跨文化交际学1-3章笔记-(上外传播-谢丹)
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Why do we need to study intercultural communication?
Five trends of the modern world make IC inevitable (Five trends that make our world more interdependent):
1.Development of (communication and transportation) technology
Supersonic transports carry passengers from continent to continent in a matter of hours.
The internet, smart phones, and interactive cable TV systems etc. permit us instantaneously interchange information at
any time to most locations across our own country and around the world.
Thanks to these modern technologies common people are more connected than ever to the web of mediated intercultural
interactions.
2.Globalization of the economy
The progress of communication and transportation technologies has made markets more accessible and the world of business more globally inter-reliant in past decades. In face of economic globalization we have to reexamine our isolation and find
ways to deal with a wide variety of people from a broad range of cultural backgrounds. The search for mutually acceptable
guidelines for conducting economic exchange as trade barriers are lowered entails frequent IC.
3.Widespread population migrations
With the cultural interconnectedness that accompanies technological development comes the influence of cultural migration between nations. Conditions at home and abroad push or pull persons to leave their country to find peace, employment,
learning, or a new start. The quest for more productive interaction in international and domestic settings calls for the study of IC which investigates the dynamics of communication among persons of diverse national and ethnic origin.
4.Development of multiculturalism
With the influx of immigrants, the tributaries of different ethnicities, nations, genders, ages, tribes, and languages will flow
into the mainstream of the classroom and workplace. Cultural diversity, or multiculturalism, will become the norm, not the
exception. The field of IC will play a vital part in teaching new ways of interacting, in helping to negotiate multicultural
understandings, in dealing with the frictions that accompany the adjustment to new cultural realities, and in educating
citizens to a greater global awareness.
5.De-emphasis of Nation-State
With the development of cultural diversity comes the conflict of national identity and ethno-cultural identity.
Only through the understanding of IC can people develop a global mind-set in the interdependent global village that is our
world today and live more harmoniously and productively with one another. ......
The chronological development of the field of IC (A short history of IC)
The Burgeoning Period
IC as a field began in the 1950s, burgeoning as a result of E. T. Hall's The Silent Language in which the term "IC" was introduced for the first time. Communication scholars recognize Edward T. Hall as the father of the field of IC study.
Leeds Hurwitz pointed out that the contributions of E. T. Hall to the study of IC are:
1.Hall extends the single-culture focus of traditional anthropology study to comparative culture study, with a new focus on the
interaction of people from different cultures.
2.Hall shifts the study of culture from a macro perspective to a micro analysis.
3.Hall extends the study of culture to the field of communication. His extension gradually changes the emphasis from the
qualitative methods of anthropology to the quantitative methods of communication research.
4.Hall treats communication as a rule-governed, analyzable, and learned variable, a practice that permits communication
researchers to theorize about cultural patterns of interaction.
5.Hall proposes that a holistic understanding of a counterpart's culture is not necessary to IC. Voice, gesture, time, and space
can be used respectively and simultaneously to understand another culture.
6.The training methods developed by Hall at the Foreign Service Institute are still applied to the IC training.
7.Hall's use of descriptive linguistics as the model of IC research at the Foreign Service Institute continues to be the cornerstone
of contemporary IC study. Current "etic" and "emic" research methods are derived from model.
""""
8.Hall not only applied IC training to foreign service officers but also introduced it to international study.
From 1960 to 1970
The 1960s was the period of conceptualization of the field by communication scholars.
From 1971 to 1980
The 1970s showed rapid development, reflected in the publication of numerous studies.
From 1981 to the Present Time
During the 1980s the field moved toward integration and a clearer identity. The 1990s, stressing diversification of methods and displaying increased concern with domestic co-cultures, has also witnessed efforts to redress historical and colonial imbalances.
8090
The content of IC study (Compare the core content of IC study, as proposed by Rich, Stewart, and Gudykunst) According to Rich (1974), IC is an ambiguous concept. The content of IC can be classified into five forms.
2.Second, international communication focuses on the study of interaction between representatives of different nations (such as
the interaction between representatives in the United Nations).
3.Third, interracial communication focuses on the study of interaction between members of numerically or politically dominant
culture and co-culture in the same nation (such as the interaction between whites and African Americans).
4.Fourth, interethnic or minority communication focuses on the study of interaction among co-cultures in the same nation (such as
the interaction between Hispanic and Japanese Americans).
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,stly, contra-cultural communication focuses on the study of the developmental process linking IC to interracial
communication (such as the developmental process that led from the interaction between Columbus and Native Americans
to the interaction between First Nation Tribes and Canadians).
Stewart pointed out in his Outline of Intercultural Communication (1978) that the study of IC should lead to application in real-life situations such as intercultural training programs that based on a comparative cultural model of cognition.
Gudykunst (1987) classified the contents of IC study by using interactive-comparative and mediated-interpersonal dimensions to divide the realm of the inquiry into four categories: //
1.Intercultural communication, (which focuses on the concepts of "interactive" and "interpersonal" and deals with interpersonal
communication between people from different cultures or co-cultures, such as that among Chinese and Americans, or
between whites and African Americans, and encompasses the areas of intercultural, interracial, and interethnic
communication identified by Rich.) -
2.Cross-cultural communication, (which focuses on the concepts of "comparative" and "interpersonal" and deals with the
differences in communication behaviors between people of different cultures, such as the differences in negotiation strategies between Chinese and Americans.) -
3.International communication, (which focuses on the concepts of "interactive" and "mediated" and mainly deals with media
communication in another countries, exploring, for example, the role media play in Korean society.) -
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,parative mass communication (which focuses on the concepts of "comparative" and "mediated" and deals with the
differences and similarities of media systems in different countries, as in China and Russia). -In forty years the field of IC has developed both theoretical and applied perspectives.
Theoretically, the study of IC focuses on more or less purposive interaction between people of different cultures and different racial and ethnic groups.
Practically, IC is applied in different kinds of intercultural and interethnic training programs to help people of different
backgrounds understand and accept each other in academic, business, government, and other settings.
The Ethical Principles of IC Study 10
Reciprocity, mutuality, nonjudgementalism, honesty, respect.
Rethink
Discuss the relationship between the technological superhighway and the study of IC.
WHY should methodological and cultural pluralism inform the study of IC?
Research Highlights
A Fifth Moment in Intercultural Communication: A Dialogue
Theorizing Culture and Communication in the Asian Context: An Assumptive Foundation
On Intercultural Rhetoric P11
Intercultural Communication: An Inquiry into Research Directions P14
Toward a Paradigm Shift for Intercultural Communication: New Research Direction
P18
Vocabulary of Research Highlights
interpretive, rhetoric, rhetor, paradigm, divisive, premise, clarify, proposition, externality, exigence, spell out, inherent, exploit, breed, erode, erosion, here and now, portrayal, exemplify, philosophical underpinning, self-reflexive critique, bias, prevalent, school of thought, pose researchable question, explicate, estrange, cleave, cleavage, impair, constrain, mythology, motif, ethos, reframe, discourse, asymmetry, consistent, discord, legitimate, multiplicity, ideology, denounce, authoritarian, heterogeneity
CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE
The relationship between Culture and Communication 07
Culture and communication act on each other. As the carrier of culture, communication influences the structure of a culture, and culture is necessarily manifested in our communication patterns by teaching us how we should talk and behave.
Communication 07
1.Definition of Communication
Communication is defined as an inter-determining process in which we develop a mutually dependent relationship by
exchanging symbols. Through the participation in this symbol-exchanging process we begin to establish a world of
"communicational reality" (Thayer, 1987), which assists us to learn a particular way of coding the world and to form a
community in which we organize ourselves socially and culturally.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,munication has four characteristics:
1.First, communication is a holistic phenomenon.
Communication is its self a network of relations that gives interactants an identity by granting them unique qualities or
characteristics. Thus, in communication the interactants cannot be understood unless we understand their network of
relations, and we cannot understand their network of relations unless we understand the interactants (Chen, 1987).
verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Thus, in different contexts the same message can be interpreted in different ways. (e.g.
The statement, "You are lovely", could be interpreted as a "compliment" or a "caring" gesture. However, if the statement were uttered by an employer to a newly hired employee, it might be interpreted as an inappropriate message or as sexual harassment.)
3.Third, communication is a developmental process.
This process implies that the content and social realities communication creates evolve and change over time.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,stly, communication is an orderly process.
Human communication behaviors are orderly and patterned rather than unpredictable and chaotic. The consensus of shared meanings and action of communicators through the use of symbols consistently follows a set of rules of
interaction which promote the achievement of personal and collective goals in communication process.
Culture 07
Definition of Culture
Culture is defined as a negotiated set of shared symbolic systems that guide individuals' behaviors and incline them to function as a group.
Culture serves two major functions:
1.First, it provides a context in which three aspects of human society are embedded: linguistic, physical, psychological.
Language allows us to communicate with people who have similar value and belief systems.
Physical aspects supply an environment of activities and permit what we do within the culture.
The psychological aspect is related to our mental activities, including what we believe and what we have learned.
2.Second, it functions to provide the structure, stability, and security that are required for the group and its members to
maintain themselves as a healthy system.
e.g. According to traditional Chinese custom, marriage of young people had to be arranged by their parents. A payment
made by the groom's family to the family of the bride would be made when the couple married. Dowry, including money, jewelry, or other gifts, from the bride's family usually accompanied the bride. Such structural matching process for the young people in traditional Chinese society clearly reflects the functions of culture, and maintained the stability of the Chinese society for many hundred years as well as ensured the financial security of the female family after a daughter moved out to stay with the other family.
Culture has four basic characteristics including:
1.First, culture is holistic.
As a holistic system, culture can be broken down into several subsystems, including a kinship system, an educational system, a religious system, an association system, a political system, and so on. But any change in a subsystem will affect the whole system. (e.g. The American Civil Rights Movement brought about changes in different facets of American
culture and altered American attitudes, values, and behaviors.)
2.Second, culture is learned.
Because culture is a shared symbolic system within a relatively large group of people, the only way for group members to integrate into, reinforce, and co-create this shared symbolic system is through a learning process, which will inevitably foster a phenomenon called ethnocentrism that leads group members to tie themselves tightly together and to be proud of their own heritages by subjectively using their cultural standards as criteria for interpretations and judgments in IC.
3.Third, culture is dynamic.
Cultures are constantly changing over time. Some cultures are more open and accepting of change, while others tend to resist it. Cultures change in the process of transmission from generation to generation, group to group, and place to place.
Four major mechanisms account for the change of cultures:
i.Technological invention (such as the discovery of communication and transportation tools normally elicits a different
set of social habits and behaviors that eventually alter the pattern of a culture),
ii.Disasters (including natural and human calamities. e.g. the American Civil War and China's Opium War brought great social and cultural changes to both societies. Likewise, the vanishing of the city of Pompeii in Italy was due to
the eruption of the Vesuvius volcano),
iii.Cultural contact (that gives each culture a chance to borrow things from other cultures. e.g. Italian pizzas and Chinese egg rolls have become staple dishes in America, while American fast foods and pop culture have greatly
changed the way Asian people live),
iv.Environmental factors (e.g. the result of increasing population of cities is that an industrial lifestyle has replaced the traditional agricultural living pattern. The change completely alters the way people initiate, maintain, and terminate
interpersonal relationships).
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,stly, culture is pervasive.
Culture penetrates into every aspect of our life and influences the way we think, the way we talk, and the way we behave.
Culture combines visible and invisible things around us.
IC 11
Definition of IC 07
IC is communication among people from two or more cultures. Because we are destined to carry our cultural baggage whenever and wherever we go, when people of different cultural backgrounds meet, communication is often more
complicated. The potential for miscommunication and disagreement is great because of cultural differences. Thus the study of IC aims to understand the influence of culture on our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors in order to reduce
misunderstandings that result from cultural variations.
1.The positive feeling we possess at the affective level (including affirmation, self-esteem, comfort, trust, and safety);
2.The beliefs we bring to the intercultural encounter at the cognitive level (including expectations, stereotypes,
uncertainties, and misunderstanding of rules or procedures);
3.And the behavioral skills we possess at the behavioral level (including verbal and nonverbal communication skills in
intercultural settings).
According to Guan (1995), three potential forms of IC can take place, based on the interactants' intentions:
i.Self-centered dialogue
The self-centered IC takes the form of ethnocentrism. In this form of IC A and B completely use their own cultural standards to judge and interact with each other. The outcomes of this type of IC always lead to misunderstandings. HOW
to solve the problem of ethnocentrism? (Research Highlight P44)
A main reason for this kind of problem is the lack of cultural understanding between A and B.
ii.Dominant dialogue
A is well aware of B's cultural traits and differences, and uses this advantage to control
B to achieve his or her
personal goals.
This problem may happen at the interpersonal or international communication level (e.g. by the colonization and cultural imperialism imposed by Western cultures on the remaining nations in contemporary times. Further, within a
single nation, patterns of gender and ethnic domination may proliferate).
iii.Equal dialogue
Equal dialogue represents an ideal form of IC. This type of IC is based on mutual understanding of cultural similarities
and differences. Both parties make sincere and empathic efforts to overcome their differences on an equal basis.
Give an example of each form of IC illustrated above.
Rethink
HOW does the perception of communication due to cultural differences affect IC?
Research Highlights
Stumbling Blocks on Intercultural Communication
Culture and Conflict
On Communication: Essays in Understanding P22
Chinese Philosophy and Contemporary Human Communication Theory P23 Vocabulary of Research Highlights
syndrome, stumbling blocks, collectivism, aesthetics, metaphor, provision, provisional, vitalize, episteme, epistemic, schema, dispense, dispensable, indispensable, ration, rational, assess, identical, insightful, incept, inceptive, anticipate, underscore,
incorporation, emancipate, embody, pragmatic, polarity
Mini Case
IC P29
CHAPTER 3 CULTURAL PERCEPTION AND V ALUES
Perception
Definition of Perception
Perception is an active process by which we make what we sense into a meaningful experience by selecting, categorizing, and interpreting internal and external stimuli to form our view of world. (Internal stimuli include our nervous system, desires, and motivations. External stimuli are the sensations that come from the way we see, smell, touch, hear, and taste.)
The process of perception includes three stages:
1.Selection
As we face a large variety of stimuli every day, we are only capable of perceiving part of them through a selective process.
The partiality of our perception is the origin of misunderstanding in interactions, especially when people are from different
cultural backgrounds with diverse perception systems.
Selective perceptions involve three steps (Klopf, 1995):
i.Selective exposure
First, we usually selectively expose ourselves to certain kinds of information that will reinforce the decision we are
making. (e.g. When we plan to buy a car, we naturally expose ourselves to the automobile section when we open the
morning newspaper.)
ii.Selective attention
Second, selective attention dictates that we can only pay attention to one piece of our environment. (e.g. As students, if
we are worried about our grade and an exam, we will be inclined to read those materials relating to the subject area that
will be tested in class.)
Selective exposure and attention are influenced by our needs, training, expectations, and attitudes.
iii.Selective retention
Third, because of selective retention, we can only retain some of the stimuli we perceive. Basically, we tent to remember
messages that are pleasant and favorable to our own image; that are consistent with our beliefs, attitudes, and values;
and that are likely to be used in the future.
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,anization (Categorization)
Two characteristics of human perception emerge at this stage:
i.First, the categorization process gives human perception structure. We always translate the raw stimuli of the external
world into structured experience.
ii.Second, the process shows that human perception is stable. After we organize the stimuli into patterns they become durable. (e.g. The height of a person will not shrink because of variation in distance.)
3.Interpretation
Once we selectively organize our perceptions into structured and stable patterns, we try to make sense of the patterns by assigning meaning to them.
The interpretation process plays a very important role in intercultural interactions. (e.g. A kiss in the public may just
represent a way of saying hello in the West, but viewed as "lovemaking" in the Middle East.)
Interpretation is the third characteristic of human perception. That is, human perception possesses meanings.
It is important to note that although we treat the three stages of perception separately, in reality they are an integrated process with no clear boundary between them.
Four factors influence human perception:
1.Physiological factors
Physiological factors include taste, odor, hearing, vision, age, physical appearance, health, and physical cycle.
2.Social roles
Social roles include sex role and occupational role.
3.Self-concept
Self-concept is subjective, but often inaccurate. Self-esteem is the key component of self-concept.
4.Culture
A person's culture has a strong impact on the perception process. HOW culture influences perception?
1.Culture not only provides the foundation for the meanings we assign to our perceptions, it also determines how we
choose to expose ourselves to and direct our attention toward specific kinds of messages and events.
(e.g. The perceived meanings of different colors show the influence of culture. To the Americans, red represents anger,
hot, and sexual impurity; while to the Chinese red represents a color of longevity, splendor, and wealth. Green is a holy color to Muslims but means adultery to the Chinese.)
2.The influence of culture on perception is often reflected in the attributional process.
Attribution means that we interpret the meaning of others' behaviors based on our past experience or history. Cultu re provides an environment that allows us to develop all the meanings we possess. Thus, people from different cultures will perceive and interpret others' behaviors in different ways. (e.g. The Chinese and Japanese, as opposed to Americans, tend to attribute success to group action rather than individual effort.)
The different attributional process may cause serious misunderstandings in communication. To avoid such kind of
misunderstanding we must try to make an "isomorphic attribution" that requires us better understand the other's culture and put ourselves to another's shoes in the process of interaction (Harris & Moran, 1989).
The subjective nature of the perceptual framework arising from our culture indicates that our perception is often partial and inaccurate. The insufficiency manifests as stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. When cognitions (stereotypes) are assigned values (prejudice), we may enact biased action (e.g. discrimination).
Stereotype (belief)
Definition of Stereotype
Stereotypes are those over-generalized, exaggerated, and oversimplified beliefs we use to categorize a group of people (Allport, 1958). Stereotypes may be based on the truth, but they are exaggerated statements regarding our belief about what a group of people are or should be.
Stereotypes are related to human belief system. There are three kinds of beliefs:
1.Experiential beliefs,
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,rmational beliefs,
3.Inferential beliefs.
Three reasons lead to the distortion of facts by stereotypes:
1.Accentuation of differences,
2.Underestimation of differences,
3.Selective perception.
We form stereotypes in three ways:
1.First, we may categorize people or things by the most obvious characteristics they possess. (e.g. Japanese think
Americans are wasteful in utilizing space.)
2.Second, we may apply a set of characteristics to a whole group of people. (e.g. Asians are always associated with the
sciences and math by Americans.)
3.Third, we may give the same treatment to each member of the group. (e.g. A pervasive stereotype in the United States
is that ours is a white, English-speaking culture.)
Stereotypes may vary along four dimensions:
might say Americans are friendly but lacking discipline as well.)
2.Intensity
The intensity of stereotypes indicates the strength of a belief about a group of people. (e.g. "African Americans are
very musical" is an example of intense stereotype.)
3.Accuracy
Although stereotypes are exaggerated and over-generalized beliefs, they are not always fault. Some of them may be
half-truths, and others may be partially inaccurate.
4.Content
Stereotypes may vary in their specific content, for example, in the specific traits attributed to a group of people. (e.g.
Some African Americans may view white Americans according to a range of traits: aggressive, biased, cold, or
evasive.)
Prejudice (attitude)
Definition of Prejudice
Stereotypes naturally develop from a set of oversimplified and over-generalized beliefs into a rigid attitude toward a
group of people. Such an attitude based on erroneous beliefs or preconceptions is called prejudice.
Stereotypes and prejudice often occur together. In other words, when we hold stereotypes, for example, about Italians,
we also tend to have prejudice toward them.
Prejudice is a learned tendency by which we respond to a given group of people or event in a consistent (usually negative) way.
Prejudice especially varies along the dimension of intensity. Five common types (forms) of prejudice differ in intensity:
1.Verbal abuse (Antilocution)
Verbal abuse is often accompanied by ethnic jokes and name-labeling. (e.g. "Dead Indians are good Indians.")
2.Physical avoidance
Physical avoidance occurs when we dislike a group of people. Because of different religious beliefs, language systems,
and behavioral patterns, we may intentionally avoid making friends, going out, studying, or working with certain
people. (e.g. Some Irish Catholics and Protestants have been outcast for dating one another.)
3.Discrimination (behavior)
Discrimination refers to the denial of equal opportunities to out-group members. Discrimination is the acting out of
prejudicial attitudes. (e.g. When the British posted the sign "Dos and the Chinese can't enter" at the front gate of the
Chinese park in the colonial area, they performed discrimination.)
4.Physical attack
As the degree of discrimination intensifies, physically punishing the group of people who are disliked becomes
inevitable. (e.g. African Americans in New York City tried to drive Korean merchants from black neighborhoods by
means of intimidation.)
5.Massacre (Extermination/Mass killing/Genocide)
The worst result of prejudice is massacre. (e.g. The Nazis killed millions of Jewish during the World War 2.) Origins and Impact of Stereotypes and Prejudice
The origins
Stereotypes and prejudice do not suddenly appear when we are born. They are gradually developed from the process of
learning and socialization, and from exposure to mass media images.
As children, we learn stereotypes from our parents and friends.
As we grow up, we learn them from our schools, churches, friends, and significant others.
We also develop stereotypes from our personal experiences, especially through the interactions with people who had
visible and distinct traits such as impairment, physical appearance, and skin color.
Mass media also play an important role in the development of stereotypes and prejudice.
The impact
Because stereotypes and prejudice are based on our belief and attitude systems, they affect the way we communicate in
intercultural encounters.
They may prevent us from interacting with people of different backgrounds.
They tend to produce negative feelings during the interactions.
And they can lead to unnecessary conflicts when they are intense.
To solve the problems of stereotypes and prejudice the most important communication skill we should learn is empathy.
HOW to be an empathetic person?
Empathetic persons know how to show understanding by projecting themselves into their partners' position. This means that to be empathetic in intercultural interactions we need to be open-minded in terms of information sharings, to be imaginative in correctly drawing the picture of other's situation, and to show a commitment or culturally different patterns in any kind of situation.
Values
Definition of Value
A value can be defined as a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the
desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action (Kluckhohn, 1951). Values are guiding forces of human behavior and relate much with the way we communicate.
Sitaram and Haapanen (1979) summarized the relationship between values and human communication as follows:
1.First, values are communicated, both explicitly and implicitly, through symbolic behavior. Values are normally expressed
through verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
i.Verbal expressions are used to highlight the importance of specific values to individuals or groups. (e.g. Proverbs
demonstrate how verbal expressions are used to underscore values.)
ii.Nonverbally, we tend to communicate our values through social rituals. (e.g. The custom of exchanging gifts in China and Japan reflects the cultural values of reciprocity, generosity, and friendship.)
2.Second, the way in which people communicate is influenced by the value they hold. Because values determine what is
desirable and what is undesirable, they dictate the way we choose to act in the process of communication. (e.g. Harmony is a key Chinese cultural value leads the Chinese to avoid saying "no", to speak admiringly and respectfully of others, and to avoid expressing aggressive behaviors in social interactions.)
In other words, the values we hold influence our preference in selecting communication channels and sources that symbolize our value system. Thus, the relationship that exists between communication and values is both mutual and reciprocal.
Cultural Value Orientations
Definition of Value Orientations
Culture value orientation is the concept used to study the relationship between cultural values and communications
behaviors systematically. Value orientations are the means society uses to solve the universal problems of daily life
(Kluckhohn and Strodbeck, 1961). The concept implies four assumptions:
1.First, all human society will face the same problems.
2.Second, they use different means to solve universal problems.
3.Third, the means to address universal problems are limited.
4.Fourth, value orientations are behaviorably observable through empirical study (Condon & Yousef, 1975).
Models for the Study of Cultural Value Orientations (Compare and contrast the models of cultural value orientations developed by Kluckhohn and Strodbeck, Condon and Yousef, Hall, and Hofstede.)
The limitation of the models used for the study of cultural value orientations (They are neither exhaustive nor perfect, and each model has its strength and weakness. The cultural value orientations specified by Kluckhohn and
Strodbeck and by Condon and Yousef are meaningful only in combination. A change in any category influences the other categories.)
Kluckhohn and Strodbeck's Model
Kluckhohn and Strodbeck (1961) were pioneers in the study of cultural value orientations. They singled out five universal problems faced by all human societies and the cultural value orientations they represent, and three possible variations of the solution for each of them:
1.What is the character of innate human nature? (the human nature orientation: evil, mixture of good and evil, and
good)
2.What is the relationship of people to nature (the super-nature)? (the man-nature orientation: subjugation to
nature, harmony with nature, and mastery over nature)
3.What is the temporal focus of human life? (the time orientation: past, present, and future)
4.What is the modality of human activity? (the activity orientation: being, being-in-becoming, and doing)
-
5.What is the modality of a person's relationship to other persons? (the relational orientation: lineality, collaternity,
and individualism)
Kluckhohn and Strodbeck's model serves as a classic model which is taken as the foundation of the study of cultural
value orientations by later scholars. Though it is precise and heuristic, the five categories of value orientations are far
too simple to describe complex human society.
Condon and Yousef's Model
Condon and Yousef (1975) revised and extended Kluckhohn and Strodbeck's five categories to include six spheres of
universal problems all human societies must face: the self, the family, society, human nature, nature, and the
supernatural. The six spheres intersect each other and are interdependent. Under each sphere the authors added
three to five orientations with three variations of the solution for each one.
Condon and Yousef's model makes an effort to refine Kluckhohn and Strodbeck's model, but the huge list of cultural
value orientations makes it impossible for any communication scholar to completely monitor each item in the space
of a lifetime.
Hall's Cultural Context Model
Hall (1976) divided cultural differences into two categories: low-context culture and high-context culture. In low-
context communication, the listener knows very little and must be told practically everything. (e.g. Germany, those in Scandinavia, Switzerland, and the United States ,orient mainly to the low-context culture.) In high-context
communication the listener is already "contexted" and does not need to be given much background information. (e.g.
China, England, France, Japan, and Korea orient to the high-context culture.)
Hall's model has been a major influence on the study of IC. Nevertheless, the dichotomous classification of high-
context and low-context cultures not only oversimplifies the complex nature of culture but also misleads students of
cultures. The similarities found between the two groups indicate that people of different cultures may share similar
values. All variations of cultural values may exist in any one society.
Schwartz
Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions
Hofstede (1980, 1983, 1984) compared work-related attitudes across over forty different cultures and found four
consistent dimensions of cultural values:
1.Individualism/collectivism /
The dimension of individualism and collectivism describes the relationship between the individual and the
group to which the person belongs.
i.Individualistic cultures stress the self and personal achievement. The individual in an individualistic culture
is treated as the most important element in any social setting. Personal goals super-cede group goals, and
competition is often encouraged in this culture.
ii.By contrast, collectivistic cultures are characterized by a more rigid social framework in which self-concept plays a less significant role in social interactions. Ingroup and outgroup members are clearly distinguished,
and only ingroup views and needs are emphasized. The social networks are much more fixed and less reliant
on individual initiative (Anderson, 1994).
2.Power distance
The dimension of power distance specifies to what extent a culture adapts to inequalities of power distribution in
relationships and organizations.
i.High-power-distance cultures tend to orient to authoritarianism, which dictates a hierarchical or vertical
structure of social relationships. In these cultures people are assumed to be unequal and complementary in
social interactions. The differences of age, sex, generation, and status are usually maximized. Thus, people in
high-power-distance cultures develop relationships with others based on various levels of hierarchy.
ii.Low-power-distance cultures are more horizontal in terms of social relationships. People in these cultures tend to minimize differences of age, sex, status, and roles. Instead, individual differences are encouraged.
Thus, they tend to be less formal and more direct in social interactions.
3.Uncertainty avoidance
The dimension of uncertainty avoidance measures the extent to which a culture can accept ambiguous situations
and tolerate uncertainty about the future.
i.Members of high-uncertainty-avoidance cultures always try to reduce the level of ambiguity and uncertainty
in social and organizational life. They pursue job and life security, avoid risk taking, resist changes, fear
failure, and seek behavioral rules that can be followed in interactions. As a result, high-uncertainty-avoidance
cultures tend to use fewer oral cues and are more able to predict others' behaviors.
ii.Low-uncertainty-avoidance cultures are oriented to cope with the stress and anxiety caused by ambiguous and uncertain situations. Members of these low-uncertainty-avoidance cultures tend to better tolerate the
deviant behaviors and unusual stress connected with the uncertainty and ambiguity. As a result, they take
more initiative, show greater flexibility, and feel more relaxed in interactions.
4.Masculinity/femininity /
The dimension of masculinity and femininity refers to the extent to which stereotypically masculine and feminine
traits prevail in the culture.
i.In masculine cultures men are expected to be dominant in the society and to show quality of ambition,
assertiveness, achievement, strength, competitiveness. In male-dominated cultures women are expected to
play the nurturing role.
ii.Members of feminine cultures tend to emphasize the quality of affection, compassion, emotion, nurturing, and sensitivity. Men in these cultures are not expected to be assertive. Thus, gender roles are more equal and
people are more capable of reading nonverbal cues and tolerating ambiguous situations.
Hofstede's model is especially applicable to the understanding of cultural values in social and organizational settings.
The weaknesses of the model are threefold:
1.Because the questionnaire respondents were middle managers in multinational companies, the dimensions
Hofstede identified are work-related values.
2.Among the four dimensions only individualism/collectivism has been widely studied and validated. However,
research has documented that some persons in individualistic societies are collectively oriented, and the reverse
is true as well. The other three dimensions have yet to be validated. "/"
3.The concepts of nation and culture are not clearly differentiated (Mead, 1990; Samovar & Porter, 1995).
Discuss how cultural value orientations affect human communication.
Research Highlights
The Challenge of Diversity in Global Organizations
Managerial Attitudes Toward Decision Making: North America and Japan
Chinese Conflict Management and Resolution: Overview and Implications
Cultural Assumptions of East and West: Japan and the United States P37
The Role of Values in IC P44
Vocabulary of Research Highlights
respect to, tentative, confrontational, rigidity, coherent, elicit, seniority, ambiguity, potent, consensus, spontaneous, rigid adherence, clinical experimentation, hierarchical, banquet
Mini Case
P36
P66
Suki
Jane Suki Suki
P45
Chapter 4
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It consists of five areas of study: Morphology, Phonology, Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics. Semantics and pragmatics directly affect the process of IC.
Human language has four characteristics: (1)It's symbolic; (2)It's rule-governed; (3)It's subjective; (4)It often shows change and variation. Language is a bridge people can use to learn or understand cultural values, and it's necessary to comprehend cultural values to acquire the language used to portray them. In other words, to be competent in IC we need to be aware of both the cultural values and the language expressions of our cultural counterparts.
Chapter 5
Verbal and nonverbal communication form the two main contexts of human communication.
Nonverbal communication is different from verbal communication in five respects:
1. It's not consciously controllable
2. It can indicate multiple events simultaneously
3. It can be used as an intercultural or international language
4. It's learned earlier in our life.
5. It's more emotional in expression
Five functions of nonverbal communication: repetition, replacement, emphasis, contradiction, regulation.
Characteristics of nonverbal communication: Nonverbal communication is less systemized and more culturally bound, and its meanings are always ambiguous.
1. Kinesics is the study of body movements such as facial expressions, eye contact, hand gestures, and touch.
2. Proxemics is the study of how human beings and animals use space in communication.
3. Paralanguage refers to how we use voice dimensions: voice quality, vocal characterizers, vocal qualifiers, and vocal segregates.
4. Chronemics is the study of how we perceive the concept of time and how that affects our communication.
Nonverbal communication and culture are closely interrelated in two ways:
First, our nonverbal behaviors are dictated by our culture;
Second, culture determines when it's appropriate time for us to display nonverbal behaviors.
We can improve our intercultural skills in nonverbal communication by following Ricard's five-step model for the development of nonverbal skills:
1. Assess our learning needs
2. Observe similar situations
3. Use appropriate resources
4. Reach tentative conclusions
5. Reevaluate our conclusions as necessary.
Chapter 6
We develop relationships to meet the social needs of inclusion, control, and affection.
Human relationship has five characteristics:
1. It's dynamic
2. It's hierarchical
3. It's reciprocal
4. It's unique
5. It's interdependent and irreplaceable
Theories of relationship development:
1. Social Exchange Theory: Social interaction relationship initiates after measuring the difference between reward and costs.
2. Social Penetration Theory: The development of human relationships is determined by the information we disclose to our partner.
3. Uncertainty Reduction Theory: This theory posits that interpersonal relationships develop and progress when we are able to reduce
4. Communication Accommodation Theory: It combines propositions from speech accommodation theory and ethno-linguistic identity theory to examine the communicative moves interactants make in social and psychological contexts and how it's related to pers onal characteristics.
Yum's five categories of relationship are used to illustrate the impact of cultural variability on relationship development. The five categories are particularism/universalism, long-term/short-term, in-group/out-group, formal/informal, and personal/public relationships. The influence of cultural value differences are also discussed from the following perspectives: verbal/nonverbal differences, background and attitude information, and the degree of self-disclosure.
Third-Culture-Building: five phases of third-culture building are explicated: intrapersonal intracultural communication, interpersonal IC, rhetorical IC, metacultural communication, and intracultural communication.
Chapter 7
Conflicts are inevitable in the process of IC. To have unpleasant feelings during conflict is universal. Conflicts can be considered as several levels: intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal conflict, intergroup conflict, and inter-organizational conflict.
The impact of culture on conflict and conflict management are discussed from three perspectives: 1. Thinking patterns; 2. Language barriers; 3. Cultural context.
The factors that affect our reactions and decisions in a conflict situation are delineated: face, interrelation, favor, seniority, status, power, credibility, interest, severity of the conflict, and gender.
Two methods for the effective management of intercultural conflicts are suggested.
The first method is based on Harris and Moran's model of conflict management, which includes five steps: 1.Describe the confl ict in a way understood in both cultures; 2,Analyze the conflict from both cultural perspectives; 3.Identify the basis for the conflict from two culural viewpoints; 4.Solve the conflict through synergistic strategies; 5.Determine if the solution is working interculturally.
The second method is based on Ting-Toomey's suggestions for handling c onflicts in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
Chapter 8
Increasing contact among people from different cultures around the global demands understanding of the process of intercultural adaptation. Intercultural adaptation refers broadly to the process of increasing our level of fitness to meet the demands of a new cultural environment. It deals with how sojourners or new immigrants experience the distress caused by mismatches or incompatibility between the host culture and the culture of birth. In other words, intercultural adaptation is a process of dealing with maladjustment within a host culture.
What's Culture shock?
from the processing of stressful situations, especially attempts to establish and maintain a relationship with those of the host culture.
Six aspects of Culture shock:
1. A feeling of strain that comes from our attempts at psychological adjustments
2. A feeling of loss regarding friends and family, social status, and possessions
3. A feeling of being rejected by or rejecting the host nationals
4. A feeling of confusion in beliefs, values, and role expectations
5. A generalized feeling of anxiety, disgust, or surprise in the face of cultural differences
6. A feeling of importance for being unable to cope with aspects of the new environment.
Forms of culture shock:
Language shock, role shock, transition shock, culture shock, culture fatigue, education shock, adjustment stress, and culture distance.
Symptoms of culture shock:
Depression, helplessness, hostility to the host country, feelings of anxiety, over-identification with our home country, feelings of withdrawal, homesickness, loneliness, paranoid feelings, preoccupation with cleanliness, irritability, confusion, disorientation, isolation, tension, need to establish continuity, defensiveness, intolerance of ambiguity, and impatience.
Positive effects of culture shock:
1. It provides a learning opportunity that demands new responses from sojourners in coping with a constantly changing environment.
2. It can create an environment and serve as a motivational force for us to move to new levels of self-actualization.
3. It can give sojourners a welcome sense of challenge and achievement as a result of dealing with people from very different backgrounds.
4. The amount of learning increases when the level of personal anxiety is aroused to a certain degree.
5. The experience from culture shock produces new ideas
6. This practice helps us to deal with cultures that we have not yet experienced.
Negative effects of culture shock:
1. Affectively, culture shock constitutes an imbalancing experience
2. Cognitively and perceptually, a set of desirable or proper behaviors in one culture might be considered strange in another.
U-curve pattern of intercultural adaptation is comprised of four stages: 1.Honeymoon period; 2.Crisis period; 3.Adjustment period;
4.Biculturalism period.
W-curve pattern is also used to explicate the reentry adaptation process.
A dialectical model:
1. Intercultural adaptation is a motivated, goal-oriented process
2.The intercultural adaptation and learning processes are reciprocal and interdependent
3.Intercultural adaptation implies a stranger-host relationship
4,Intercultural adaptation is a cyclical, continuous, and interactive process
5.Intercultural adaptation is ongoing
6.Intercultural adaptation implies personal development.
A transformative learning model: It consists of three dimensions: the precondition to change, the process, and the outcome.
Chapter 10
Intercultural understanding is absolutely vital for people to lead harmonious and meaningful lives together in a culturally pluralistic world.
Four strategies of diversity management for organizations:
1.Managing and rewarding performance based on the foundation of diversity
2.Matching people and jobs
3.Keeping employees informed and involved
4.Supporting diverse work styles and life needs.
Four significant issues regarding multicultural education are considered:
1.Exposure to multicultural perspectives
2.Maintaining cultural identity
3.Developing IC skills
4.Diversifying the curriculum
Seven stages of the process of multiculturalism:
1.Monoculturalism
2.Cross-cultural contact
3.Cultural conflict
5.Disequilibrium
6.Awareness
7.Multiculturalism
Intercultural sensitivity is a dynamic and a multidimensional concept describing individual's active desire to motivate thems elves to understand, appreciate, and accept differences among cultures.
The effective way to develop intercultural sensitivity is to take intercultural training process. It aims to develop an appreciation and understanding of cross-cultural differences and to some of the necessary abilities.
Components of Intercultural sensitivity: Ethno-relativism, respect for cultural differences, adaptability, perspective-taking, open-mindedness, and acknowledgment of other's needs.
Chapter 11
Only with mastery of IC competence can persons from different cultures communicate effectively and appropriately.
What's competence?
Competence is defined as an organization's capacity to interact effectively with its environment or as the acquired ability t o interact effectively.
Communication competence is comprised of two elements: effectiveness and appropriateness.
IC competence is defined as the ability to effectively and appropriately execute communication behaviors to elicit a desired response in a specific environment.
IC competence has four dimensions:
1.Personality attributes: Including self-concept, self-disclosure, self-awareness, social relaxation
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/604488921.html,munication skills: message skills, behavioral flexibility, interaction management, social skills
3.Psychological adjustment: it refers to the ability to acclimate to a new culture
4.Cultural awareness: refers to understanding the conventions of the host culture that affect how people think and behave.
Chapter 12
Goals of intercultural training: We must develop the ability to expand our worldview by increasing our understanding of culture and its impact on communication behaviors; enhance our ability to recognize and appreciate cultural similarities and differences; and further improve our skills of IC. Only through the process of intercultural training can we effectively achieve these goals.
Six training models: the classroom model, the simulation model, the self-awareness model, the cultural awareness model, the behavioral model, the interactional model.
Five common techniques used in the training models: role playing, case studies, critical incidents, cultural assimilators, simulations, examines the procedures used to evaluate intercultural training programs.
Chapter 13
Ethics can be defined as the science of judging human ends and the relationship of means to those ends, and the art of controlling means so that they will serve specially human ends.
Theories of Ethical study:
Universalism vs. Relativism, Objectivism vs. Subjectivism, Attitudinalism vs. Consequentialism, Deontologism vs. Teleologism.
Principles of ethical IC:
Mutuality, Nonjudgmentalism, Honesty, Respect.
Ethical rules for IC:
1.Promote voluntary participation in the interaction
2.Seek individual focus prior to cultural focus
3.Maintain the right to freedom from harm
4.Accept the right to privacy of thought and action
5.Avoid imposing personal biases
The discussion of the future of IC is divided into three parts.
1.Increasing or decreasing IC is discussed from domestic and international perspectives.
3.The future study of IC is explained from three perspectives: education, business, and research.
传播学概论复习笔记
传播学概论复习笔记 一、名词解释 1、什么就是传播:传播即就是社会信息得传递或社会信息系统得运行。 2、刻板成见: 人们持有得固定、简单化得观念印象,通常伴随着价值评价与好恶 感情。 3、拟态环境:指信息环境,它并不就是现实环境得“镜子”式得再现,而就是传播 媒介通过象征性时间或信息进行选择与加工,重新选择得结果。 4、传播情境概念:指得就是对特定得传播行为直接或间接影响得外部事物、条件 或因素得总称,它包括具体得传播活动(如二人对话)进行得场景,如什么时间、什么地点、有无她人在场等;在广义上,传播情境也包括传播行为得参与人所处得群体、组织、制度、规范、语言、文化等较大得环境。 5、群体规范:群体意识得核心内容。指得就是成员个人在群体活动中必须遵守得 规则,在广义上也包括群体价值,即群体成员关于就是非好坏得判断标准。 6、集合行为:在某种刺激条件下发生得非常态社会集合现象。 7、媒介接近权:媒介接近权即一般社会成员利用传播媒介阐述主张、发表言论以 及开展各种社会与文化活动得权利,同时,这项权利也赋予了传播应该向受众开放得义务与责任。媒介接近权得核心内容就是要求传媒必须向受众开放。 8、子弹论:传播媒介拥有不可抵抗得力量,它们所传递得信息在受传者身上就像 子弹击中躯体,药剂注入皮肤一样,可以引起直接速效得反应;它们能够左右人们得态度与意见甚至直接支配她们得行动。 9、传播流:所谓“传播流”指得就是由大众传媒发出得信息经过各种中间环节, “流”向传播对象得社会过程。传播流(研究三部曲有“拉扎斯菲尔德等人得《人们得选择》、卡兹等人得《个人影响》、罗杰斯得《创新与普及》、)以及克拉帕得《大众传播效果》。 10、休眠效果:低可信度信源发出得信息,由于信源可信度得负影响,其内容本 身得说服力不能得到立即发挥,而就是处于一种睡眠状态,经过一段时间这种负影响减弱或消失后,其效果才能充分表现出来。 11、意见领袖:在传播学中,活跃在人际传播网络中,经常为她人提供信息、观 点或意见并对她人施加个人影响得人物称为“意见领袖”。 12、信息社会:所谓信息社会,指得就是信息成为与物质与能源同等重要得甚 至比之更加重要得资源,整个社会得政治、经济与文化以信息为核心价值而得到发展得社会。 13、知沟假说:大众传播得信息传达活动无论对社会经济地位高者还就是低 者都会带来知识量得增加,但由于社会经济地位高得人获得信息与知识得速度大大快于后者,随着时间得推移,最终结果就是两者之间得“知沟”不断变宽,差距不断扩大。
跨文化交际与翻译
Intercultural communication and translation Intercultural communication mainly refers to the communication between the native speakers and non-native speakers, as well as the communication between people who differ in any aspect of language or culture background. Due to the differences in surroundings, societies and religions of different ethnic groups, each language community results in its own code of language, social culture, customs and practices and so on. Intercultural communication studies situations when people from different culture backgrounds interact. Aside from language, IC focuses on social attributes, thought patterns and the cultures of different groups of people. IC also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. There are three formats of IC: interracial communication (when source and receiver are different races), interethnic communication (situation in which the parties are of the same race but of different ethnic origins) and intracultural communication (communication between members of the same culture including racial, ethnic and other co-cultures). The term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the product (the text that has been translated) or the process (the act of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating). The process of translating between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original written text (the source text) in the original verbal language (the source language) into a written text (the target text) in a different verbal language (the target language). This type corresponds to “interlingual translation” and is one of the three Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper. Jakobson’s categories are: 1. Intralingual translation, or “rewording”– an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language; 2. Interlingual translation, or “translation proper”–an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language; 3. Intersemiotic translation, or “transmutation”– an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems. Intralingual translation would occur when we rephrase an expression or text in the same language to explain or clarify something we might have said or written. Intersemiotic translation would occur if a written text were translated, for example, into music, film or painting. It is interlingual translation which is the traditional, although by no means exclusive, focus of translation studies. It is easily seen that the three forms of intercultural communication and the three types of translation are partly corresponding to each other, especially interracial communication and interlingual translation which both attach attention on the communication between native and non-native, and where different cultures of different countries play more important role. To conduct effective intercultural communication, one has to understand the differences between the different nations and then to look for them and pay attention to in every cross-cultural communication situation. By doing this, the high-context communicators can learn to use and respond words, emotions, postures differently, and low-context communicators can learn to
跨文化交际知识点
跨文化交际知识点： 1.L.S.Hams认为，在世界范围内的交际经历了五个阶段：语言的产生、文字的使用、印刷术的发明、近百年交通工具的进步和通讯手段的迅速发展、跨文化交际。近20年来的交际是以跨文化交际为特征的。 2.跨文化交际学首先在美国兴起，与人类学、心理学、传播学关系密切。 3.Edwar Hall《无声的语言》是跨文化交际的奠基之作。 4.1970年，国际传播学会承认跨文化交际学是传播学的一个分支，成立了跨文化交际学分会。 5.1972年，第一届跨文化交际学国际会议在日本东京召开。 6.70年代影响最大的书籍是《跨文化交际学选读》。 7.Jenny Thomas《跨文化语用失误》：语用—语言失误；社交—语用失误。 8.前苏联的跨文化交际学主要表现在国情语言学方面。 9.传播种类：(1)人类传播①社会传播A交集传播B组织传播C大众传播②非社会传播(2)非人类传播 10.早期影响最大的传播模式是Harold Lasswell提出的5w模式。即who、say what、in what channel、to whom、with what rffects。 11.1949年Claude Shannon和Warren Weaver共同提出了线性模式，增加了“噪音”（干扰因素），把媒介分解。 12.50年代，Charles Osgood和Wilbur Schramm提出循环式的模式，加入“反馈”。 13.社会学家Jack Lyle与M.Lyle把传播过程看作是社会过程之一，特点是把传播放在社会环境中考察。 14.我国最早的辞书《尔雅》。 15.萨丕尔—沃尔夫假说基于对印第安语的研究。 16.red caipet treatment用红毯接待red-light district红灯区red flags提高警惕预防出事的状况in the red赤字 17.politics—“中性”含贬义，为争权夺利不惜采取各种手段的意思；政治—“中性”，实际用时有褒义。 18.intellectual—致力于研究的人，衍生出纸上谈兵的贬义；知识分子—受过大学教育的脑力劳动者。 19.peasant—没有受过教育，举止粗鲁、思想狭隘的人；农民—直接从事农业生产劳动的人。 20.dragon—表示罪恶、邪恶，令人感到恐怖，战争的旗帜，形容人指飞扬跋扈令人讨厌；龙—用于好的意思。 21.phoenix—“再生”、“复活”；凤凰—天下太平，有圣德的人。 22.owl—智慧的鸟，比喻人聪明；猫头鹰—不详之鸟。 23.peacock—通常是贬义，含有骄傲、炫耀、洋洋得意的意思；孔雀—吉祥的象征，大吉大利。 24.dog—中性褒义的情况多；狗—一般用于贬义。 25.Cinderella（灰姑娘）泛指不受重视的人或部门或指有才干但一时未被赏识的人。 26.Shylock（夏洛克）指心肠狠毒唯利是图的小人。 27.to meet one’s Waterloo遭到决定性失败 28.Catch-22进退维谷，左右为难 29.韩国人写文章—归纳法；美国人写文章—演绎法。 30.美国人的思维模式是“桥式”，直接明白地传达给对方。 31.日本人的思维方式是“垫脚石式”，采取迂回、隐含的手法。 32.非语言交际的特点：（1）没有正式的规则和模式，没有固定的结构（2）没有一套具有明确意义的符号（3）有连续性的（4）一部分是本能，一部分是后天习得（5）信息右脑处理 33.阿拉伯人在讲话时总是盯着对方的眼睛。 34.将手掌平放在脖子下面，中国指杀头，英国指吃饱了。 35.食指和中指轻叩桌面，广东指感谢，北方表示不耐烦。 36.美国人站在公路旁边伸出拇指（thunb a ride）表示希望搭车。 37.英美人把中指放在食指上面（let’s keep our fingers crossed.）表示希望某事成功。 38.手兜起来，放在耳后，表示听不见或听不清楚。
(完整word版)跨文化交际教学大纲
《跨文化交际》 课程教学大纲 课程名称：英语教学论 课程类别：专业必修课 考核类别：考试 适用对象：本科 适用专业：英语 总学时、学分：36学时2学分 一、课程教学目的 该课程旨在扩大学生的知识面，对西方文化的不同层面有所了解,以提高学生的交际能力。在传统的外语教学中, 人们往往忽视文化的重要作用, 只注重语言能力的培养而未能顾及交际能力的提高。近年来国内学者认识到外语教学必须引进文化知识的对比，训练学生灵活运用语言知识, 更好地与外国人沟通, 减少和避免误解。 1
二、课程教学要求 该课程教学要求学生提高对文化差异的敏感性, 更有效地与外国人进行交际，为英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高奠定基础。 三、先修课程 跨文化交际是英语专业的必修课, 是在完成了精读、泛读、综合英语、写作等基本技能训练后开设的，旨在增强文化差异的敏感性，增强跨文化交际意识，有助于英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高。因此，学生先期完成英语听说读写等技能训练基本课程，如《基础英语》、《英国文学选读》等课程。 四、课程教学重、难点 该课程教学重点在于培养学生对英语国家文化的 2
了解及跨文化交际意识, 提高驾驭英语语言的能力, 从而使其能得体地运用语言与操英语的外国人士进行交流。教师的讲授重点是帮助学生认识中西文化的异同，分析文化差异的根源, 帮助学生深化对西方文化的理解。中西文化的差异在表层上很容易识别,但对造成差异的原因却需追根溯源。东西方在历史,思维方式以及哲学等方面的差异则是造成中国学生对西方文化不解的主要原因,也是该课程的难点。 五、课程教学方法（或手段） 教学方法：以课堂讲授为主，适当组织课堂讨论，鼓励学生充分利用课外资源进行探索性、研究性学习。 六、课程教学内容 Unit 1 Communication Across Cultures（4学时） 3
郭庆光 《传播学教程》复习笔记
《传播学教程》 第一章传播学的研究对象与基本问题 第一节从传播定义看传播学的研究对象 一、如何把握传播概念 （一）关于传播的定义与传统 1、社会学传统：美—库利——社会互动理论倡始人。强调传播的社会关系性，把传播看做是人与人关系得以成立和发展的基础。 2、符号学或语义学传统：美—皮尔士——符号学的创始人，强调符号作为精神内容的载体在传播中所起的特殊作用。 3、他们开创了界定传播概念的两传统，一是社会学的传统，一是符号学或语义学的传统。后来，这两传统逐渐发生融合。信息概念引入后，人与人之间的社会互动行为的介质是作为意义和符号、精神内容和物质载体之统一体的信息。 (二)传播的实质与其他定义 1、传播的实质：是一种社会互动行为，人们通过传播保持着相互作用和影响的关系。 2、施拉姆：当我们从事传播的时候，也就是在试图与其他人共享信息——某个观点或某个态度。传播至少有三个要素：信源、讯息和信宿。 3、阿耶尔：传播在广义上指的是信息的传递，它不仅包括接触新闻，而且包括表达感情、期待、命令、愿望或其他任何什么。 二、传播与信息:传播学考察的主要对象—始终都是人类的社会信息及其传播活动 （一）社会信息科学与传播学 1、社会信息与自然界的其他信息的联系和区别 A.联系（共同点）:以质、能波动的形式表现出来。精神内容的载体都表现为一定的物质讯号，作用于人的感觉系统并引起反馈。因此，社会信息也具有物质属性(至少就精神内容与载体的不可分离性而言)。 B.区别:为什么说“信息是物理载体和意义构成的统一整体”? （特殊性质）第一，它并不单纯地表现为人的生理层次上的作用和反作用，而伴随着人复杂的精神和心理活动，伴随着人的态度、感情、价值和意识形态；（两个伴随） 第二，作为社会信息的物质载体——符号系统本身，也是与物质劳动密切相关的人的精神劳动的创造物。（一个创造物）在此意义上，我们把社会信息看做是物质载体和精神内容的统一，主体和客体的统一，符号和意义的统一。 2、（传播学与信息科学是相互影响和相互渗透的）信息科学对传播学的巨大贡献： （1）把信息概念引进了传播学领域，提高了传播学理论表述的科学性和严谨性；（提高两性） （2）拓宽了传播学的视野，使它能够把人类传播活动放在更大的系统和环境中加以考察，这有助于探索人类社会传播的一般和特殊规律。（一宽一大） （二）信息 1、信息：信息是物质的普遍属性，是一种客观存在的物质运动形式。它在物质运动过程中所起的作用是表述它所属的物质系统，在同其他任何物质系统全面相互作用的过程中，以质、能波动的形式所呈现的结构、状态和历史。——最广义的信息概念。一切表述事物的内部或外部互动状态或关系的东西都是信息。信息是由物理载体和意义构成的统一整体。 2、社会信息：除人的生物和生理信息以外的、与人类的社会活动有关的一切信息。社会信息是物质载体和精神内容的统一，主体和客体的统一，符号和意义的统一。 3、社会学视点和信息科学视点结合的传播概念：传播是社会信息的传递或社会信息系统的运行。 三、传播的定义和特点 1、传播：即社会信息的传递或社会信息系统的运行。 2、传播的基本特点是什么？ 第一、社会传播是一种信息共享活动。独有—多人共有。共享意味着社会信息的传播具有交流、交换和扩散的性质。(传播是在一定社会关系中进行的，又是一定社会关系的体现。如何理解这个观点?) 第二、社会传播是在一定社会关系中进行的，又是一定社会关系的体现。 ①“传播和社区有共同词根，彼此不可分。”（施拉姆） ②传播产生于一定的社会关系，这种关系可能是纵向，也可是横向的。 ③它又是社会关系的体现，传受双方表述的内容和采用的姿态、措辞等无不反映其社会角色和地位。 ④社会关系是人类传播的一本质属性，通过传播，人们保持既有社会关系并建立新的社会关系。） 第三、从传播的社会关系性而言，它又是一种双向的社会互动行为。任何传播都是通过信息的授受和反馈展开的社会互动。 第四、传播成立的重要前提之一，是传受双方必须要有共通的意义空间。否则传而不通，导致误解。在广义上，共通的意义空间还包括人们大体一致或接近的生活经验和文化背景。 第五、传播是一种行为，是一种过程，也是一种系统。行为、过程、系统是人们解释传播时的三个常用概念，它们从不同角度概括了传播的另一些重要属性。 3、传播学现状：20世纪出现的一门新兴的社会科学和边缘学科，与诸科学联系渗透因而对象和研究领域不甚明确。分科领域（大众传播学、文化传播学、广告传播学等）繁荣，基础理论研究却显薄弱。 第二节传播学是研究社会信息系统及其运行规律的科学 一、社会传播的系统性 （一）传播学及其类型 1、传播学的研究对象：社会信息系统，传播学是研究社会信息系统及其运行规律的科学。 2、系统：由相互联系、相互制约的若干部分结合在一起并且具有特定功能的有机整体。 3、如何理解社会传播的系统性?：一切事物都处于一定的系统之中。社会传播同样具有系统性。 4、社会传播五种基本类型： A.人内传播——是个人接受外部信息并在人体内部进行处理的活动。具有典型的系统性，主要表现在人体本身就是一个由相互联系、制约的各部分构成，能对个人信息进行处理的有机整体（完整的信息系统 B.人际传播——(个人与个人间的信息传递)是由两个个体系统相互连结所形成的新的信息系统。在这个系统里，人们通过信息的授受，保持着相互影响和作用的关系 C.群体传播——(主指自然发生的社会群体，如家庭、亲友、社交圈等)是更大的系统，它不仅存在许多个体系统的活动，这些个体系统的有机结合还产生了新的输出物——群体规范和群体价值。群体信息系统的一个重要功能就是帮助个人实现社会化，在社会化完成之
(完整版)新编跨文化交际英语教程翻译1-10单元
1 Translation 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 2 Translation 文化有时候被称为我们的心智程序，我们“头脑的软件”。但是，我们可以进一步引申这个用电脑所做的类比，把文化看作是支持运行的操作环境。文化就像电脑使用的DOS或者Unix或者“视窗”（Windows）等操作系统一样，使我们能在各种各样的实际应用中处理信息。用“视窗”这个比喻来描述文化似乎也很有吸引力。文化就是我们心灵的视窗，透过它我们审视生活的方方面面。一个社会中不同个体的视窗是不大一样的，但都有着一些重要的共同特征。 文化就好像是鱼畅游于其中的水一般，人们想当然地把文化看成是客观存在的事实，因而很少去研究它。文化存在于我们所呼吸的空气之中，文化对于我们了解我们自身之为何物是必不可少的，就正如生命离不开空气一样。文化是特定群体的共有财产，而不单是个体的特征。社会按照文化设定的程序运作，这种程序来自于相似的生活体验以及对这种生活体验之含义的相似阐释。 如果文化是一种心智程序，那么它也是现实的心灵地图。从我们很小的时候开始，文化就告诉我们应该看重什么、偏好什么、规避什么和做些什么，文化还告诉我们事物应该是什么样。文化为我们提供超越个体经验可能的理想典范，帮助我们决定应该优先考虑的人或事。文化为我们建立起行为准则，并视遵守这些准则的行为为正当、合法。 3 Translation 43
新编跨文化交际期末复习资料
1.Iceberg:{Edward. 7. Hall.--
大学生跨文化交际 U2Pa课文翻译定稿2014
Unit 2 Passage A 1. 中国的核心价值与儒家思想有关，儒家思想的道德准则是对人际关系中道德品质的总结，孔子就用它来夫妇有别，长幼有序，朋友有信。”在两千多年的封建统治时期，统治阶级用这五伦来处理每件事，这就形成了一个分级的社会，即臣忠于君，子孝于亲的社会。 2. 在英国文艺复兴时期，人们开始强调人的尊严以及现实生活的重要性。他们提倡人不仅有享受美好生活的权利，更要具备完善自己和创造奇迹的能力。这就是人文主义的基本理念。自那以后，人们开始尊重人性，随即有发展出了我们今日称之为“自由”的思想，即民主。 3. 以美国为例，优秀的个人价值观就是独立、努力以及生活成功、个人成就与乐于助人三方面实现平衡。就社会价值观而言，美国人在这6方面领先：言论自由、个人自由、个人权利、公开争论、独立思考和。而中国的价值观则提倡努力工作、尊重学习、诚实守信、独立自由和持久忍耐。亚洲人值得推崇的6个社会价值观是社会有序、和谐一致、政府问责、开拓思路、言论自由和尊重权威。 4. 与美国人不同的是，东亚人通常更尊重权威，赞誉社会有序，可与他们一致的是亚洲人也尊重新观念，政府问责及言论自由。 5. 中西方文化的不同与个人主义和集体主体文化密不可分。 6. 个人主义就是人们注重个体、强调个体需要。一般来说，西方文化倾向于个人主义。 7. 集体主义文化即把自身当作是集体（家庭、单位、部落、国家）的一员，一般认为集体的需要高于个体。大多数亚洲文化，包括中国在内，倾向于集体主义。 8.个人主义是指在一个社会里个人权利是首要的。大多数西方人士认为每个人都有自己独立的身份和人格，这应该得到认可并强化。因此，如果不理解个人主义，则无法理解西方的文化和西方人。唯有理解了个人主义，我们才能明白西方人对家庭、友谊和隐私的看法。个人主义的核心是追求个人利益和成就，作为一项社会的基本品质，它被高度地重视，并被人们真心铭记和认真领会。 9. 在基督教的传统文化中，个人主义不但对彼此重要，而且对社会对上帝都重要。个人主义从他们的祖先那里传承下来，因而对西方人而言，个人主义不是自私而是正直。他们如此重视个人主义，以至于他们认为如果有人不去实践个人主义，那就是错的行为。“自助者天助”，从这句谚语我们可以看出西方人对个人主义的态度。可是对中国人来说，个人主义是贬义词，是利己主义，它就意味着自私的人品和散漫的纪律。 10.传统的中国信条，尤其是儒家思想，欣赏集体主义。它强调群体合作，强调个体的成功归功于单位、组织或社团全体成员的共同努力。中国人认为为了集体而牺牲个人利益是非常高尚的品质，继而谦逊待人、善解人意的品质也受到高度赞扬。 11. 让我们从这两个事例来看文化的基本差异：学校 学校的组织形式可以看出集体主义和个人主义文化的差异。例，中国的中学、甚至大学，学生通常群体组合，他们被编成班，所有同班同学学习同一课程。相反，美国高中和大学的学生都是个体的组合，他们通常根据自己的兴趣至少选择几门课程，因此他们经常到不同的班级上不同的课，也没有类似中国的“班” 12. 另一个集体主义和个人主义区别的例子就是宴会。比如，在中国，宴会通常是大家围坐在一起享受美食或观赏节目，有的观看，有的会亲自参与节目。相反，美国典型的宴会就是鸡尾酒会。在晚会中大家成双成对，或三五成群一起聊天，间或走动走动，换换聊天对象。 13.下面是西方个人主义文化和集体主义文化更具体的区别。
跨文化交际基础知识
跨文化交际基础知识
跨文化交际基础知识 【复习指南】 这部分内容主要涉及跨文化交际的基本理论及较为常见的日常交际礼仪，在选择题、填空题、判断题中所占比例较少，但与案例分析部分紧密结合；建议考生复习此块内容时，注意相关理论概念在实际案例中的运用。考生可重点看胡文仲《跨文化交际学》或吴为善的《跨文化概论》，这两本书对于跨文化交际的基本概念、基础理论等都有全面介绍。 【知识点归纳】 1.重点概念： （1）文化：culture，涉及内容十分广泛，不同研究者有不同定义。 广义文化：指人类社会实践过程中所获得的物质、精神的生产能力和创造的物质、精神财富的总和。 狭义文化：精神生产能力和精神产品，包括一切社会意识形式；自然科学、技术科学、社会意识形式。英国人类学家泰勒1871年在《原始文化》中提到的定义影响很大。 总的来说，文化是人类社会创造的财富，包括食物、器具，也包括信念、价值观、习俗、知识。可分为物质文化、制度文化和观念文化。 其特性是：人类独有；来自后天习得；大部分存在于人的潜意识；是行动的指南；动态，与一定历史时期相联系。 （2）交际：就是人与人之间的往来交际活动，文化在交际中得到发展与传播。跨文化交际中的交际主要指人际间通过语言等交际工具进行的直接或间接的信息交流和沟通活动。 （3）编码与解码 交际是一个编码和解码的过程；编码是把思想、感情、意识等编成语码的过程，解码是对外界接受的符号或信息赋予意义或进行解释的过程。
“他定势” 定势概念应用到跨文化交际上后，称为文化定势(又译文化定型或刻板印象)，是指人们在跨文化交际研究或跨文化实际交往中对不同文化背景的民族和国家成员的笼统的、先验的看法。 （4）文化冲突 指两种或者两种以上的文化相互接触所产生的竞争和对抗状态。最早由由哈佛大学国际关系教授萨缪尔·亨廷顿（Samuel Huntington )在《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》中提出。 （5）文化曲解 不同民族、社区和集团的的文化，有不同的价值目标和价值取向，并且常常各自以自己的文化为优越，视其他文化为危险物；当其他文化在传播、接触的时候，便会有不顾客观事实歪曲原意或作错误理解。文化曲解既是文化冲突的诱发因素，也是文化冲突的表现。 （6）主流文化与亚文化 主流文化是一个社会、一个时代受到倡导的、起着主要影响、具有群体认同的文化。 亚文化（subculture）:又称小文化、集体文化或副文化，指某一文化群体所属次级群体的成员共有的独特信念、价值观和生活习惯，与主文化相对应的那些非主流的、局部的文化现象。 （7）文化距离 是指不同文化之间的差异程度，主要包括语言方面的差异、生活习惯的差异、社会文化方面的差异等。 （8）文化休克 “文化休克”，Cultural Shock，是1958年美国人类学家奥博格(Kalvero Oberg)提出来的概念。是指一个人进入到不熟悉的文化环境时，因失去自己熟悉的所有社会交流的符号与手段而产生的一种迷失、疑惑、排斥甚至恐惧的感觉。 文化休克常见于移民当中或者是在一个社会内，不同文化背景的民族因文化生活环境发生根本性改变的时候。
《跨文化交际学概论》读后感
《跨文化交际学概论》读后感 AP0802325 钟欣奕 在学习《跨文化交际》这门课程和看完《跨文化交际学概论》这本书之前，我对“跨文化交际”的认识是：两个来自不同国家的人、组织或是国家之间的交流和沟通就是跨文化交际，而同一个国家的两个不同地区的文化的交流并不是跨文化交际。因为我认为既然是“‘跨’文化”，那这两种文化之间的差异应该是很大的，有非常不一样的文化来源和文化背景，有不一样的发展历程和演变过程，形成了两种很不一样的文化内涵。比如，美索不达米亚平原和幼发拉底河孕育的文化、黄河孕育的文化都是各有各的特点。随着经济的发展，交通工具的进步与通讯手段的发展，跨文化交际成了人们的需求，成为经济全球化和“地球村”的需求。 但是，《跨文化交际学概论》这本书中的第一部分第一章中提到：任何两份人之间的交际都是跨文化交际。这让我对“跨文化交际”有了一种新的认识。 有些学者就认为，跨文化交际研究的范围应该也包括地区、职业、年龄、性别等方面的文化差异探讨。地区之间文化的差异，特别是在饮食方面还是比较明显的。在肇庆一些地方，番薯和南瓜是很少被当做是一道菜，更多的是当早餐或者是相当于正餐的米饭，但是同属广东，有一些地方又偏爱“蒜炒南瓜”。又比如，在我的家乡—海南，人们很爱吃生芒果，吃法也很特别：有的人会蘸盐吃，但更多人，包括我，更喜欢蘸调料吃，这种调料是用酱油、白砂糖、海南灯笼椒、或虾酱调制而成的。我周围的朋友都觉得这种吃法很奇怪，无法想象竟然用水果蘸酱油吃。不过我们当地人觉得味道还挺不错的。 正所谓“隔行如隔山”，每种行业之间虽然有互通的知识，但是之间的差别还是挺大的。对大多数学习文史类的人来说，理工科的公式换算简直就是“鬼画符”一样难懂。具体来说，要一个只专长与计算机编程的人去欣赏充满意境、“形散神聚”的散文，也是一件很难的事情。
【重点】传播学教程笔记(背诵版)
传播学教程 第一章 1、信息的定义 统全面相互作用的过程中，以质、能波动的形式所呈现的结构、状态和历史。在此意义上，一切反映事物内部或外部互动状态或关系的东西都是信息。 一。 2、传播的定义和特点 的体现；一种双向的社会互动行为；传播双方须有共通的意义空间；一种行为、过程、系统。 3、传播学的定义 4、社会传播的类型 5、社会信息系统的特点 6、双重偶然性 信息系统特有的属性，与它是以人为主体的活动有关。其存在说明，社会信息系统是一个多变量的系统，若变量处理不当，便会引起传播障碍和传播隔阂。 7、传播障碍和传播隔阂 能是否正常。 之间在特定利益、价值、意识形态和文化背景方面的隔阂。有无意的误解和有意的曲解之分。 在是必然的。 第二章 1、人类传播经历的发展阶段 —用手写字。口语的产生大大加速了人类社会进化和发展进程，却受到时空限制只能在近距离、小规模的群体中传播； 类利用体外化媒介系统的进程； 刷媒介在社会变革社会生活和社会经济中扮演了越来越重要的角色。 人类体外化的声音和影像信息系统，使人类知识经验的积累和文化传承的效率和质量有了新的飞跃。电子技术推动了电脑诞生。 2、信息社会的定义和特点 60年代末70年代初，日本、美国等发达国家最早提出。
核心价值而得到发展的社会。 a.社会经济主体由制造业转向以高新科技为核心的第三产业，即信息和知识产业占据主导地位； b.劳动力主体不再是机械的操作者而是信息的生产者和传播者； c.贸易不局限于国内，跨国贸易和全球贸易成为主流； d.交易结算不再主要依靠现金，而是信用。 3、哈特关于媒介系统的分类 A.哈特，根据传播媒介的发展史分类： 手段； 摄影等； —人类传播的媒介手段日趋丰富，人体的信息功能日益向外扩展，体外化信息系统逐渐获得相对独立的过程。 4、《后工业化社会的到来》和《第三次浪潮》 D.贝尔。把人类社会的发展进程分为前“工业社会”（农业社会）、“工业社会”（生产商品的社会）和“后工业社会”（以服务业为基础的社会）三大阶段。 A.托夫勒。人类社会已经经历两次变革浪潮，从原始社会向农业社会和从农业社会向工业社会。目前正迎来以信息革命为代表的第三次浪潮，必然会极大地改变现存的社会结构和社会生活。 5、二战后信息社会发展过程 50—80年代中期）：报刊、广播、电视等大众传播媒介得到高度普及，个人媒介日趋多样化；②高度信息化阶段（80年代末—今）：大众传媒进一步发达，广播电视进入数字化多频道和卫星跨国传播时代；微型电脑普及，成为个人综合信息处理的媒介；以计算机、互联网和多媒体为代表的新传播发展，使不同媒介出现融合的新趋势。 第三章 1、符号的定义和基本功能 a.表述和理解（人与人之间的传播活动首先表现为符号化和符号解读的过程）； b.传达（作为精神内容的意义只有转换为一定物质形式的符号才能在时空中得到传播和保存）； c.思考（即引发思维活动，思考首先要有对象及关于对象的知识，而这些都以符号形式存在于人的头脑中）。 2、象征符的特性 通过传统、学习继承；④可自由创造，与指代对象的关系具有随意性。 3、意义的定义 4、符号意义的分类 ；③指示性和区别性。 5、传播过程中的意义（符号本身之外） 使得不同的受众对同一种符号构成的信息会有不同的理解；
新编跨文化交际课后翻译中英对照
Translation1 The growth of intercultural communication as a field of study is based on a view of history that clearly demonstrates people and cultures have been troubled by a persistent inability to understand and get along with groups and societies removed by space, ideology, appearance, and behavior from their own. What is intriguing about many of human civilization’s failure is that they appear to be personal as well as global. The story of humankind is punctuated with instances of face-to-face conflicts as well as international misunderstanding--major and minor quarrels that range from simple name-calling to isolationism tr even armed conflict. It is obvious that increases contact with other cultures and subcultures make it imperative for us to make a concerted effort to understand and get along with people whose beliefs and backgrounds may be vastly different from our own. The ability, through increased awareness and understanding, to peacefully coexist with people who do not necessarily share our lifestyles or values could benefit us not only in our own neighborhoods but could be the decisive factor in maintaining would peace. 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，各民族与文化由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解，无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解－－从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义甚至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往日益增多，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解与我们有着天壤之别信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 Translation 2 Culture is something referred to as our mental programming, our “software of the mind.”But we can take that computer analogy further and say that culture is the operating environment that enables software programs to run. Culture is like DOS or Unix or Windows:it is what enables us to process information in various specific applications. The metaphor of windows seems to be very appealing to describe culture：culture is a mental set of windows through which all of life is viewed. It varies from individual to individual within a society, but it shares important characteristics with members of a society. Culture is like the water fish swim in--a reality that is taken for granted and rarely examined. It is in the air we breathe and is as necessary to our understanding of who we are as air is to our physical life. Culture is the property of a community people, not simply a characteristic of individuals. Societies are programmed by culture, and that programming comes from similar life experiences and similar interpretations of what those experiences mean. If culture is mental programming, it is also a mental map of reality. It tells us from early childhood what matters, what o prefer, what to avoid, and what to do. Culture also tells us what ought to be . It gives us assumptions about the ideal beyond what individuals may experience. It helps us in setting priorities. It establishes codes for behavior and provides
- 跨文化交际翻译
- 跨文化交际试题答案(附翻译)
- 跨文化交际中的语用翻译
- 跨文化交际课文翻译
- 跨文化交际与翻译
- 《跨文化交际与翻译》 (1)
- 跨文化交际学中文翻译
- (完整版)跨文化交际与翻译真题·
- 新编跨文化交际课后翻译中英对照
- 跨文化交际学与翻译学的关系共25页
- (完整版)跨文化交际与翻译真题·
- 跨文化交际翻译版
- 跨文化交际 教材P288 中文翻译
- 跨文化交际翻译
- 跨文化交际学与翻译学的关系23页PPT
- 大学生跨文化交际 U2Pa课文翻译定稿2014
- 跨文化交际与翻译-
- 跨文化交际三篇重点范围内的英语课文文章翻译
- 新编跨文化交际英语教程 翻译1-10单元
- 新编跨文化交际英语教程(许力生) 课后翻译