言学发生了巨大的变化，语言起源问题在那时已不是“哪种语言最古老”或者“上帝用什么语言跟亚当说话”而是对语言最终发展为现代如此有力和灵活的交际系统所处的条件，以及所经过的发展阶段，进行带有更多人类学性质探讨。这一时期出现的威廉·冯·洪堡特就是至今也很著名的语言学家，他认为语言能力具有普遍性，还认为没种语言都是历史的产物，但作为思维和工具的模式，有些语言则比别的语言发达的多。 经验主义 语言学研究方法的不同源自哲学领域的思想纷争。理性主义和经验主义是哲学领域的量大思潮，多个世纪以来一直深深地影响着语言学研究方法。经验主义认为经验来自感官对外间事物的感觉，其带有唯物主义倾向，同时，经验主义也包含着神学唯心主义的因素。著名语言学家曾说过“面对语言的多样性和复杂性，经验主义学派强调各种语言的特殊变化，根据日
英语词汇学笔记--名词解释篇
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
《英语词汇学 》复习资料
《英语词汇学》复习资料1 Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks. Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words. 1.The 1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. 3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach. 4.“Mal-”in “maltreat”is a 4 prefix, while “inter-”in “interstate”is a 5 prefix. 5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English language of 6 endings, and a language of 7 endings. 6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. 7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, and the later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning. 8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or 12 . 9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation. 10.14 is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. 11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it. 12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same 16 meaning，but differ in 17 meaning. 13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components which are also known as semantic features.. 14.Radiation and 19 are the two coinages which the development of word meaning follows from monosemy to polysemy. 15.20 deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true”and F for “false”. 1.Homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word
小学英语工作总结
小学英语工作总结 篇一：小学英语工作总结 时光荏苒如白驹过隙有时感觉它快得让人窒息。不知不觉一个学期即将画上句号，又该提笔写上“本学期的教学工作总结”了。 本学期我在小学六年级英语教学工作中自始至终以认真、严谨的治学态度，勤恳、坚持不懈的精神从事教学工作。不知不觉我在英语教育的岗位上已经7个年头了。我深刻地体会到了做一名英语老师的艰辛和快乐我喜欢孩子，喜欢每一个学生，但不是所有的时候喜欢所有的学生。我热爱工作，但不是所有的时候热爱所有的工作。当一天的老师是容易的，但是每天都当好老师是难的。想起书中的话语：做最好的老师，首先要做最好的自己，做最好的自我。“做最好的老师”是一种平和的心态，也是一种激情的行动；是平凡的细节，也是辉煌的人生。我平时在教学过程中，会根据学生的特点采取不同的教学方法，取得了一点成绩。下面就以下几个方面进行总结 一，激发学生学习兴趣。 英语是一门外语，对学生而言，既生疏又困难，尤其是在流动性比较大的民办学校，要教好英语，就要让学生喜爱英语，让他们对英语产生兴趣。因此，我经常结合所教的
内容，讲一些日常生活的事例，或浅而易懂的故事，这样既能扩大学生的视野，又能集中学生精神，使他们觉得课堂气氛不那么单调、枯燥。同时兴趣来自这个年龄段孩子的好奇心，勇敢来自于希望和鼓励。没有赏识，没有成功，也人教版新目标初二下英语同步辅导（一）初中二年级下un...初中二年级下Un...2 就没有了自信，没有了希望。调动学生学习的积极性、主动性，提高课堂的教学质量，按时完成教学任务。 二，英语听、说、读、写方面的情况，英语是语言。一种需要让学生多读，多讲，多练的语言，所以，抓晨读是必要的，两两对话，四人一小组临时结合锻炼，利用身边的任何一次机会尽量提高学生的读，听能力。注重以学生为主体、教师为导的教学方法，充分调动学生的学习积极性。学生有疑难和不懂读的地方，我总是不厌其烦地讲解、分析、带读，力争让他们学了就懂，懂了会用。同时需要理论武装自己，需要不断为自己充电，利用课余时间学习一些教学理论，新课程标准，理念，有针对性地应用于教学活动当中，积极参加各种教研活动。 总之，我们不是最优秀的老师，但是我们可以做到孩子们最喜欢的老师。一个鼓励的眼神，一种肯定的体态语言，一次耐心的个别辅导，一句赞扬的话语都将成为一个受孩子