United Nations Expert Group Meeting On Social and Economic Implications

UN/POP/PD/2005/5

25 July 2005 UNITED NATIONS EXPERT GROUP MEETING ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGING POPULATION AGE STRUCTURES

Population Division

Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Mexico City, Mexico

31 August – 2 September 2005

DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND AND PROSPECTS FOR

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA

Wang Feng

University of California, Irvine

fwang@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6610204035.html,

Andrew Mason

University of Hawaii and the East West Center

amason@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6610204035.html,

Paper prepared for UN Expert Group Meeting on Social and Economic Implications of Changing Population Age Structures, Mexico City, August 31-September 2, 2005

July 25, 2005

During the last 25 years, China has undergone demographic as well as economic changes of historic proportions. Demographically, China has transformed itself from a "demographic transitional" society, where reductions in mortality led to rapid population growth and subsequent reductions in fertility led to a slower population growth, to a "post-transitional" society, where life expectancy has reached new heights, fertility has declined to below-replacement level, and rapid population ageing is on the horizon. In the not-too-distant future—in a matter of a few decades—China’s population will start to shrink, an unprecedented demographic turn in Chinese history in the absence of major wars, epidemics or famines. In this process, China will also lose its position as the most populous country in the world.

Economically, China has completed its transition from a socialist centrally planned economy to a market based economy. In moving from an economy under socialism that was closed to the outside world and plagued by low efficiency and stagnation, China has become, in the last two decades? one of the most dynamic and fastest-growing economies in the world. In less than twenty years' time, between 1982 and 2000, real GDP per capita for the Chinese population, adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP), rose more than four-fold – a record unmatched elsewhere in the world.1

At the start of these historical transformations, China's leaders made raising the standard living of the Chinese population its new political mandate and the basis for political legitimacy. They accordingly formulated two basic national policies: developing the economy and controlling population growth. The Chinese Government announced its one-child-per-couple policy in 1980, an unprecedented act of governmental intervention in population. Such an extreme policy came about even though the fertility level in China had already more than halved during the previous decade, and was already at a level not much above the replacement level (Lee and Wang, 1999; Wang, 2005).

The rationale for China’s one-child policy was a neo-Malthusian perspective on the relationship between population and development—a view largely dismissed by mainstream economists. The architects of China’s population policy can point, however, to the post-reform economic record as evidence of the success of the policy. This assertion can be questioned on two grounds. The first is the extent to which the transition to low fertility was accelerated by the one-child policy (Wang, 2005). The second, considered in this paper, is the extent to which fertility decline, the slow-down in population growth, and changes in age structure contributed to China’s economic success. In light of the recent and future changes in China's age structure, we also examine and speculate in this paper on the role of population age structure changes in affecting China's prospects for economic development in the coming decades of the twenty-first century.

This paper is organized as follows. In the first section below, we review briefly the recent and projected changes in China’s population age structure. In the second and third sections, we evaluate the impact of changes in the age structure on China’s economy, both in the past two decades and in the near future. We base our evaluations on calculations of two types of demographic dividends: a dividend associated with a relative increase in the population of labour force age due to fertility decline, and a dividend associated with population ageing (Mason and Lee, forthcoming; Wang and Mason, 2004).

A. C HINA'S C HANGING P OPULATION A GE S TRUCTURE

In some ways, changes in China's population age structure resemble those experienced elsewhere in the world, but in other ways China is different. Age structure change in China, as in other populations around the world, is driven by declining mortality and fertility. During the last half century, mortality decline in China has resulted in a near doubling of life expectancy, from 42 and 46 years for males and females, respectively, around 1950 to 71 and 75 years in the year 2000. Mortality decline was especially rapid during the two decades after the early 1950s, when life expectancy increased on average by more than one year annually (Banister and Preston, 1981). Fertility decline started as early as in the 1950s in parts of urban China. By the beginning of the 1970s, it had extended to the whole country (Lavely and Freedman, 1990; Wang, 2001). Assisted by a Government birth control program that called for later marriage, longer birth intervals, and fewer births, China's fertility level was more than halved within a decade, from a total fertility rate (TFR) of 5.8 children in 1970 to 2.3 in 1980. In the 1980s, despite the newly implemented one-child policy, the fertility level in China fluctuated around the replacement level of 2.1 (Feeney and others, 1989; Feeney and Wang, 1993). In the 1990s, however, China’s fertility renewed its downward trajectory. By the end of the twentieth century, Chinese fertility was well below the replacement level, at around 1.6 children per woman (Retherford and others, 2005).

China’s population age profile contains some unique characteristics, resulting from its history of social and demographic change. Two such special characteristics are of particular importance to changes in the population age structure. The first is the drastic fertility decline within a relatively short time period, rarely seen elsewhere in the world. The second is a sharp increase in mortality and a plunge in fertility caused by the Great Leap Forward famine of 1959-1961. The famine resulted in an estimated 30 million premature deaths and 33 million lost or postponed births (Ashton and others, 1984; Kane, 1988). It was also followed by a sharp rebound in the birth rate that lasted for several years in the 1960s.

China's population age structure reflects the effects of these underlying demographic forces. Figure I shows population age pyramids for China based on the 1982 and 2000 censuses and our projections for 2030. At the start of China's recent economic boom, 1982, China's population age structure was largely a bottom-heavy one, characteristic of a young and growing population. The population deficits due to the famine (those aged 20-24 in 1982) and the impact of fertility decline of the 1970s (affecting ages below 10 years) are clearly visible. In contrast, by 2000, China's population age structure was that of a mature population, where the largest shares are found in the working age populations. Projected only thirty years ahead, with assumptions of a moderate further improvement in life expectancy and continuation of the current fertility level, China's population age structure will be a very old one. Thus, within half of a century, China's age structure would have moved from one that is characteristic of a young and growing population to an old and declining one. What effect, if any, may these profound demographic changes as seen in these age structures have on China's economy? In the following sections of the paper, we attempt to answer this question.

B.F ERTILITY D ECLINE AND THE F IRST D IVIDEND

The demographic transition interacts with a fundamental feature of any economy—its lifecycle variation in consumption and production. Humans have an extended period of economic dependency at the beginning of their lives and, in modern industrial societies, at the end. During these ages of dependency or production-deficit ages, individuals consume, on average, more than they produce. During the prime working ages or surplus ages, individuals produce more than they

consume. Detailed information about the lifecycle of production and consumption in China is limited. However, the estimated production and consumption profiles for urban China in 2000 (figure II) are similar to those found in other countries.2

The divergence between production and consumption interacts with changes in population age structure to generate what is called a demographic dividend (Bloom and Williamson,1998; Mason, 2001; Bloom and others, 2002) which more recently has been described as two demographic dividends (Mason and Lee, forthcoming). The first dividend arises because the demographic transition induces changes in population age structure that increase the share of the population concentrated at the productive ages. The second dividend arises as individual behaviour and public policy respond to anticipated changes in population age structure, for example, increases in the need to provide for retirement, as discussed in more detail below. An important point that is emphasized below is that the demographic dividends are dependent on the policy environment in which population change is occurring, especially in China.

The first dividend refers to increases in the growth rate of income per capita that come about when the productive population grows at a faster rate than the total population. However, this period must eventually come to an end. As the demographic transition proceeds, growth in the working-age population will eventually become slower than that of the total population, as the proportion in the older ages rises. The effect will be to depress growth in per capita output and per capita consumption.

Analysis that emphasizes only the variation in productivity with age is incomplete. Consumption also varies with age. If age groups with low productivity and high consumption increase, the aggregate effects are magnified in comparison to growth in an age group with low productivity and low consumption. Thus, the analysis presented here uses the support ratio to quantify the first dividend (Mason and Lee, forthcoming). The support ratio is the ratio of the effective number of producers to the effective number of consumers. The effective number of workers is weighted by age-specific productivity weights while the effective number of consumers is weighted to allow for variation in consumption by age (Cutler and others,1990).3 The first dividend is positive if the support ratio is increasing. Given constant age profiles of productivity and consumption, output per effective consumer increases at the same rate as the support ratio grows, which depends, in turn, entirely on changes in population age structure.

For China, the magnitude and sign of the first dividend vary substantially over three periods (figure III). From 1982 to 2000, the demographic situation was especially favourable as changes in the support ratio had a strong positive effect on output per worker. The support ratio increased by 28 per cent or at an average annual rate of 1.3 per cent. During the same period real GDP per capita (PPP adjusted) grew at an annual rate of 8.4 per cent per year (World Bank, 2004). Thus, the first demographic dividend accounted for 15 per cent of China’s economic growth between 1982 and 2000.

For the most part the gains from the first demographic dividend have been reaped in China. Between 2000 and 2013 the support ratio is projected to continue to rise but at a much slower pace. For the entire period the first dividend yields an increase in output per capita of 4 per cent—an annual growth rate of 0.3 per cent. The support ratio is projected to reach a peak in 2013 and then begin a sustained, gradual decline. By 2050, the projected support ratio will be only 85 per cent of the level reached in 2013. Growth in output per capita will be reduced by 0.45 per cent per year between 2014 and 2050 as a result of changing age structure as the first demographic dividend passes.

Trends in the support ratio combine the changes in the effective labour force and the effective number of consumers that are of interest in their own right. These components are shown separately in figure IV. The growth rate in the effective labour force—producers—peaked in the late 1980s and early 1990s at 3 per cent per annum. Currently the rate of growth is about half that at 1.5 per cent per annum and is declining steadily. Labour-force growth will cease altogether by 2020 and turn strongly negative thereafter.

China’s experience is similar to that of other East Asian economies (Mason and Lee, forthcoming). In order to compare China’s demography with that of others, we have constructed the support ratio using the same productivity and consumption weights employed in the analysis for China, but demographic data for each of the economies shown in table 1. Taiwan Province’s pattern is very similar to mainland China’s although Taiwan’s transition occurred somewhat earlier. Japan also experienced a dividend, but it came much sooner than in other East Asian countries. Throughout the 1982-2050 period, Japan’s support ratio will be in decline—depressing growth in per capita output by 0.4 per cent per annum for the entire period. Many countries in the West also experienced rapid growth in their support ratios primarily because of the baby boom in the 1940s and 1950s, but many, as illustrated by the experience of France and the United States, are now in a period of decline (table 1).

In China—and elsewhere—the first dividend is a persistent but ultimately transitory phenomenon. In China, output per capita is projected to be higher by about 10 per cent in 2050 than in 1982 due to the first dividend. Were the projection extended further into the future the net effect would be smaller. The contribution to annual growth in output per worker during the roughly seven decades tracked is negligible. However, output per capita is substantially elevated over the demographic transition. This is an event of considerable economic significance to those alive during the era of the transition. Moreover, the first dividend can have long-lasting effects if the increased income is re-invested in the form of physical or human capital, and/or institutional development. This possibility is explored in more detail in the next section.

T ABLE 1.A VERAGE ANNUAL RATE OF GROWTH IN THE SUPPORT RATIO (P ERCENTAGE),

1982-2050,C HINA AND OTHER SELECTED SOCIETIES

1982-2000

2000-

2013

2013-

2050 1982-2050

China............................................. 1.28 0.28 -0.45 0.15 Taiwan Province, China.............. 1.07 0.01 -0.60 -0.04 Japan.............................................-0.18 -0.24 -0.60 -0.42 United States of America..............0.44 -0.46 -0.04 0.01 France...........................................0.40 -0.41 -0.17 -0.06

N OTES: All values calculated using the income and consumption profiles for urban China in 2000 Single year of age data interpolated using Sprague multipliers.

Sources: For China population data see text: For Taiwan Province population data ROC MOI (various years).

For Japan, United States, and France, United Nations (2003).

C.P OPULATION A GEING AND THE S ECOND D IVIDEND

As shown above, China’s rapid fertility decline in the 1970s has brought it a substantial demographic dividend. The arrival of the demographic dividend coincided with China’s recent economic boom, thus further fuelling an already rapidly growing and dynamic economy. An

abundant labour supply, combined with relatively small shares of younger and older dependents, not only helped to make China become the world’s factory at the turn of the twenty-first century, but also contributed to increasing output per capita and thus the standard of living. Such a dividend, as we discuss above, is transitory and will soon be exhausted. China’s unusually rapid fertility decline means that it will also face undergo a more rapid and severe process of ageing. China’s 2000 census revealed that the shares of the older population had risen to 10.5 and 7.1 per cent for those aged 60 and 65 above, respectively, from 7.6 and 4.9 per cent in 1982. China’s rapid fertility reduction and its recent low fertility levels and improved life expectancy will accelerate China's ageing process in the near future.

Yet population ageing, given appropriate policy and institutional arrangements, may bring China a second demographic dividend. The first demographic dividend, discussed above, quantifies the effects of changes in the support ratio, holding output per worker constant. A second demographic dividend may arise because changes in age structure can influence the processes that lead to the creation of wealth. A possibility—one that has been realized in other East Asian economies—is that population ageing will lead to rapid accumulation of capital. When this occurs, the capital-intensity of the economy will raise labour productivity – output per worker. Traditionally, the effect of population on capital-deepening is considered in the standard neo-classical economic model that assumes that the saving rate is constant (Solow, 1956). The approach taken here, however, builds on elaborations of the neo-classical model that treat saving and wealth as endogenous (Tobin, 1967; Mason, 1987; Willis, 1988; Lee, 1994).

With increases in life expectancy, the expected duration of retirement rises. Individuals must accumulate additional wealth or face substantial reductions in standards of living during old age. The wealth can come in several forms, however. One possibility is the accumulation of additional capital. The other is the accumulation of transfer wealth—increases in the obligations of future generations to provide old age support either through public pension plans or as part of familial support systems. Either form of wealth can meet the retirement needs of a growing older population, but increases in capital influence the level of output and economic growth, while increases in transfer wealth do not (Lee, 1994). A third possibility is that neither transfer wealth nor capital is accumulated. In this case, favourable effects on productivity are not achieved and standards of living of the older persons deteriorate.

The analysis presented here relies on a highly stylized model of the economy (Mason 2005). Suppose that the cross-sectional age profiles of production and consumption—the shape but not the level—are held constant. The profile of production reflects persistent effects of experience and obsolescence. We abstract from changes in labour force behaviour, e.g., changes in retirement behaviour and changes in returns to experience related to increases in educational attainment or other forces. The profile of consumption reflects preferences about own consumption and preferences about the consumption of others reflecting altruism or political processes.

Under these conditions, changes in population age structure lead to a substantial decline in the resources that must be reallocated from working generations to children and a substantial increase in the resources that must be shifted from workers to the elderly. The shift is quite evident in figure V, which shows the distributions of aggregate consumption and labour income by age for 1982, 2000, and 2050 and the associated age reallocations. These charts are constructed using the profiles and population age distributions shown in figure I.4 Two inter-age flows, from workers to children and from workers to the elderly, are summarized by the arrows shown in figure V. The foot of the arrow in each of the panels in figure

V is located at the mean age of the outflow from workers and the head of the arrow is at the mean age of the inflow to recipients. For the 1982 panel, for example, the mean age of the outflow from workers to children is 37 years while the mean age of the inflow to children is 9 years. The width of the arrow is the per capita reallocation. Given the assumption of golden-rule, steady state growth, the area of each arrow is equal to aggregate lifecycle wealth that must be maintained to support each age reallocation (see Lee, 1994 and Lee, 2000 for an explanation). In the case of downward flows, that is, flows from older to younger age groups, the lifecycle wealth is negative. It is negative because those who are alive are obligated to make transfers to those who have not yet been born. The obligation is not a legal one. Rather it is a social obligation to provide support to the next generations of children. The actual level of that support is unknown, but under the simplified assumptions followed here children are supported at the same level relative to adults in the future as has been the practice in the past.

The effects of age structure on lifecycle wealth are quite pronounced (table 2). In 1982, transfers are strongly downward from workers to children and total life cycle wealth is more than nine times total labour income and negative. As population ageing proceeds, flows to children decline and are surpassed by flows to the elderly. By 2050, steady state lifecycle wealth will be 2.6 times labour income. Steady-state lifecycle wealth required to support consumption by the elderly will rise to 7.1 times labour income. The important implication of table 2 is that population ageing in China must lead to rapid growth in the capital stock, to an enormous expansion of public or familial-based transfer programs, or to a significant decline in living standards among the elderly.

T ABLE 2.L IFECYCLE WEALTH IN C HINA,1982,2000, AND 2050

1982 2000 2050

Mean age of consumption.......................................28.0 32.5 44.4

Mean age of production..........................................37.3 37.8 41.8

Ratio of lifecycle wealth to labour income

Total....................................................................-9.2 -5.3 2.6

Support of child dependents...............................-11.2 -7.8 -4.5

Support of elderly dependents............................ 2.0 2.5 7.1

N OTE: Calculations use age-profiles of household consumption and labour income estimated from the 2000 Urban Income and Expenditure Survey. Estimate of life cycle wealth for the support of child

dependents is based on the mean age at childbearing in 2000 from the projections for China. Lifecycle

wealth calculations assume golden rule, steady-state growth.

The magnitude of the second demographic dividend depends on the particular mechanisms used to reallocate resources. Economic reform adds complexity to the picture in China because the institutions and mechanisms used to achieve reallocations are a fundamental feature of reform. Resources can be reallocated from surplus ages to deficit ages in different forms and relying on different institutions (table 3). In China’s post-reform economy three forms became available: capital, transfers, and credit. Capital can be accumulated at surplus ages; later, at deficit ages, it yields capital income and can be liquidated. An important point to note is that capital held by individuals can only be used to reallocate resources from younger to older ages. Secondly, those in deficit ages can rely on current transfers from those in surplus ages. Thirdly, individuals can rely on credit markets. Those at surplus ages can lend to children, relying on loan repayments later in life when they are at deficit ages. Credit markets play a small role in inter-age reallocation systems, however, because of constraints on indebtedness.5

T ABLE 3. R EALLOCATION SYSTEM

Institution Form Family Market State Capital Housing Factories Public infrastructure Consumer durables Inventories State owned enterprises

Education Farms Funded pension plans

Childrearing costs Public education Support of elderly Public health care

Transfers Bequests Public debt

Unfunded pension plans

Credit Familial loans Consumer credit Student loans

N OTE : Adapted from Lee (1994).

In a market economy, three institutions are involved in reallocations. In many societies, the family is the principle institution responsible for reallocating resources across age groups, and in virtually all societies, families dominate reallocations to children. Two other institutions, the market and the state, vary in their importance depending on the economic system. In pre-reform China, market institutions played little or no role and the State played a dominant role. In post-reform China, the emergence of a market economy and the recognition of private property have expanded the mechanisms available for resource reallocations with important economic implications.

Suppose that the reallocation system for the elderly relied entirely on capital throughout the entire history under consideration. Prior to reform this would assume that the State was implicitly funding pensions by investing in State enterprise. After reform capital accumulation became a combined responsibility of the family, the market, and the State. A complete assessment of the economic implications of these changes would require a simulation model that could be used to track the complex dynamics involved. However, an indication of the importance of the demographic change can be assessed using a highly stylized model of the economy - steady-state, golden rule growth. Under these assumptions, the population is assumed to be in a stable equilibrium, i.e., no changes in age structure, the saving rate and the ratio of capital to total output is constant, all economic growth arises because of exogenous improvements in the productivity of workers, and the interest rate is equal to the rate of economic growth. Under these conditions, the path of consumption over time is at its maximum in the sense that consumption in no period can be increased without reducing consumption in some other period. Demographic conditions in 1982, under steady-state golden rule assumptions, would imply a capital-output ratio of 2.6. Demographic conditions in 2050, again under steady-state golden rule assumptions, imply a capital-output ratio of 7.1. Given simple assumptions, an increase in the capital-output ratio of this magnitude would lead to a doubling of output per worker.6 The impact on the rate of growth of output per worker depends on the time frame over which the capital deepening occurs. Evenly spread over a century, output per worker would have to grow at 0.7 per cent per year. Spread over 50 years, output per worker would grow at 1.4 per cent per year as a result of capital deepening.7 Such a dividend, if materialized, is by no means trivial. It is roughly the same magnitude as the first demographic dividend China reaped during 1982 to 2000, the fastest per capita income growth period in China's recorded history.

These calculations are suggestive and there are many complexities that are not addressed. One is that in pre-reform China a large portion of lifecycle wealth, perhaps all, was held as transfer wealth rather than as capital. Lifecycle wealth represented the pension obligations or the

implicit debt of future generations as embodied in the State and its organs, e.g., State owned enterprise. To an unknown extent economic reform destroyed that lifecycle wealth.

A continuing issue in China will be through what mechanisms and to what extent lifecycle wealth should be replenished. Transfer wealth will necessarily play a major role, because the greatest obligations are to those who are near or who have already reached retirement. For them, accumulating capital is not an option, only transfer wealth. The question then is the extent to which pension obligations are absorbed by the State (taxpayers), shifted to private firms including State-owned enterprises (SOEs) that are privatized, or shifted to families.

A second complication for China is separating the transitional issues associated with economic reform from the ongoing issues that arise with population ageing. Establishing a large-scale PAYGO pension system would most readily meet the short-term objective of fulfilling obligations to current pensioners. Such a strategy, however, could commit China to a path that foregoes the second demographic dividend.

Direct econometric support for the existence of a second demographic dividend comes in the form of studies of the effect of demographic factors on aggregate saving. Saving rates must rise above their equilibrium level to produce an increase in the capital-output ratio. There is no doubt in East Asia that aggregate saving rates are well above equilibrium, but there are many competing hypotheses about why saving rates are so high in East Asian economies. A number of studies have found evidence to support the view that saving rates have been influenced by changes in age structure (Mason,1987; Mason, 1988; Kelley and Schmidt, 1996; Higgins and Williamson, 1997; Deaton and Paxson, 2000) and life expectancy (Bloom and others, 2003; Kinugasa, 2004). The magnitudes of estimated effects are sensitive to the methods and data employed.

D.C ONCLUDING R EMARKS

The available evidence supports the conclusion that the demographic transition has led to more rapid growth in output per capita in many East Asian countries where the demographic transition has been especially rapid. China has clearly enjoyed significant gains in output per effective consumer as a result of the first dividend. Whether or not China will enjoy a second dividend remains to be seen. Demographic change offers an opportunity for significantly more rapid economic growth, but only if the policy environment is supportive. It would be a serious error, however, to reach any welfare conclusions about demographic change, in general, and fertility decline, in particular. Two reasons for this seem to be particularly important to emphasize. The first is that capital deepening is achieved by foregone consumption. The resulting growth in output per worker is not a free lunch but comes at the expense of reduced material standards of living among those who are saving at such high levels. The second point is that rapid fertility decline in China may have involved an enormous sacrifice on the part of parents forced to have a single child. We do not know how many children would have been born in the absence of the one child policy. Nor do we know how to value the costs imposed by the loss of reproductive freedom.

In many ways, China has always been a demographic early achiever. Its mortality declined early and rapidly under a socialist planned economy and public health system. In this regard, China was much more successful than most other countries at similar income levels. China’s fertility also declined much more rapidly and earlier in the development process than

elsewhere—due partly to a Government birth control program that finds no equal for the extent to which it intruded on the reproductive decisions of couples.

Such a compressed demographic transition positioned China to reap a relatively large demographic dividend at an opportune time. China’s first demographic dividend, deriving from fertility decline, materialized at the same time that China underwent its most radical economic transitions and faced the strongest unemployment pressures. The demographic factor thus was a favourable factor in China’s economic growth during the last quarter century.

Being an early achiever brings with it a cost. As consequences of such a forced demographic transition, China will soon enter a long period of decline in labour supply, and will face a rapid increase in the older population that cannot be reversed easily and quickly. Whereas this ageing process may bring with it a second demographic dividend, such an event depends heavily on the right institutional environment. State-enforced fertility decline has also resulted in deterioration in accuracy of the birth statistics collection system, has caused a sustained and sharp increase in the sex ratio at birth and in excess female mortality at young ages, and has forcefully altered the kinship structure for many Chinese families. These social costs are not only severe but also long lasting.

Moreover, the general assessments of the economic impact of changing demographics in China conceal important sub-national variation. China's economic growth in the last two and one half decades has been highly uneven geographically, with most of the growth concentrated in its cities and coastal areas. China’s rapid ageing process will also take place unevenly across the country, due to the State’s differential birth control policies in the past. Assuming current fertility and a moderate improvement in mortality, in twenty years China's urban population will be as old as that in Japan or Italy today, with one-fifth of the population aged 65 or over. China's rural population, in contrast, will not reach this level of ageing until the mid-twenty-first century. The extent to which the Chinese economy will be able to benefit from the capital accumulation associated with an ageing population depends not only on the institutional forms of resource allocation, but also the allocation and utilization of such sources among its citizens.

Figure I. Population Age Structure, China (Male, Female), 1982, 2000, 2030

Figure II. Lifecycle Variation in Consumption and Production: Urban China, 2000

Note: Values normalized to total to 100 percent.

Figure III. Estimated First Demographic Dividend, China, 1982-2050

Figure IV. Effective Producers and Consumers, China, 1982-2050

Figure V. Consumption and Income Profiles, China, 1982, 2000, 2050

N OTES

1 China's best record prior to the current growth period was between 195

2 and 1972, when its economy grew by 64 per cent per decade, a record far below the recent one. Comparable fast-growing periods in other countries are: Germany during 1880 and 1914, with a 3

3 per cent per decade; Japan between 187

4 and 1929, with 43 per cent per decade; and the Soviet Union between 1928 and 1958, 54 per cent per decade (Meisner 1999, 417- 418).

2 The production and consumption values in figure II are estimated from the 2000 Urban Family Income and Expenditure Survey for China. Both profiles are normalized to aggregate to 100. Production is an estimate of the economic value of labor based on reported earnings and self-employment income. Consumption is based on detailed information on family expenditure on food, clothing, housing, entertainment, recreation, transportation and communication, etc. Housing consumption includes the imputed value of owner-occupied housing. The methods employed are comparable to those used in Mason (2005) and described in more detail in Lee and Mason (2005).

3 The effective number of producers is measured using the age-profile of productivity shown in figure II to weight the population. The effective number of consumers uses the age-profile of consumers. Rural profiles are not available although we hope to explore this more in the future.

4 For a detailed discussion of the theoretical underpinnings of intergenerational transfers see Lee (1994).

5Credit could, in theory, play an important role if children financed their own consumption by borrowing from adults with a lifecycle surplus. The debt would be repaid when children reached lifecycle surplus ages and their creditors reached lifecycle deficit ages. When children’s consumption is financed through transfers from parents and, to a lesser extent, the state, there is little demand for credit for lifecycle purposes.

6 Given a Cobb-Douglas production function, the relationship between output per worker and the capital-output ratio is:

1Y K L Y ββ???=????

Given an elasticity of output with respect to capital (β) of 0.35, a widely used estimate, a rise in the capital-output ratio from 2.0 to 7.1 would produce essentially a doubling of output per worker.

7See Lee, Mason, and Miller (2003) for a dynamic simulation analysis of Taiwan Province of China. The simulated transition from a low to a high capital-intensive economy required closer to fifty than to 100 years.

R EFERENCES

Ashton, B., K. Hill, A. Piazza, and R. Zeitz (1984). Famine in China, 1958-61. Population and Development Review vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 613-645.

Banister, Judith and Samuel H. Preston (1981). Mortality in China. Population and Development Review vol.7, No. 1, pp. 98-110.

Bloom, D. E., D. Canning, et al. (2003). Longevity and Life-cycle Savings. Scandinavian Journal of Economics vol.105, No.3, pp.319-338.

Bloom, D. E., D. Canning, et al (2002). The Demographic Dividend: A New Perspective on the Economic Consequences of Population Change. Santa Monica, CA, RAND.

Bloom, D. E. and J. G. Williamson (1998). Demographic Transitions and Economic Miracles in Emerging Asia. World Bank Economic Review vol.12, No.3, pp. 419-56.

Cutler, D. M., J. M. Poterba, et al. 1990. "An Aging Society: Opportunity or Challenge?" Brookings Papers on Economic Activity No. 1, pp.1-56.

Deaton, A. and C. H. Paxson (2000). Growth, demographic structure, and national saving in Taiwan. In Population and Economic Change in East Asia, A Supplement to Population and Development Review. R. Lee and C. Y. C. Chu, eds. New York, Population Council. vol. 26, pp.141-173.

Feeney, Griffith, Wang Feng, Zhou Mingkun, and Xiao Baoyu (1989). Recent fertility dynamics in China: Results from the 1987 One Percent Population Survey. Population and Development Review vol.15, No. 2, pp. 297-322.

Feeney, Griffith and Wang Feng (1993). Parity progression and birth intervals in China: Policy initiatives and demographic responses. Population and Development Review vol.19, No.1, pp. 61-101. Higgins, M. and J. G. Williamson (1997). Age Structure Dynamics in Asia and Dependence on Foreign Capital. Population and Development Review vol.23, No. 2, pp. 261-93.

Kane, Penny (1988). Famine in China, 1959-61: Demographic and Social Implications. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Kelley, Allen C. and R. M. Schmidt (1996). Saving, dependency and development. Journal of Population Economics vol.9, No. 4, pp.365-86.

Kinugasa, T. (2004). Life Expectancy, Labor Force, and Saving, Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Hawaii at Manoa.

Lavely, William and Ronald Freedman (1990). The origins of Chinese fertility decline. Demography No. 27, pp. 89-116.

Lee, James and Wang Feng. 1999. One Quarter of Humanity: Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities, 1700-2000. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Lee, Ronald, Andrew Mason and Timothy Miller (2003). From transfers to individual responsibility: Implications for savings and capital accumulation in Taiwan and the United States. Scandinavian Journal of Economics vol.105, No.3, pp.339-357.

Lee, Ronald D. (1994). The formal demography of population aging, transfers, and the economic life cycle. In Demography of Aging. L. G. Martin and S. H. Preston, eds. Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, pp.8-49.

Lee, Ronald D. (2000). Intergenerational transfers and the economic life cycle: A cross-cultural perspective. In Sharing the Wealth: Demographic Change and Economic Transfers between Generations. A. Mason and G. Tapinos, eds. Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp.17-56.

Mason, Andrew (1987). National saving rates and population growth: A new model and new evidence. In Population growth and economic development: Issues and evidence. D. G. Johnson and R. D. Lee, eds. Social Demography series, Madison, Wis., University of Wisconsin Press, pp.523-60.

Mason, Andrew (1988). Saving, economic growth, and demographic change. Population and Development Review vol.14, No. 1, pp. 113-44.

Mason, Andrew (2001). Population Change and Economic Development in East Asia: Challenges Met, Opportunities Seized. Stanford, Stanford University Press.

Mason, Andrew and Ronald Lee (forthcoming). Reform and support systems for the elderly in developing countries: Capturing the second demographic dividend. GENUS.

Meisner, Maurice (1999). Mao's China and After: A History of the People's Republic. Third Edition. New York: The Free Press.

ROC MOI [Republic of China Ministry of Interior] (various years). Taiwan-Fukien Demographic Factbook. Taipei, Ministry of Interior.

Retherford, Robert, Minja K. Choe, Jiajian Chen, Xiru Li and Hongyan Cui (2005). Fertility in China: How Much Has It Really Declined? Population and Development Review vol.31, No.1, pp. 57-84. Solow, R. M. (1956). A contribution to the theory of economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics vol. 70, No.1, pp. 65-94.

Tobin, J. (1967). Life cycle saving and balanced economic growth. In Ten Economic Studies in the Tradition of Irving Fisher. W. Fellner, ed. New York, Wiley, pp. 231-56.

United Nations, P. D. ( 2003). World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision. New York, United Nations.

Wang, Feng (2001). Fertility transition in China. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, eds.

Wang, Feng (2005). Can China afford to continue its one-child policy? Asia Pacific Issues. No. 17. Honolulu: East-West Center.

Wang, Feng and Andrew Mason (2004). The demographic factor in China's transition. Paper presented at the Conference on China's Economic Transition: Origins, Mechanism, and Consequences. Pittsburgh, 4-7 November.

Willis, Robert J. (1988). Life cycles, institutions and population growth: A theory of the equilibrium interest rate in an overlapping-generations model. In Economics of Changing Age Distributions in Developed Countries. R. D. Lee, W. B. Arthur and G. Rodgers, eds. Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp.106-38.

World Bank (2004). World Development Indicators 2004. New York, World Bank.

采购设备明细及技术指标要求

序号设备 名称 型号数量技术指标及参数 售后服务 要求 备注 一双频动 态GPS （RTK） 灵锐 S86 1+1 1、主板性能：OEMV诺瓦泰, 通道：54通道接收机，包括：14通道GPS L1+L2通道SBAS,14通道GPS L2P(Y)码或L2C码,14通道GLONASS L1（选项）, 14通道GLONASS L2（选项），至少兼容GPS+GLNASS 卫星系统 2、技术指标：静态平面精度为3mm+1ppm，静态高程精度为5mm+1ppm，静态作用距离：优于100公里， 静态内存：内置64M，RTK平面精度：1cm+1ppm，RTK高程精度：2cm+1ppm，RTK作用距离：优于8公 里，RTK初始化时间：典型15秒 3、数据通讯：标准USB协议，USB2.0、串口（RS-232），蓝牙 4、数据链：0.5～2W(内置)、GPRS/CDMA （内置）/25W（外置） 5、物理参数：工作温度：－45℃至60℃，存储温度：－55℃至85℃，外壳：全金属外壳，防水：用 水冲洗无任何伤害，防尘：完全防止粉尘进入（相当于IP65工业等级） 6、电气指标：（A）主机内置双锂电池包，使用时间：10小时（电池充满电），充电时间：9小时（B） 主机功耗：小于1.8W，外接电源：10V~15V 7、移动站和基准站需一体化设计，支持蓝牙通讯，内置电台，支持GSM/GPRS通讯，一体化要求：作 业要求用内置电台，完全无线化，作业距离在5KM-8KM。 8、手薄：英国PSION手薄，分辨率480*640（VGA），Windows5.0操作系统，防尘防震防水， 可20米深层防水。全中文的触摸屏，结实、耐用。同时配备两块高容量电池，每块可工作6-8小时， 内置蓝牙专业的TFT彩色液晶屏，主频达到以上520MHZ，有三个插口，内存256MB，可达到2G 9、电源动态使用时间：12小时（电池充满电）静态使用时间：14小时（电池充满电），充电时间：10 小时 1、免费送货、 安装调试并进 行相关技术培 训。 2、设备故障须 在8小时内做 出有效回应， 36小时内有效 处理相关问 题。 3、故障维修， 需提供同型号 或者同精度仪 器备用。 4、在本地有分 公司，方便售 后服务 报价中 包含数 据后处 理和工 程之星 采集两 套软件软件 数据 后 处理 软件 1 功能须具备处理南方公司各种型号GPS数据，如NGS200、NGS100、9800、9600。可兼容各种进口品 牌GPS的数据格式，如天宝、阿斯泰克、拓普康等; 软件工具自带坐标转换及四参数计算,方便自定义椭 球投影参数和坐标系统; 能进行星历预报，可提前知道天空GPS卫星的健康状况，以便选择最佳星历情 况进行野外作业; 软件基线处理结果更为严密，平差模型更加可靠; 能根据需要方便的输出各种格式平 差成果; 可全面自动处理所有基线,也可手动单条基线处理全中文界面直观: 软件操作简便,易学易用， 平差计算和成果输出打印等功能一应俱全。 1、免费送货、 安装调试并进 行相关技术培 训。2、享受软 件的免费适时 更新和相关升 级。 工程 之星 采集 软件 1 《工程之星2.0》采集软件GPS采集软件，基于全中文Win ce操作系统，灵活缩放的图形界面；表格化 的菜单结构直接的将常用任务菜单显示在屏幕上；野外作业的丰富特征，完善的编辑；标准工业化的多 种数据格式输出；控制点测量数据检核功能；支持坐标采集，完整的RTK矢量化，GPS原始数据和其它 类型的数据。软件荟萃RTK GPS丰富的行业应用功能：数据自动存储，放样、放线具有指挥功能，同时 具备电力线放样、断面放样、野外测图成图等功能；

SQL Server 2008 数据库案例教程课后习题答案

《SQL Server 2008数据库案例教程》练习题及模拟试卷答案 第1章 一、判断题 1. 数据库技术是是计算机数据处理与信息管理系统的核心。(√) 2. 数据是用于描述现实世界中具体事物或抽象概念,可存储的数字符号。(×) 3. 数据库是一个长期存储在计算机内的、有组织的、有共享的、统一管理的数据集合。(√) 4. 数据库管理系统是一个按数据结构来存储和管理数据的服务器管理系统。(×) 5. 关系数据库，是建立在关系模型基础上的数据库。(√) 二、单选题 1. 数据(Data)是一些可存储并具有明确意义的(A) A. 符号 B.图形 C.文字 D.数字 2. 人工阶段计算机用于数值计算，没有操作系统及管理数据的软件。这一阶段的年代是（C） A. 19世纪80年代 B. 20世纪20年代 C.20世纪50年代 D. 20世纪80年代 3. 在网页中常用的图像格式是（D） A..bmp和.jpg B..gif和.bmp C. .png和.bmp D. .gif和.jpg 4.数据库系统的重要特征是什么？（D） A. 数据的独立性和动态性 B．数据的静态性和独立性 C．数据的动态性和共享性 D．数据的独立性和共享性 三、多选题 1.与数据库技术密切相关的基本概念有（ABCD） A. 数据 B. 数据库 C. 数据库管理系统 D. 数据库系统 2.数据库可分为哪几种类型？（ABC） A. 关系型数据库 B. 网状数据库 C. 层次数据库 D.树形数据库 3. DBMS提供数据操作语言DML，为用户提供了哪些操作？（ABCD） A．数据的追加B．数据的删除C．数据的更新D．数据的查询 4.DBMS要分类组织、存储和管理各种数据，包括哪些内容？（ABC） A. 数据字典 B. 用户数据 C. 存取路径 D.服务器 5. 目前，DBMS常见品牌有哪些公司？（ABC） A.微软公司的SQL Server B．IBM公司的DB2 C．甲骨文公司的ORACLE D．索尼公司的MySQL 四、填空题 1.数据库（管理）技术经历了人工管理阶段和文件管理阶段。 2.文件系统不提供对任意部分数据的（快速）访问 3.关系数据库，是建立在关系（模型）基础上的数据库。 4.实体-联系模型（简称E-R模型）是由P.P.Chen于（1976）年首先提出的。

sql数据库示例,适合初学者

一、数据库概述 数据库（DataBase，DB）：指长期保存在计算机的存储设备上，按照一定规则组织起来，可以被各种用户或应用共享的数据集合。(文件系统) 数据库管理系统（DataBase Management System，DBMS）：指一种操作和管理数据库的大型软件，用于建立、使用和维护数据库，对数据库进行统一管理和控制，以保证数据库的安全性和完整性。用户通过数据库管理系统访问数据库中的数据。 数据库软件应该为数据库管理系统，数据库是通过数据库管理系统创建和操作的。 数据库：存储、维护和管理数据的集合。 二、数据库的安装与配置 * 安装 * 参照图解 * 一路下一步 * 配置 * 参照图解 * 到选择字符集时停 登录Mysql： mysql -u root -p abc * 卸载 1.停止mysql服务net stop mysql 启动mysql服务net start mysql 2.卸载mysql 3.找到mysql 安装目录下的my.ini datadir="C:/ProgramData/MySQL/MySQL Server 5.5/Data/" * 修改密码 运行cmd * 安装成功了打开cmd --> mysql -uroot -p你的密码 * 修改mysql root用户密码 1) 停止mysql服务运行输入services.msc 停止mysql服务 或者cmd --> net stop mysql 2) 在cmd下输入mysqld--skip-grant-tables 启动服务器光标不动（不要关闭该窗口） 3) 新打开cmd 输入mysql -u root -p 不需要密码

一个完整的数据库示例--说明

一、表的结构及完整性约束 新建一个数据库jxsk，包括S、C、SC、T、TC五个表，结构如下：C表： S表： SC表： T表：

TC表： 二、安全性控制及视图机制 1、三类角色：depart、teacher、student depart的权限： teacher的权限：

student的权限： 2、有2个院系用户：d_jsj，d_xx，同属于depart角色。

有1个教师用户：t ，属于teacher 角色。

有一个学生用户：s，属于student角色。 3、创建计算机系教师视图t_view_jsj、计算机系学生视图s_view_jsj，并授予d_jsj 用户在这两个视图上的select、delete、update、insert权限。 计算机系教师视图t_view_jsj： create view t_view_jsj as select tno,tn,sex,age,prof,sal,comm,dept from t where dept='计算机' with check option

授予d_jsj用户在计算机系教师视图t_view_jsj 上的select、delete、update、insert 权限： grant select,update,delete,insert on t_view_jsj to d_jsj 计算机系学生视图t_view_jsj： create view s_view_jsj as select sno,sn,sex,age,dept,resume,native from s where dept='计算机' with check option 授予d_jsj用户在计算机系学生视图s_view_jsj 上的select、delete、update、insert 权限： grant select,update,delete,insert on s_view_jsj to d_jsj …… 4、创建一个视图，显示学号,姓名,院系,课程名,成绩。 create view score_view(学号,姓名,院系,课程名,成绩) as select s.sno,sn,dept,cn,score from s,sc,c where s.sno=sc.sno and https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6610204035.html,o=https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6610204035.html,o 三、完整性控制--触发器、规则 1、要求当删除C表中某课程信息时，同时删除SC和TC中与此课程相关的记录。create trigger c_delete_trigger on c after delete as delete from sc where cno in (select cno from deleted) delete from tc where cno in (select cno from deleted) go

设备供货范围及技术参数表

投标须知 1 项目法人与招标单位 项目法人：湖北**雷山水泥有限公司 招标单位：湖北**雷山水泥有限公司 2 招标方式 本次招标方式为：由各被邀请投标单位根据本招标文件的要求编制标书，由各个投标单位将投标标书编制完毕后，于标书受理截止日前将标书邮寄或送达邀请书要求的地址后，由招标委员会集中开标和评标，并确定中标候选单位。 3 投标文件的编写 3.1 各投标单位收到招标文件后，请按本招标文件中所要求的投标文 件格式编写，以利评标委员会评标。 3.2 投标文件的计量单位请采用法定的计量单位。 3.3 投标文件的报价：请按总价（含运费）和单项价格进行报价。 4 投标文件数量及密封 4.1 数量：肆本，其中正本壹份、副本叁份、电子版投标文件壹份。 4.2 密封要求：所有投标的商务文件请密封完好，招标委员会将只在 开标时间内集中拆封。 4.3 投标时提供资料：企业介绍、产品样本、产品说明等资料，应不 少于2份，可不密封提交。 5 开标、评标、定标 5.1 开标：开标工作由招评标委员会内部进行，不邀请投标单位参加。 5.2 评标：

①评标工作由招标委员组织技术、经济等方面的专家组成，并进 行评标工作；评标的依据为招标文件要求和投标单位的投标文 件。 ②评标的主要内容为： a、设备的质量、技术性能及可靠性； b、投标价格； c、交货期能否满足工程的需要； d、付款方式:预付款20%，进度款30%，提货款20%，调试款20%， 质保金10%。（或另行协商） e、质量保证期期限； f、合理化建议和优惠条件； g、产品业绩； h、标书要求的其他内容； i、有无履约保证金等。 5.3 定标：评标委员会根据各投标单位的标书情况经综合评议后，推 荐候选中标单位，并将邀请候选单位面谈，必要时对候选单位进行考察，以确定最后中标单位。 6 定标时限 从自开标之日起十五天内，其后未接到通知的投标单位均为未中标，招标单位不再解释未中标原因。 7 合同签订 接到中标通知的单位应于规定的日期内与项目法人签订合同，否则项目法人将另选其他候选单位。

数据库应用系统实例

淮海工学院计算机工程学院实验报告书 课程名：数据库原理及应用 题目：实验七数据库应用系统实例 班级：D计算机081 学号： 姓名：

一、实验目的 开发学生学籍管理系统小型数据库应用系统数据库连接、数据操程作序编写，熟练使用Microsoft Visual Studio 2005开发平台。 二、实验内容和要求 1．后台为SQL server2000, 2．前台为面向对象编程语言（可选择） 3．完成数据库连接 4．完成对前面实验所建立的studb109学籍数据库中的数据通过应用系统界面进行更新和查询等操作。 三、实验步骤和实验结果 1．连接SQL Server的数据库访问编程实例。编写一个应用程序来连接数据库名为studb109的SQL Sever数据库，并根据连接结果输出一些信息。 （1）.运行Microsoft V isual Studio 2005 （2）.新建网站

（3）.设计网站 using System; using System.Collections; using System.Configuration; using System.Data; using System.Linq; using System.Web; using System.Web.Security; using System.Web.UI; using System.Web.UI.HtmlControls; using System.Web.UI.WebControls; using System.Web.UI.WebControls.WebParts; using System.Xml.Linq; using System.Data.SqlClient; namespace web { public partial class_Default : System.Web.UI.Page { protected void Page_Load(object sender, EventArgs e){} protected void Button1_Click(object sender, EventArgs e) {try {SqlConnection coon = new SqlConnection(); coon .ConnectionString =" Server =localhost; uid = sa;pwd=; database=studb109"; coon .Open (); Label1 .Text ="连接成功"; } catch { Label1 .Text ="连接失败"; }}}}

技术参数报价表

附件： 技术参数报价表 序号货物 名称 品牌、型号规 格、生产厂家 数 量 ① 单位技术参数及性能配置要求 单价 ② 单项 合价 （元） ③=① ×② 备 注 1屏风 办公 台 品牌：远程 型号规格： 1380*650*1250 MM 生产厂家：广东 远程家具实业 有限公司 4位 规格：1380*650*1250MM采用E1 级环保板材，面板采用3.0CM厚 三聚氰胺环保材料，耐磨防刮， 不易受损，经防火处理，耐高温， 接触地面处带防刮垫，能有效保 护地板和支撑牢固，加厚铝合金 封边，铝合金1.8MM厚，宽38MM， 耐腐蚀光滑不磨手，稳固桌子不 变形，耐磨防刮，独立三抽屉活 动柜，600*650*730MM，带轮能轻 易推动。 7002800 2办公 会议 椅 品牌：远程 型号规格：PU 皮面 550*580*1080M M 生产厂家：广东 远程家具实业 有限公司 44张 550*580*1080MM，环保PU皮面， 透气性好，具有夏坐不闷，冬坐 不冷，耐磨性能强，橡木实木扶 手，宽6CM，耐磨牢固，耐腐蚀， 无特殊气味，不易变形，采用 3.5CM不锈钢管脚作为整体的支 架，结构稳定牢固，简约时尚， 经久耐用。 1004400 3会议 桌 品牌：远程 型号规格： 3350*2150*780 MM胡桃色 生产厂家：广东 远程家具实业 有限公司 1套 颜色：胡桃色规格： 3350*2150*780MM 1、台面：厚12cm,采用高密度板、 贴胡桃木皮, 2、基材：选用进口高密度微粒板、 纤维板，抗弯力强，不易变形； 3、实木：采用进口胡桃木，含水 率低于12%，保证变形小、不开裂； 4、油漆：采用名牌木器专用漆， 在恒温、恒湿高度防尘的面漆房 喷涂面漆。平整无颗粒、气泡、 渣点，可溶性铅≤90，可溶性镉 ≤75，可溶性铅铬≤60，可溶性 铅汞≤60，颜色均匀；采用环保 聚酯漆。 28002800

设备清单及技术参数

设备清单及技术参数 实时荧光定量PCR仪1台 （一）主要技术要求 1.内置96孔模块，可升级96孔快速模块及384孔模块； 2.开放5通道检测，连续波长检测，另外可以升级至6色激发光通道和6色检测光通道及21色荧光； 3.采用检测光滤光片分光，荧光通道开放，用户可自行添加荧光种类； 4.冷CCD检测器96孔/384同步成像； 5.最高温速率均可达到： 6.5°C/秒； 6.PCR仪温控范围：4～99.9°C； 7.动力学线性范围：检测10个起始拷贝，101~109九个数量级，致信度99.7%。区分度要有装机试剂盒验证：能分辨1250、2500、5000、10000、20000拷贝数的初始模板标准品各4个重复验证线性准确度，36个重复的5000拷贝和36个重复的10000拷贝能以99.7%的置信度加以区； 8.分辨单位细胞起始拷贝数1~5拷贝之间的样本99.7%置信度； 9实时荧光定量PCR仪可分辨起始拷贝数200与300的样本（0.5倍差异）；可实现单拷贝起始模板的区分； 10.35分钟以内完成40循环的快速荧光定量PCR实验； 11件组成： （1）配备完备的定量PCR软件,等位基因分析软件。原厂的探针及引物设计软件，可用于PCR引物，巢式PCR，多重PCR引物，RT-PCR引物和Taqman探针的设计和自动测试； （2）可配备相对定量基因表达软件，可同时对无限个数据进行自动的分析、比对、作出柱状图，用于基因表达，药物疗效考核等相对定量分析； （3）配备完备的定量PCR软件,等位基因（SNP）分析软件和阴阳性结果自动判定软件；

12.剂耗材开放；支持耗材：国际标准96孔 (0.2 mL) 反应板与光学盖膜，0.2 mL八连管，0.2mL单管； 13.触摸屏电脑：触摸屏电脑可备份还原超过100次的实验数据,可快速地设置多种应用； 14.报价设备具有医疗器械注册证。 （二）基本配置 1.主机一台； 2.计算机：处理器I5 9400或以上，1T硬盘，16G内存，100/1000M 网络接口(不低于此配置)； 3.装机验证试剂盒包括： （1）.定量PCR系统操作软件； （2）.原厂引物与探针设计软件； 报价须知以及提供资料： 一、各供应商自愿参与报价，不得提供虚假材料，报价产品渠道来源合法合规，并对提供的文件资料、报价产品渠道来源的真实性、准确性出具承诺函。 二、报价分为报价表（以人民币报价）和技术响应对照表，报价表内容包含不仅限于设备名称、生产厂家、型号规格、价格、货期、供货商联系方式等信息，报价为一次性报价；技术响应对照表对照我中心提供设备技术参数作正负偏离响应（报价表和技术响应对照表为原件）。 三、供应商营业执照、税务登记证和组织机构代码证或统一社会信用代码证的工商营业执照（复印件）。 四、企业法人委托书及法定代表人、委托代理人身份证明材料（委托

报价产品的主要技术参数

报价产品的主要技术参数 序号设备名称技术参数 全自动洗衣脱水机 （公斤）、容量（符合轻工行业标准）； 、滚筒规格≥?×； 、外形尺寸：××（误差正负值不超过）； 、电机功率：；高脱转速：；整机重量：≥； 、三层不锈钢结构，内胆、外筒、面板均采用耐酸碱、抗腐蚀的高强度不锈钢制造；、座簧式下悬浮结构，轻松化解震动，降低洗涤噪音，无需专门基础； 、主体结构采用分体轴承座与名牌轴承组合，使用稳定，维护简单，维修方便； 、高级石墨陶瓷密封，密封性能强，延长轴承使用寿命； 、采用德国博世力士乐精密变频器，变频器功率为； 、电脑控制器采用液晶触摸显示屏，智能式电脑控制，具有均布及段速脱水功能，保证脱水稳定、高效，另备过震保护功能，保护设备延长使用寿命。 自动干衣机（公斤）、电加热：容量。 、滚筒规格≥×。 、外形尺寸：××（误差正负值不超过）。 、电加热功率：；传动电机功率：；风机电机功率：； 转速：；整机重量：≥； 、全部采用电脑自动控制、自动恒温、正反转自动选择，特设冷风装置，提高工作效率和保证烘干质量。 、内转筒为优质不锈钢制作，双面经特别处理，不会勾损衣物。 、不锈钢风机叶轮：叶片间隙大、通风好，使用寿命长，毛绒不容易堵塞风道；震动小、噪声低。 、最新设计的抽屉式毛绒过滤清理滤网，毛绒拦截率高，大大简化毛绒清理工作。

售后服务及其他要求 1)报价方所投设备（产品）必须满足用户需求中提出的质保期要求；未具体要求的，质保期须提 供壹年或以上。 2)报价方必须具有专业的售后服务力量，设有技术维修服务机构。用户设备出现问题时，报价方 在收到用户通知后分钟内对产品故障响应、小时内到达现场维护，小时内解决问题的保证。3)供货商应提供设备维修电话及联系人，用户报修后，维修部须在规定的时间内派人员上门现场 维护，直至故障设备修复。供应商须在售后服务承诺中承诺到场维修的时间。 4)保修期内用户所购设备各部件发生非人为故障，中标方应免费上门更换同种品牌不低于原规格 型号的新部件。 5)保修期间内同一硬件一个月内连续次出现同一故障，报价方须无偿更换同一档次设备。 6)保修期后，产品原生产厂商须继续提供产品使用运行的技术支持，包括故障排除、零备件的供 应及提供终身维护服务等。 7)报价方应提供包括但不限于满足设备安装、使用和维护的技术文件，如仪器和附件箱清单、质 量合格检定证明文件、保修服务卡、使用中文说明和中文维护手册。

informix数据库操作实例

查看数据库实例名： dbaccess，然后选择database，在选择select，数据库名@符号后面的即为数据库实例名 新建数据库： 1、使用dbaccess进入informix交互环境 2、选择Database，回车 3、选择 Create，回车 4、输入数据库名：uniacctr，回车 5、选择 Dbspace（表空间），回车 6、选择跟局数据数据库bureaudb一样的表空间，回车 7、选择 Log ，回车 8、选择 Log，回车（选择日志模式，其他不支持事务） ; 9、选择 Exit，回车 10、选择 Create-new-database ，回车。 此时数据库应该已经建立。 查看某个数据库的表空间： 1、使用dbaccess进入informix交互环境 2、选择Database，回车 3、选择 Select，回车 4、选择局数据数据库bureaudb，回车 5、选择Info，回车 6、选择dBSpace，回车 图中rootdbs位置显示的即是表空间 / 关键字: dbschema工具： 1）导出数据库中所有的表结构到文件 $>dbschema -d your_database -t all 2)导出数据库中所有的存储过程到文件 $>dbschema -d your_database -f all 3）导出数据库中的所有对象（包含表，存储过程，触发器。。。）到文件$>dbschema -d your_database 4）导出数据库中一个表的结构到文件 $>dbschema -d your_database_name -t your_table_name 5）导出一个存储过程定义到文件 $>dbschema -d your_database_name -f your_procedure_name ） 6)如果导出更多的表的信息(EXTENT...) $>dbschema -d your_database_name -ss 7)导出数据库中对用户或角色的授权信息 $>dbschema -d your_database_name -p all $>dbschema -d your_database_name -r all 8)导出数据库中的同义词 $>dbschema -d your_database_name -s all

技术参数明细表

技术参数明细表一、招标项目技术需求 开标前必须自行踏勘现场了解项目需求。

二、其他要求： ★1、项目建设过程中涉及到的工作底稿、培训报告、系统培训资料、讨论纲要、会议记录、工作交接以及初步验收结果等文档中标人必须整齐归档后交予采购人，以便查验。 ★2、凡是涉及系统、平台以及系统集成等软件部分的项目项或项目点，中标人需如实提供软件代码开发环境说明、数据库字典、用户手册、测试用例和测试结果、系统维护说明以及有关系统接口的技术文档材料，如果涉及到驻场开发的其技术文档里还必须包含开发环境、需求分析以及变更说明等材料。 ★3、执行代码：包括项目开发中形成的代码或第三方已经申请知识产权的全部源代码必须交予采购人。 ★4、本次公开招标项目是为重庆市江北区数字化城市管理监督指挥中心终端设备及传感器采购项目，供应商应根据招标文件技术要求的配置，提供符合需方需求和实际情况一致的可操作的详细的解决方案，无特殊情况不得更改，所有设备性能指标的应答以目前可以下定单生产的产品为准，不支持正在研发中的产品，不能下定单生产的不能作为产品指标依据来投标。供应商须承担与投标有关的自身的所有费用。报价包括至验收合格的一切费用，如供应商中标后发现未预见事宜，可能需要增加的设备材料或其它费用全部由中标供应商自行解决，采购人不再追加价款。由此引起的违约行为，依照合同约定处理。 ★5、本系统建设主要包括三部分建设内容：（1）环卫车辆监管设备采购，（2）终端监控传输设备采购，（3）软件系统升级； ★6、本次项目在重庆市江北环卫智能管理系统的基础上进行系统优化升级，完善渣土管理等子系统，依托环卫业务的实际运用，根据环卫业务监管的具体要求，以信息化的手段建立一个标准的、规范的、高效的监管运行体系。 ★7、本次所采购设备必须与采购人现有智慧环卫管理系统进行无缝接入、

报价清单及技术要求

附件: 报价清单及技术要求

2.工程量按实结算（项目以外增加内容以工程联系单计算工程量）并以学校审计为准。 3.采购清单中的产品，如果学校推荐了参考厂家，仅指该产品的技术参数，在满足条件的情况下允许报其他符合要求的生产厂家的产品。

第 4 页共6 页

2.工程量按实结算（项目以外增加内容以工程联系单计算工程量）并以学校审计为准。 第 5 页共6 页

询价单编号：浙江万里学院（询19-09） 三、设备搬迁步骤（必须现场确认搬迁数量和步骤等） 第一步：5506房间内19张桌子加20张椅子加一张大讲台黑桌全部搬到7106房间； 第二步：4115电脑搬到5304库房； 第三步：原4115房间的双人桌子20张搬到5506门口 第四步： A、5506房间布线（强电+弱电）共39个网络+电源点 电脑在5506房间内,交换机从4115移取 B、4115西侧墙面做粉刷，包括强电空开箱粉刷前拆和粉刷后装等 C、安装幕布投影仪等 第五步： 10号楼406房间，28双人桌+椅子+投影+幕布+音箱+讲台+功放+教师电脑+无线，先搬到5#楼库房。 第六步：10号楼406房间强弱电网线重新布线点位置，33个幕布+投影+音箱+功放+无线等从原5408移取； 第七步：5408整体搬迁去10号楼406室； 第八步：5408重新布线，51个点位，投影+幕布+音箱从原10506移取； 第九步：10506室共72台电脑测出51台好的电脑去5408，其他21台去库房；从10506移取51张桌子去5408室； 第十步：10506室重新布线41个点投影+幕布+音箱从原5502移取； 第十一步：5502搬全套去10506室 第十二步：4115室重新布线45个网络电源点，投影+幕布+音箱等从5203移取； 第十三步：5203整体搬去4115室。

delphi7操作SQLdata数据库简单实例

系统登录对话框(SQL数据库验证) 统登录对话框（如图1-1 所示）是一般的数据库管理系统的基本功能之一，用于提供系统用户登录身份验证功能，只有成功登录之后才能启动和使用系统，从而保证系统数据安全。系统登录对话框用两个文本框分别输入用户名和登录口令，按钮用于执行用户名和登录口令验证，按钮用于退出登录。 本例讲述delphi中，使用SQL数据库连接验证系统登录。 ADOConnection组件 ADOQuery组件 系统登录对话框主要有以下特点： （1）界面简单。对话框中只需要使用标签显示文本框提示，用文本框来输入用户名和登录口令，用命令按钮执行用户和密码的验证以及系统的退出。 （2）基于数据库验证。一般数据库管理系统登录对话框在实现时都将用户登录信息（用户名和登录口令）保存在数据库中，这样便于管理系统用户，与直接将用户登录信息 放在代码中更有灵活性。 1．ADO Connection对象 ADO Connection对象代表了打开的、与数据源的连接，在访问数据源之前，必须先建立连接。本实例中用到的ADO Connection对象属性和方法分别如下：ConnectionString属性：指定连接数据源的基本信息，本实例使用ADO访问保存

登录信息的Access 数据库，使用的连接字符串为： “Provider=SQLOLEDB.1;Persist Security Info=False;User ID=sa;Initial Catalog=图书管理系统;Data Source=服务器名”。 ? Open方法：打开数据源连接。 ? Close方法：关闭数据源连接。 2．ADO Recordset对象 ADO Recordset 对象用于保存从数据源获得记录集，本实例中用到的属性、集合和方法分别如下： ? ActiveConnection 属性：代表数据源的活动连接，通常将其设置为已建立的Connection对象。 ?EOF属性：测试当前记录位置是否位于记录集的最后一个记录之后。如果当前记录位于记录集的最后一个记录之后EOF属性将返回True，否则返回False。 ?Fields 集合：包含Recordset 对象的所有Field 对象，即可使用Fields 来获得当前记录各个字段的值。例如，objRs.Fields("口令").Value获得当前记录的“口令”字段的值。 ? Open 方法：用于打开记录集，其参数为执行查询的SQL 命令字符串，如：objRs.Open（"SELECT 口令FROM 系统用户WHERE 用户名='admin'"） 本实例的实现包括创建数据库、设计表单、建立ADO引用和编写功能代码三个步骤。 1．创建数据库和表 △开始/程序/Microsoft SQL Server/企业管理器

报价明细表货物技术参数及配置一览表

报价明细表 项目名称：乐陵市公安局现场手印胶片扫描系统采购 序号名称单位数量综合单价总价 1 现场手印胶片扫描系统套 1 191000.00元191000.00 元 … … … … … … 合计：人民币（大写）壹拾玖万壹仟元整，￥191000.00元。 货物技术参数及配置一览表 项目名称：乐陵市公安局现场手印胶片扫描系统采购 序号货物名称 品牌、 规格型 号 技术参数 制造商名 称 保 修 期 1 现场手印 胶片扫描 系统 和众视 野、UV- FL1 现场手印胶片扫描系统包含提取介质“现场 手印提取胶片”和专用成像设备“手印胶片 扫描仪”两部分。其对客体表面手印的提取 显现，是先通过胶体材料对手印遗留物进行 粘取转印，然后利用光学成像进行逐行扫描 获取高分辨图像。目前的常规方法是利用刷 粉、熏蒸、喷剂等显现手段加配光拍照成 像。该方法与此相比具有多方面的优势，是 一种全新的现场手印高效提取解决方案。 一、软件 1.专用软件符合公安部指纹库比对录入标 准，PLC控制逐行扫描技术； 2.自动调整图像对比度； 北京和众 视野科技 有限公司 1年

3.图像自动镜像翻转黑白翻转 4.散射光成像增强和矫正算法提升图像信噪比； 5.多种配光模式可选应对多种指纹成因； 6.图像自带四周全长比例尺； 7.可输出标准指纹图库格式图片（512*512点，500dpi分辨率，8bit位深度，L形毫米刻度尺）； 8.全幅面精细扫描获取高对比度痕迹图像。 9.自动/手动调节曝光量等各种参数。 10.图像可在原大模式、全景模式、100%显示模式间自由切换，便于查看图像 11.可实现边扫描边出图。 12.可生成扫描工作日志文档，便于制造商维护设备。 二、硬件参数 1.其对客体表面手印的提取显现，是先通过胶体材料对手印遗留物进行粘取转印，然后利用光学成像进行逐行扫描获取高分辨图像。较之利用刷粉、熏蒸、喷剂等显现手段加配光拍照成像，该方法具有多方面的优势，是一种全新的现场手印高效提取解决方案。适用于曲面、棱角等异形表面，避免了粗糙、反光、花纹等背景干扰； 2.适用于汗、油等常见手印，以及灰尘、潜血等各种疑难手印的提取； 3.同时提取量微量物证及DNA等微量物证，不会对其产生破坏作用； 4.DNA物证提取率好于EZ-tape脱落细胞粘取器的提取； 5.配合专用手印胶片扫描仪软件获取优质的标准化指掌纹图像； 6.精密逐行扫描成像方式，扫描精度优于10

哈雷摩托车技术参数价格一览表

哈雷摩托车技术参数价格一览表 哈雷摩托车价格一直是大家所关注的。在这里，笔者汇集了哈雷摩托车众多型号报价及参数。供爱车的您选择。 XL883C 车价:$99,225.00 引擎︰风冷四冲程V型双汽缸OHV 2气阀 排气量︰883c.c. 最高马力︰-ps/-rpm 最大扭力︰6.83kg-m/3,100rpm 干重︰227kg 燃料容量︰12.4公升波箱：湿式多片5前速 XL833 车价:$83,700.00 引擎︰风冷四冲程V型双汽缸OHV 2气阀 排气量︰883c.c. 最高马力︰-ps/-rpm 最大扭力︰6.83kg-m/3,100rpm 干重︰227kg 燃料容量︰12.4公升波箱：湿式多片5前速 FXDI 车价:$148,905.00 引擎︰风冷四冲程V型双汽缸OHV 2气阀 排气量︰1,449c.c. 最高马力︰-ps/-rpm 最大扭力︰10.8kg-m/3,100rpm 干重︰287kg 燃料容量︰18.5公升波箱：湿式多片5前速 FXDCI 车价:$175,770.00 引擎︰风冷四冲程V型双汽缸OHV 2气阀 排气量︰1,449c.c. 最高马力︰-ps/-rpm 最大扭力︰10.8kg-m/3,100rpm 干重︰287kg 燃料容量︰18.5公升波箱：湿式多片5前速 FXDXI 车价:$172,935.00 引擎︰风冷四冲程V型双汽缸OHV 2气阀 排气量︰1,449c.c. 最高马力︰-ps/-rpm 最大扭力︰10.8kg-m/3,100rpm 干重︰287kg 燃料容量︰18.5公升波箱：湿式多片5前速 FXDLI 车价:$185,760.00 引擎︰风冷四冲程V型双汽缸OHV 2气阀

SQL数据库编程基础以及实例

实验须知 ⒈实验前，请认真阅读本次实验的全部内容，明确实验目的和实验任务，做好必要的实验准备。遇到较为复杂的程序应事先设计算法，可能的话，应写出程序代码。 ⒉实验前，应注意收集平时学习中遇到的疑点，留作实验中验证、解决。 ⒊提前五分钟以上进入实验室，不得迟到。 ⒋实验中积极思考、及时记录，有新的发现、新的收获或新的疑问的，及时记录，争取当堂完成实验报告。 ⒌珍惜实验时间，不开小差、不做与实验无关的事，更不得打游戏、 或上网聊天；如需要上网查阅资料的，应事先征得实验老师的同意。 ⒍保持实验室安静和清洁卫生，不得大声喧哗；不得在实验室吃东西。 ⒎实验结束时，整理好台桌和凳子，关闭电脑及显示器，安排值日同学，打扫实验室卫生。 ⒏实验报告应字迹工整，标点符号准确无误；书写程序时应使用缩进格式，必要时还可以添加适当的注释，增强程序的可读性。 ⒐如实认真填写问题解决与实验收获两部分，如果问题还未解决，也应将问题记下，留作今后解决。

目录 实验须知.............................................................................................................................. I 目录...................................................................................................................................... I 实验一、SQLServer2005的认识.. (1) 实验二数据库创建 (8) 实验三数据表结构的建立与维护 (11) 实验四数据查询 (13) 实验五数据表的操作 (17) 实验六视图 (19) 实验七索引、约束、规则 (24) 实验八Transact-SQL语句的使用 (27) 实验九存储过程和触发器 (30)

设备规格报价明细

第一章设备规格报价明细 第六标段：锅炉原理实验设备 上述采购包含一年的化验消耗品，清单如下：

备注 : 1.以上报价含税、含运费、含安装调试费用。 2.在质保期内免费维修，质保期为两年，终身服务。 投标代表签章： 第二章技术要求及规格参数 说明：凡下列技术指标中有品牌描述或指向某品牌的指标描述均为参考指标。 第六标段：锅炉原理实验设备 品目1微机全自动量热仪 1 主要参数 可以测定固态、液态可燃物质的发热量。广泛适用于电力、煤炭、冶金、石化、质检、环保 等行业。所测结果符合国标GB/T213-2008《煤的发热量测定方法》的要求。

1.1热量测量精度: 符合国标GB/213—2003 1.2温度测量精度/温度分辨率: 0.0001K 1.3工作环境温度: 10—30℃ 1.4测量筒容量: 2.3L- 51L 1.5电脑控制自动标定仪器热容量，测量弹筒发热量，高、低位发热量，自动显示温度及点火时间，自动搅拌及自动调水温，打印机自动打出测试结果。操作方便，结果准确。系统可异步控制双桶，亦可单桶使用。全过程汉字提示，采用windows操作系统。具有数据修改、制表、管理等功能。 1.6应用范围: 可用于测量煤、石油、炸药、粮食、饲料等固态、液态可燃物质的发热量。 1.7计算机参数 1.7.1处理器：第三代智能英特尔酷睿i7处理器I7-2600(CORE I7 3.4G 8M缓存) 1. 7.2操作系统：出厂预装Windows? 7 Home正版操作系统(含介质) 1. 7.3硬盘：1T SATA3 7200转硬盘 1. 7.4内存：4G DDRIII 1333 1. 7.5主板：Intel Q77（2个PCI,1个PCIEX1，1个PCIEX16，带DP，两个串口一个并口） 1. 7.6显示器：22宽屏液晶 1. 7.7显卡：AMD RRadeon HD 7450 或者NV G605 1G独立显卡（同时支持VGA+DVI+HDMI三个接口） 1.7..8显存：1GB以上独立显存 1.7.9光驱：DVD刻录机 1. 7.10网卡：集成千兆网卡 1. 7.11电源：主机电源260-300W,主机电源适应能力满足160-265V工作电压区间使用正常，具备国家级权威证书及检测报告。 1. 7.12机箱：立式黑色机箱,顶置提手设计,预留资产铭牌位置,顶置开关键,前面板音频输出端口与USB端口分散设计, 前置2个USB3.0,后置2个USB3.0、2个USB 2.0,后面板带有机箱安全锁孔，具备硬盘减震结构设计 1. 7.13键盘鼠标：防菌、防水功能键盘，USB光电鼠标 1.8打印机参数 1.8.1打印幅面A4以上；最高分辨率1200×1200dpi；黑白打印速度36ppm；处理器400MHz；内存标配：64MB，最大：320MB；双面打印自动；网络功能支持有线网络打印；无线功能Google云打印、AirPrint打印； 1.8.2首页打印时间<8.5秒；打印语言PCL6，PostScript;接口类型USB 2.0;10Base-T/100Base-TX（RJ-45网络接口） 1.8.3 耗材类型：鼓粉分离；墨粉盒型号标准墨粉：LT4637，高容墨粉：LT4637H，超高容墨粉：LT4637SH 1.8.4墨粉盒打印量：标准墨粉：3000页；高容墨粉：8000页；超高容墨粉：12000页1.8.5硒鼓寿命3万页以上 1.8.6介质类型：普通纸，薄纸，厚纸，加厚纸，再生纸，铜版纸，标签纸，信封，薄信封纸，厚信封纸 1.8.7介质尺寸A4，Letter，B5(ISO/JIS)，A5，A5(Long Edge)，B6(ISO)，A6，Exective，Legal，Folio； 介质重量60-163g/m；选配纸盒标配：150页+1页

投标文件格式-报价清单软件部分参数

第八章投标文件格式 （项目名称）招标 投标文件 投标人：（盖单位章） 法定代表人或其委托代理人：（签字） 年月日

一、投标函 致：寿光市自来水有限责任公司 1、根据你方招标项目编号为ZDZB-2017-151-2(SD) 的寿光水务控股集团智慧水务调度中心招标文件，遵照《中华人民共和国招标投标法》《中华人民共和国政府采购法》等有关规定，经踏勘项目现场和研究上述招标文件的投标须知、合同条款、技术要求和货物清单及其他有关文件后，我方愿以下列总价进行报价，按上述须知、合同条款、技术参数要求承包本项目的硬件安装和软件开发工作，并承担任何质量缺陷保修责任。 2、我方已详细审核全部招标文件，包括修改、答疑文件及有关附件，对这些文件的内容完全响应。 3、我方承诺机房建设按照国家有关标准和规定执行，并达到《信息系统安全等级保护基本要求》（GB/T22239-2008）中规定的第二级安全保护能力，并通过验收获得二级证书。其余合同设备、软件的质量、技术标准应当符合该商品的国家标准、行业标准，没有国家标准、行业标准的按照通常标准或符合合同目的的特定标准。 4、一旦我方中标，我方保证按照招标文件要求及投标文件中响应的进度组织实施硬件安装和软件开发工作，工期进度严格响应招标文件要求。 5、我方同意所提交的投标文件在招标文件规定的投标有效期内有效，在此期间内如果中标，我方将受此约束。 6、我方已提交人民币肆拾万元整作为投标保证金，其投标有效期与投标文件有效期一致。 7、除非另外达成协议并生效，你方的中标通知书和本投标文件将构成约束我们双方的合同。 8、我方已详细审查全部招标文件，包括修改文件和补充文件（如有），以及其他有