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大学英文文献及翻译

大学英文文献及翻译
大学英文文献及翻译

Conversational Inference in Cross-cultural Communication

韩兆明理学院数学与应用数学学号:0911121012

Abstract: Generally if the literal sentences deduced nothing, it need not to continue. Respect of intercultural communication, reasoning occupies an important role in oral communication . Different from the communication between the same nation, only when we use the pragmatic exchange rules correctly and pragmatically while understand the dialogue clearly, can we achieve success in cross-cultural communication.

Keywords: cultural exchange ;cultural activation

I Pragmatic principles and Inference

When people indulge in some kinds of communicative activities, they use the right words for the purpose of understanding each other while it is relatively not too important whether their words observe particular syntactic or semantic rules. For various reasons, we can not catch the communicator’s intention unless we make some inferences by applying certain pragmatic principles and maxims.

a) Queen Victoria was made of iron

Inference: this utterance overly flouts the maxim of Quality since Queen

Victoria in fact lacked the properties of iron. By saying so the speaker may implicate that she had some of the identical properties like hardness, resilience, non-flexibility or durability. The meaning of utterance is context-dependent. It may be a commendation conveying her possession of the properties of toughness and resilience if said by admirer; it may be taken as denigration conveying her lack of flexity, emotional impassivity or belligerence, if said by a detractor.

b)War is war

Inference: this utterance is a tautology, seen from a semanic point of view, and bears no communicative value, at least in principle. When it is uttered for communicative purpose in a certain context, it has communicative significance. It overtly flouts the maximum of Quantity, which requires that speakers be informative. So, if the assumption that the speakers are actually preserving cooperating, some informative inference must be made. The utterance might implicate “err a ble thing always happen in war”,“that’s its nature and it’s no good lamenting

that particular disaster.”

c) A: What do you intend to do today

B: I have a terrible headache.

Inference: B’s answer breaches the maxim of ralevanc e as it is not, at least superficially, related to A’s question.If we assume that B’s still cooperating,we have to do some further inferring. By saying so B is forcing A to infer the implicature “B is not going to do anyt hing today”.

d) A: Let’s get the kids something.

B: OK, but veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.

Inference: B deliberately infringes the maxim of manner (be perspicuous)by spelling out the word “ice-cream”.By saying so, B is trying to force A to infer the real meaning B’s utterance may implicate that B would rather not have ice cream mentioned in the presence of the children in case they are thereby prompted to demand some improvement.

II Context and Inference

According to Malinowski, context plays an important role in understanding the speaker’s intention.“Exactly as in the reality of spoken or written languages,a word without linguistic context is a mere figment and stands for noting by itself, so in the reality of a spoken living tongue, the utterance has no meaning except in the context of situa tion.” (1923) Undoubtedly, both communication within a culture and cross-cultural one must comply with Cp. But cross-cultural communication figures more on context.

a) Verbal Context

According to He Zhaoxiong(1989), context includes language knowledge and non-language knowledge, which is similar as the classification of it in this paper.

b) Non-verbal Context

Non-verbal Context is involved in concrete situation and cultural knowledge (Malinowski, 1923). It is characterized by generality and inseparable part leading to successful communication. In communication, the concerned non-verbal context is prerequisite condition for making correct inferences, which result in successful exchange ultimately.

But on account of the special characters of cross-cultural communication and the limited scale of the paper, both of them above will not be discussed here.

III Intelligence and Inference

As we have said ,it is most necessary for us to understand the basic nature of the human interpretive process to seek solutions to this ambiguity. This interpretive process is what the sociologists Stephen Levinson (1990) calls interactive intelligence the innate human capacity to draw inferences from ambiguous information. In spite of the guidance of CP and relevance theory, and interference of context, conversational inference can’t be understood without the control of interactive intelligence, which runs through the whole ongoing process of interpretation.

It seems that bearing upon interactive intelligence the process of interpretation works very successfully when conversationalists share common histories, cultures, and experiences. The inferences they draw by assuming others think just as they do are generally safe. Problems are encountered, however, especially in the complex environment of international communication, when participants in a conversation hold different assumption because of membership in different groups. At that moment, interactive intelligence plays a rather fundamental role in human cognitive process.

Levinson’s interactive intelligence here is similar to Qian Guanlian’s so-called “intelligence involvement” (1997).

“Intelligence involvement is a process of inferr ing the speaker’s conversation implicature on the basis of the basic logic, the world knowledge and interpersonal relationship.”

According to Qian’s opinion, there are four factors connected with this inferential process:

a) A most basic logic as starting point

b) The world knowledge and schema. (May be shared, or not)

c) Referential context

d) Auxiliary language signs

His four factors cover essentially all the aspects discussed above. His conclusion embodies.

Widespread significance on the basis of other linguists, such as Levinson, Xu Shenghuan, inferential model; he presents his own one:

Language communication=mixed signs+context involvement+intelligence involvement

Words

Auxiliary language signs

Other unexpected signs

On Qian’s part, intelligence involvement is a process of seeking for proper sense (1997). Out of effort saving, his model can be improved as the following in accordance with cross-culture activation.

Language communication =context+intelligence involvement+culture activation

Language context

Extra-language context

Here as mixed sigins can be included in extra-language context, so it is omitted. Thanks to the special culture involvement in intercultural conversation, culture activation is added to it. After all, using a foreign language to communication with a native speaker, the best way is to speak in the way as they do in the common culture.

IV Conclusion

This paper aims to discuss the conversational inference in cross-cultural communication. In order to realize this purpose, the author concentates her attention on the common pragmatic principles and inseparable contextual factors concerned to demonstrate the complex process of inferential interpretation. And at last on the basis of Qian Guanlian’s inference model, she makes some improvement and induces the model of cross-cultural communication. But in the whole, the paper represents a general introduction and discussion surrounding the topic. Many aspects, such as the mental process of inference, the reasons leading to failure of inference and the way out, remain indiscussed and need to be studied in the later.

References:

[1]Grice H P. Presupposition and Conversational Implicature. In Radial Pragmatics. Ed.Peter

Cole[M]. NY:Academic Press,1981.

[2]Levinson, Stephen C. International Biases in Human Thinking. Working paper No.3, ProjectGroup cognitive Anthropology[M].Max-Plank-Gesellschaft, Berlin, 1990

[3]Malinowski B. The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Language[J]. Supplement to Ogden, C.K and Richards,I.A,1989

[4]何兆熊. 语用学概要[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1989:108

[5]钱冠连.汉语文化语用学[M].北京:清华大学出版社,1997:158

在文化交际中会话推理

韩兆明理学院数学与应用数学学号:0911121012

摘要:一般认为如果字面上的句子推倒不出什么东西,那么这样的对话也不需要继续。就跨文化交流而言,推理在口语化交流中彰显出很重要的作用。不同于同族人们的交流,只有在我们正确的务实的运用交流规则和清楚明白对话的内容,我们才能够在跨文化交流中取得成功。

关键词:交流文化激活

一、我的语用推理

当人们沉溺于某些类型的交际活动,他们使用正确的语言的目的是相互理解以至于所说的话是否遵守特定的句法或语义规则容是相对不太重要的。由于种种原因,我们不能赶上交际者的意图除非我们运用一定的语用原则或准则作出一些推论。

a)维多利亚女王是铁做的

推理:这话语违反质量准则过于女王

维多利亚实际上缺乏铁的性能。通过这样说可以暗示她有一些相同的特性如硬度,弹性,非弹性和耐用性。话语的意义是上下文有关,随上下文决定.它可能如果说的仰慕者是一个表彰输送她拥有的韧性和弹性的性质的;如果说一个客人,它可以作为诋毁她缺乏灵活性的输送,情感冷漠或好战的批评者说。

b)战争就是战争

推理:这话语是一个重言式,从视图的语义的角度看,至少在原则上不承受

交际价值。当它发出的交际目的在一定的语境中,它具有交际意义。它公然违反量的最大值,这就要求扬声器的信息。所以,如果假设那演讲者实际上是保持合作,一些信息的推理是必须的。话语可能存在“错误的事情总是发生在战争”,“那是它的本质,它是没有好的在特定的灾难。”

c):你今天打算做什么

乙:我有一个可怕的头痛。

推理:乙的回答违反与其相关的格言就像是不违背,至少从表面上看,一个问题有关。如果我们假设B还是合作,我们不得不做一些进一步的推断。这么说是强迫一个推断的含义“B是不打算做什么,今天”。

d):让孩子们的东西

B:好吧,但否决i-c-e-c-r-e-a-m-s.

推理:B故意违反准则方式(要明白)拼写单词“冰淇淋”。这么说,B是试图迫使A推断的真正含义。B的话语可能会牵连,宁愿不吃冰淇淋的情况下他们的需求从而促使一些改进孩子的面前提到。

二、上下文推理

根据马林诺夫斯基,语境在理解说话人的意图起着重要的作用。”正是在口头的或书面的语言现实,没有语境一词是纯粹的虚构和代表注意到自己,所以在口语的生活现实的舌头,话语有除了情况下没有意义。”(1923)

毫无疑问,通信双方在文化和跨文化的人必须遵守CP。但跨文化交际的人物更多的上下文。

a)言语语境

根据何兆熊(1989),内容包括语言知识和非语言知识,这是类似于本文的分类。

b)非语言语境

非语言语境中的具体情况和文化知识(马林诺夫斯基,1923)。它的特点是通用性和不可分割的一部分,导致成功的沟通。沟通,有关非语言语境是正确的推论的前提条件,导致成功的交易最终。

但在跨文化交际的特殊字符的帐户和纸的规模有限,他们两个以上就不在这里讨论。

三、智力和推理

正如我们已经说过,这是最需要我们了解人类寻求解决这种模棱两可的解释过程的基本性质。这个解释的过程是什么样的社会学家斯蒂芬·莱文森(1990)调用交互式智能人类与生俱来的能力,举一反三,从模棱两可的信息。尽管CP 和相关理论,并干扰上下文的指导,对话推理不能被理解的交互式智能控制,它贯穿整个持续的过程解释。

息于交互式智能解释的过程中,工程似乎非常成功,当健谈有着共同的历史,文化和经验。他们得出的推论假设别人认为只是因为他们通常是安全的。遇到问题,然而,国际交流,尤其是在复杂的环境中,参与对话的举行时,不同的假设,因为在不同的组的成员。在那一刻,交互式智能在人类认知过程中起着相当的基础性作用。

莱文森的交互式智能这里是钱冠连所谓的“智力参与”(1997)相似。“智力参与是一个过程的基本逻辑,世界知识和人际交往关系的基础上,推断说话者的会话含义。”

据钱认为,有四个因素与这个推理过程

a)一个最基本的逻辑起点。

b)在世界知识和架构(可能是共享的,或不)。

c)参照上下文。

d)辅助语言符号。

这四个因素基本上涵盖上面所讨论的所有方面。他的结论体现。

普遍的意义其他语言学家,如莱文森,徐声唤,推理模型的基础上,他提出了自己的一个推理模式:语言沟通=混合的迹象+上下文参与+智力参与的话

辅助语言符号和其他意想不到的迹象。

参与情报在钱钟书的一部分,是一个过程,寻求适当的意义(1997)。缺货省力,他的模型可以改善以下,按照与跨文化激活。

语言沟通=上下文+智力参与+文化激活

语言上下文:

超额语言背景:

这里作为混合符号可以被列入额外的语言背景,所以它被省略。由于在跨文

化对话的特殊的文化参与,文化激活被添加到它。毕竟,最好的办法是使用外国语言与母语沟通,说话的方式,因为他们在共同的文化。

四、结束语

本文旨在讨论在跨文化交际中的对话推断。为了实现这个目的的作者更加关注她关注的共同务实的原则和有关证明推理演绎的复杂过程离不开语境因素。钱冠连的推理模型的基础上,最后,她提出了一些改进,导致跨文化交际的模型。但整体而言,代表的总体介绍和讨论的话题。的许多方面,如心理推理过程,原因导致失败的推理和出路,仍然正在讨论中的,需要在以后的研究。

参考文献:

[1]格莱斯·H·P. 预设和会话含义. 在径向pragmatics.ed.peter科尔[M]. 台

北:学术出版社,1981

[2]莱文森,史蒂芬 C.国际人类思维的偏差. 工作文件第3位,projectgroup

认知人类学[M]. 马克斯普朗克公司,柏林,1990

[3]马林诺夫斯基B. 在原始语言[J]意义问题. 补充奥格登,沉珂和理查兹,A,

1989

[4]何兆熊. 语用学概要[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1989:108

[5]钱冠连. 汉语文化语用学[M]. 北京:清华大学出版社,1997:158

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基于反馈神经网络肘关节力矩的动态预测 R.Song K.Y.Tong 健康技术与信息学系,香港理工大学 KowIoon,香港

摘要 肌肉模型是身体部分运动分析的一个重要组成部分。尽管许多研究已经集中在静态条件下,但是肌电信号(EMG)和关节转矩在自愿动态情况下之间的关系并没有被很好的研究。本研究的目的是调查的一个反馈人工神经网络的性能(RANN)自愿动态情况下的复杂肘扭矩估计。肌电信号和运动数据,其中包括角度和角速度,被用来作为估计在运动过程中预期的扭矩输入。此外,角度和角速度的预测精度的作用进行了研究,并比较两个模型。一个模型的肌电图和关节运动的投入和其他的模型只使用肌电图无运动数据输入。六例健康体检者,和两个平均角速度(60°S 7和90°S 7)三种不同负荷(0公斤,1公斤,2公斤)在手的位置被选择来训练和测试90°屈肘、全伸肘之间的递归神经网络(0 ~)。训练结束后,根平均平方误差(RMSE)预期的扭矩和扭矩之间的模型预测,在训练数据集的肌电图和关节运动的投入和测试数据集,分别为0.17±0.03 nm和0.35 + 0.06 nm。预期的扭矩和预测模型的RMSE值之间的扭矩,在训练数据集只有肌电输入和测试集,分别为0.57 t - 0.07 nm和0.73 T 0.11 nm。结果表明,肌电信号一起运动的数据提供了更好的性能预测的关节力矩;关节角度和角速度提供了重要信息的关节力矩的估计在自愿的运动。 关键词:肌肉骨骼模型,自愿的运动,反馈人工神经网络,逆动力学模型

第一章绪论 由于希尔提出了1938肌肉的经典论文,神经生理学和神经肌肉骨骼系统的生物力学已被广泛研究,使人体运动生成的原理可以发现(希尔,1938)。 探讨中枢神经系统(CNS)激发肌肉和其后的发展力和产生不同的人体运动,许多模型来描述和定性的肌肉骨骼系统的不同层次的性能(温特斯,1990;扎杰克和温特斯,1990)。一个被普遍接受的山为基础的神经肌肉骨骼系统由以下子模型,一步一步:肌肉兴奋-收缩模型;肌腱骨骼模型;动态模型(扎耶克,1989)。 图1 肌肉骨骼模型框图 图1显示了基于hillbased模型的运动生成。图1,肌肉兴奋收缩模型是用来估计中枢神经系统指挥肌肉活动的状态。肌腱模型产生的肌肉力量不仅基于肌肉激活状态,而且基于肌腱式长度和肌腱式收缩速度,这与关节角速度和角速度(温特斯和斯塔克,1988)。前项状态的肌肉力量,它决定了肌腱的依从性,还负责肌肉力在后一阶段(扎耶克,1989)。一旦所有负责的关节运动的肌肉力量已经发现,肌肉的力量与各自的肌肉力臂和的结果求和乘法可以产生关节力矩。所有子模型的数学积分可以用来描述关节运动是中枢神经系统的命令产生哪些参数斧负责关节力矩。 肌电信号反映肌肉的活动,和许多类似的肌电力矩的关系已经在静态和动态情况的研究(张等人,1997;麦森纳和莫润,1995)。肌肉的肌电信号也常被认

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my friend and I are taking a , we are seeing a boy sit on the chair,he is crying,we go and ask him.“what’s the matter with you” he tell us“I can’t find my dog can you help me”.“yes,I can”.And we help him find his dong .oh it stay under the big tree! 今天我和我的朋友一起去散步。突然我们看见一个男孩坐在椅子上,他哭的很伤心。我们走过去问他:“你怎么了”。他告诉我们:“我的狗不见了,你们能帮我找到它吗”。“是的,我们能帮你找到你的狗”然后我们帮助他找到了他的狗,原来是它呆在一棵大树下。 day an old man siselling a big young man comes to the elephant and begins to look at it old man goes up to him and says inhis ear,“Don't sa y anything about the elephant before I sell it,then i'll give you some money.”“All right,”says the young the old man slles the elephant,he gives the young man some money and says,“Now,can you tell me how you find the bad ears of theelephant?”“I don't find the bad ears,”says the young man.“Then why do you look at the elephant slowly?”asks the old young man answers,“Because I never see an elephant before,and I want to know what it looks like.” 一天,一个老的男人正在卖一头大象。一个年轻的男人走向大象然后开始慢慢看着它(大象),这个老的男人走向他对着他的耳朵说,“不要在我卖出它(大象)之前说关于它(大象)的事,然后我会给你一些钱。”“好的”,这个年轻的男人说。在这个老的男人卖出大象后,他给了年轻的男人一些钱并且说,“现在,你可以告诉我你是怎样知道大象的坏的耳朵了吧?”“我不知道坏的耳朵”,这个年轻的男人说。“然后为什么你慢慢的看着大象?”这个老的男人问。这个年轻的男人回答,“因为我在这之前从来没有见过大象,还有我想知道它(大象)是什么样子的。” 3.An old woman had a cat. The cat was very old; she could not run quickly, and she could not bite, because she was so old. One day the old cat saw a mouse; she jumped and caught the mouse. But she could not bite it; so the mouse got out of her mouth and ran away, because the cat could not bite it.? Then the old woman became very angry because the cat had not killed the mouse. She began to hit the cat. The cat said, "Do not hit your old servant. I have worked for you for many years, and I would work for you still, but I am too old. Do not be unkind to the old, but remember what good work the old did when they were young."? 一位老妇有只猫,这只猫很老,它跑不快了,也咬不了东西,因为它年纪太大了。一天,老猫发现一只老鼠,它跳过去抓这只老鼠,然而,它咬不住这只老鼠。因此,老鼠从它的嘴边溜掉了,因为老猫咬不了它。? 于是,老妇很生气,因为老猫没有把老鼠咬死。她开始打这只猫,猫说:“不要打你的老仆人,我已经为你服务了很多年,而且还愿意为你效劳,但是,我实在太老了,对年纪大的不

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