第八章讲义和习题
Chapter 8 Language and society
?Sociolinguistics ---- a sub-field of linguists that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live
?It is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.
The Range of Sociolinguistics
?1. the study of the evolution of one language over time
?2. the one of the wide variety of dialects across a given region
?3. the analysis of the way men and women speak to one another
The goal of sociolinguistics is:
to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.
What does Sociolinguistics Show us?
It shows us
?What is the reality of human speech
?How a dialect of a given language describes the age, sex, and social class of the speaker
?How to apply the acquired knowledge of the human speech to the social practice.
The relatedness between language and society
----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.
?Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)
The relatedness between language and society
?The use of language is in part determined by the user‘s social back ground. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)
The relatedness between language and society
?Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (―snow‖ for Eskimo) It is essential for Eskimos to be able to distinguish efficiently between different types of snow.
The relatedness between language and society
?As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).
Speech community and speech variety
?Speech community----- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.
?―For general linguistics, a speech community is all the people who speak a single language (like English or French or Amharic) and share notions of what is same or different in phonology or grammar‖ (Spolsky, 2000: 24)?Note: Bernard Spolsky, the famous American sociolinguist
Speech Variety
?Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.
Two approaches to
sociolinguistic studies
?Macro-sociolinguistics is a bird?s-eye view of the languages used in society. It looks at society as a whole and considers how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations.
In macro sociolinguistics, the scholars pay attention to the whole of a language or variety. They consider how language functions in the whole society and how it reflects the social differentiations.
Two approaches to
sociolinguistic studies
?Micro-sociol inguistics is a worm?s-eye view of language in use. It looks at society from the point of view of and individual member within it.
In micro sociolinguistics, the sociolinguist?s goal might be to show how specific differences in pronunciation or grammar lead individual member of a speech community to make judgments about the education or economic status of a speaker.
?
Varieties of language
In the daily life, almost every person has the experience of contacting a language which is different from his or her own. Even one single person speaks differently according to different occasions.
For example, a girl?s way of speaking to her boyfriend is definitely of different styles from the way she speaks to her linguistic professor.
?Example 1
?(Ray, a student, comes home after school.)
?Ray: Hi, mum.
?Mum: Hi. Y ou?re late.
?Ray: Y eah, that bastard Sootbucker Kept us in again.
?Mum: Nana?s here.
?Ray: Oh sorry. Where is she?
?Example 2
?(Leaving school, Ray runs into the school principal.)
?Ray: Good afternoon, sir.
?Principal: What are you doing here at this time?
?Ray: Mr. Sutton kept us in, sir.
An example of misunderstanding caused by international variations
?A British visitor to New Zealand decided while he was in Auckland he would look up an old friend from his war days. He found the address, walked up the path and knocked on the door.
?“Gidday,” said the young man who opened the door. “What can I do for you?”
?“I?ve called to see my old mate Don Stone,” said the visitor.
?“Oh he?s dead now mate,” said the young m an.
?The visitor was just about to express his condolences when he was slapped in the back by Don Stone himself. He turned around, and found Don Stone was still alive and was as fit as a fiddle.
?Actually, the young man had said “Here?s dad now mate,” as h is father came in the gate.
V arieties of language
V arieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers (functional speech varieties)
?Dialectal varieties
?Register
?Degree of formality
?Dialects: varieties related to the user
?Registers: varieties related to the use
Dialectal varieties
?Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). BrE & AmE
BrE is the basis for the varieties spoken in England, Ireland, W ales, Scotland, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Pakistan, India, Malaysia, and South Africa.
AmE includes chiefly the English of Canada and the United States.
Phonological differences
dance /α:/ /?/ can, glass, half, can
The treatment of ?r‘.
In the standard BrE, such sound has disappeared except when it is followed by a vowel.
In AmE, it is pronounced in all positions. Most Americans have a retroflex /r/ when …r? appears after a vowel i n words like car, far, towards, etc…
Lexical Differences
Meaning lost in BrE, but surviving in AmE.
e.g. fall: autumn
Orthographical Differences
Some words are spelt differently in AmE and BrE. On the whole, the words in AmE are spelt more simply than those in BrE.
W ords ending with –our in BrE usually end with –or in AmE. (color, favor, labor, behavior, neighbor)
W ords ending with –re in BrE usually end with –er in AmE. (liter, meter, center, theater)
W ords ending with –ogue in BrE usually end with –og in AmE. (dialog, monolog, catalog)
W ords ending with –ce and –ze in BrE usually end with –se in AmE. (license, defense, realise) Grammatical Differences
1) The treatment of collective nouns in AmE and BrE is different.
Americans tends to treat the collectives as single nouns whereas the British people were more likely to use them as plurals.
e.g. The family was/were invited to the party.
2) The speakers of these two varieties use the verb do with auxiliaries can and have differently.
Q: Have you repaired the bicycle for the girl?
AmE: No, I haven?t.
BrE: No, I haven?t done yet.
Grammatical Differences
3) Some of the prepositions are used differently in AmE and BrE.
e.g. He saw his ex-wife on/in the street.
The book caters to/for the readers below the age of 12.
He worked Monday through/to Sunday.
Dialect vs. Accent
Dialect is a regionally or socially distinctive variety of a language, identified by a particular set of words and grammatical structures.
BrE – AmE Cantonese
Accent refers to the c haracteristics of speech that convey information about the speaker?s dialect, which may reveal in what country or which part of the country the speaker grows up.
Shanxi accent – Henan accent
The difference between accent and dialect lies in the fact that the former refers to pronunciation only while the latter refers to grammar and vocabulary as well.
?Language and gender:The language used by men and women have some special features of their own.
(e.g. intonation, lexicon)
?Language and age :In many communities the language used by the old generation differs from that used by the younger generation in certain ways.
?(Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----boombox)
Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemingway, Luxun).
?Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).
Regional Dialect
?Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable. Geographical barriers are the major source of regional variation of language, loyalty to one‘s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change are among other reasons of such variation.
?American English, British English, Australian English, Chinese English, African English…
Major dialects of American English:
Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect
?Spoken mostly by a large section of non-middle-class American Blacks. It is a regarded by linguists a nonstandard dialect of American English.
?Phonological features of BE: frequent simplification of consonant clusters at the end of words when one of the two consonants is an alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/. passed—pass, desk—des
?Deletion of some word-final stop consonants in words like side and borrowed.
Syntactic features of BE:
?frequent absence of the various forms of the copula ―be‖.
?Black English Standard English
?They mine. They‘re mine.
?Y ou crazy. Y ou‘re crazy.
?That my bike. That is my bike.
?The systematic use of the expression ―it is‖ where Standard English uses ―there is‖ in the sense of ―there exists‖:?a. Is it a Mr. Johnson in this office?
?b. She‘s been a wonderful lady and it‘s nothin‘ too good for her.
?The use of double negative:
?a. He don‘t know nothing.
?b. I ain‘t afraid of no ghosts.
? c. Don‘t nobody never help me do my work.
? D. He don‘t ever go nowhere.
Age varieties
?The striking variation of age is well illus trated by children‘s language as it develops, regarding all levels of language from phonology to vocabulary and syntax. Age divisions are 2, 5 and 12.
Gender varieties
?V ariation in language use is also associated with the sex of individual speakers. Sex-preferred differentiation in terms of speech varieties of males and females exists in all natural languages across the world.
?Women in many countries are more status-conscious than men, and therefore more aware of the social significance of linguistic variables.
?Possible reasons for the differences are:
?a. Women are in a secondary positions
?b. Women in many cultures are related socially by their occupation, income, and other abilities
Sexist language:
?language use that reflects obvious sex prejudice. The use of sexist language does not mean that it is the language that is sexist but rather the social attitude connoted in the language is sexist.
?Sexist language concerning career:
? A career man A career woman
?aggressive pushy
?good on details picky
?follows through doesn‘t know when to quit
?outspoken mouthy
?exercise authority diligently power mad
?close-mouthed secretive
?climbed the ladder of success slept her way to the top
?Occupations associated with males: president, director, supervisor, manager, professor, doctor ?Occupations associated with females: secretary, typist, nurse, receptionist, school teacher, shop-assistant ?The meanings of some English words really echo the real traditional roles of men and women in history.
?For example: governor—governess master—mistress, career woman—man, chairman, policeman ?Asymmetric gender terms in English:
?Male term Female term:
?Paul Pauline
?Prince princess
?count countess
?host hostess
?heir heiress
?doctor lady doctor
?hero heroine
Towards complete equality in language:
?As social attitude towards women change in recent years, linguistic changes in many languages are taking place that reflect the feminist movement and the growing awareness that language and language use mirror social
attitudes and reinforce stereotypes and bias. The change can be sensed in the morphological variation:
The change can be sensed in the morphological variation:
?Traditional terms New terms
?mankind people
?manpower personnel
?mothering nurturing
?chairman chair/moderator
?mailman postal worker/letter carrier
?fireman fire fighter
?policeman police safety officer
?salesman sales representative
?dustman sanitation engineer
?to man to operate
?Linguistic forms associating sexist prejudice are always intentionally avoided in communication.
? a. When cleaning their houses, women should be through.
?It‘s important to be through wh en cleaning a house.
? b. Nobody wants a failing grade to be on his record.
?No individuals want failing grades on their record.
Sociolect
?Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation)
Gender varieties / genderlect
Gender varieties are caused by society rather than by evolution.
e.g. more approximate to the standard language
a greater frequency of the use of polite speech
The differences between male and female: W omen tend to use
W omen tend to use intensifiers more often.
?The following is an example from the novel Pride and Prejudice.
?Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a most excellent ball.... Jane was so admired. Every body said how well she looked. Mr. Bingley thought her quite beautiful, … I was so vexed to see him stand up with her. … I am quite delighted with him. He is so excessively handsome!
Gender varieties / genderlect
Register
?Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one‘s occupatio n.
?In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.?Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.
Three social variables
?Field of discourse (语场): what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why)and subject matter (about what)of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.
?Tenor of discourse (语旨): the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)
?Mode of discourse (语式): the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)
?The three aspects of registers actually connect with each other:
?Let us see a lecture on biology.
?Field: scientific, technical
?Tenor: teaching the students) formal or polite
?Mode: oral (speaking)
Degree of formality
formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen
?Frozen: used especially in ritual ceremonies and religious liturgies.
?Formal: among people who either do not know one another or are in circumstances in which anonymity is preferred.
?Consultative: among people who know one another well.
?Casual: among people who know each other well and who are in an informal setting, e.g. good friends at a picnic.
?Intimate: the language within a family.
In syntax
?Intimate: Up you go, chaps!
?Casual: Time you all went upstairs now.
?Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs right away, please?
?Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once.
?Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor by way of the staircase.
----Note: Different styles of the same language can be characterized through d ifferences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological.
In lexicon
More formal Less formal
Offspring children
decease die
peruse read
reply answer
participate in take part in
encounter come across
tolerate put up with
In address forms (Sir, Mr. Smith, Professor Smith, Smith, Frederick, Fred, Mate, Uncle Fred, Dad)
Standard dialect
?The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language. The standard language serves as a yard stick against which all other varieties are measured.
Features of the standard variety
1. It is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation‘s political and commercial center.
2. It is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect, rather it is taught and learnt in schools.
3. It has some special functions and it the language used on any formal occasions.
Pidgin and Creole
Pidgin
?Definition: A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
?Features: limited vocabulary and very reduced grammatical structure
Creole
?Definition: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole. ?Features: the structure of the original pidgin is expanded, the vocabulary vastly enriched, new syntactic-semantic concepts developed.
Pidgin and creole
Pidgin (洋泾浜)is a language which has no native speakers. It is a simplified language derived from two or more languages. It is a contact language developed and used by people who do not share a common language in a given geographical area.
Reasons for the development of pidgin:
a: the fast-developing commercial and political exchange
b: the colonization
It is through mistakes and compromises that pidgins develop themselves.
Pidgin and creole
Most pidgins originate from a fusion of several totally unrelated languages and they typically have a limited vocabulary and very simple grammar.
Many pidgins have been identified and altogether there are as many as sixty varieties of English-based pidgins: e.g. Nigerian Pidgin English, Papuan Pidgin English, Vietnamese Pidgin English, Chinese Pidgin English…
Tok Pisin: widely used in Papua New Guinea, has about 1500 lexical items, and about 80% derived form English.
e.g. Mi driman long kilim wanpela snek.
(I dreamed that I killed a snake.)
Pidgin and creole
Cameroonian Pidgin English:
e.g. Gif di buk fo mi.
(Give the book to me.)
Di moni dei fo tebul.
( The money is on the table.)
Pidgins usually originate from the business contact. However, when a couple who have different native languages and speak the same pidgin marry each other, the pidgin will take on social complexities and become more fully developed as people not only speak it to do business, but do so to fulfill other social obligations.
Pidgin and Creole
“It is no longer just a contact language, with limited social functions, but is called on to deal with and increasing wide range of social needs” (Spolsky).
A pidgin become creolized when they become the mother tongue of a community, and the process is called
creolization.
A creole (混合语)is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.
After a pidgin is creolized, there is another stage of development in which the speakers of the creole may be introduced to the standard language.
A post-creole continuum: standard language may play the role at one end to fulfill certain social obligation and the creole may function at another end in its specific field.
What happens to regional dialect
?Cross-cultural communication
?Regional dialect pidgin
?used as L1 by children
?creole
Bilingualism and Diglossia
?In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.?According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.
Bilingualism and multilingualism
It is estimated that there are more than 6000 languages spoken throughout the world.
People in only about 25% of all the countries are found to speak two official languages, and only in a handful of countries speak more than two languages.
Multilingualism is mainly created by three reasons: migration, conquest and intermarriage.
e.g. The Tukano live on the border between Brazil and Colombia. In their society, men must marry someone who speaks another language.
Case in Paraguay
Rubin?s 5 major variables to be considered in predictin g language use in Paraguay.
?Location
?Degree of formality
?Degree of intimacy of the speakers
?Degree of seriousness of the discourse
?Sex of participants
Bilingualism and diglossia
Diglossia (高低双语现象)refers to two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.
It is used to describe any stable linguistic situation, in which there exists a strict functional differentiation between a “high” variety and a “low” variety.
3.1. Diglossia
?Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.
?High variety or H-variety
?Low variety or L-variety
?For socio-cultural reasons, the high variety is regarded by many people as a more correct or purer version of the language, reflecting a social bias against the more colloquial low variety.
?Diglossia is a not a universal phenomenon. It, for example, hardly exists in English-speaking countries such as Britain and United States.
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics
Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts.
2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.
3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.
4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.
5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership.
6. From the sociolinguistic perspectiv e, the term ―speech variety‖ can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.
7. Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects.
8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.
9. Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language.
10. A person‘s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.
11. Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way.
12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.
13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages.
14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.
15. Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages.
16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.
17. The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn‘t.
18. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.
19. The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual.
20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.
Ⅱ. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c________.
22. Speech v_________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.
23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a d__________ variety of a language.
24. Language standardization is also called language p_______.
25. Social variation gives rise to s_________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.
26. S_______ variation in a person‘s speech or writin g usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.
27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or o________ language of a country.
28. The standard language is a s_________, socially prestigious dialect of language.
29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or v_______ languages.
30. A pidgin typically lacks in i_______ morphemes.
31. Linguistic taboo reflects s_________ taboo.
32. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments and has no l_________ basis.
Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
33. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.
A. Psycholinguistics
B. Sociolinguistics
C. Historical linguistics
D. General linguistics
34. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____.
A. use of words
B. use of structures
C. accent
D. morphemes
35. ____ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.
A. Regional variation
B. Language variation
C. Social variation
D. Register variation
36. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.
A. Geographical barriers
B. Loyalty to and confidence in one‘s native speech
C. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to change
D. Social barriers
37. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.
A. Language interference
B. Language changes
C. Language planning
D. Language transfer
38. _________ in a person‘s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.
A. Regional variation
B. Changes in emotions
C. V ariation in connotations
D. Stylistic variation
39. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.
A. lingua franca
B. register
C. Creole
D. national language
40. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.
A. vernacular languages
B. creoles
C. pidgins
D. sociolects
41. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.
A. female; male
B. male; female
C. old; young
D. young; old
42. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the ―polite‖ society from general use.
A. slang
B. euphemism
C. jargon
D. taboo
Ⅳ. Define the following terms:
43. sociolinguistics
44. speech community
45. speech variety
46. language planning
47. idiolect
48. standard language
49. nonstandard language
59. taboo
60. euphemism
50. lingua franca
51. pidgin
52. Creole
53. diglossia
54. Bilingualism
55. ethnic dialect
56. Sociolect
57. register
58. slang
Ⅴ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.
62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English and Black English.
63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises
IV. Define the following terms:
43. sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.
44. speech community: The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.
45. speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.
46. language planning: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.
47. Idiolect: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one‘s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech.
48. standard language : The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.
49. nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages
50. lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.
51. pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.
52. Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.
53. diglossia : Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in
a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.
54. Bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
55. ethnic dialect: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds . An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.
56. Sociolect: Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.
57. register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in partic ular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. Format reason, registers are also known as situational dialects .
58. Slang: Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.
59. taboo : taboo, or rather linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.
60. euphemism: A euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.
In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same general social background. For example, standard English forms such as "I did it" and "he isn' t" can be found more often in the speech of females, while the more colloquial "I done it" and "he ain' t" occur more frequently in the speech of males.
Another feature often associated with so-called women' s language is politeness. Usually, tough and rough speeches have connotations of masculinity and are not considered to be desirable feminine qualities. In general, men's language is more straightforward, less polite, and more direct, and women's language is more indirect, less blunt, and more circumlocutory.
This phenomenon of sex-preferential differentiation is also reflected in the relative frequency with which males and females use the same lexical items. For example, certain words that are closely associated with women may sound typically feminine as a result of that association. For example, some English adjectives like "lovely", "nice", "darling" and "cute" occur more often in female speeches and therefore cause feminine association. Fe males have also been shown to possess a greater variety of specific color terms than males, in spite of the fact that men do not necessarily possess less acute color perception than women. On the other hand, males have the reputation of possessing a larger vocabulary in traditionally male-dominated domains such as sports, hunting and the military.
A request in English such as " Close the door when you leave" can be phrased in a number of ways ranging from a harsh command to a very polite request:
a. Close the door when you leave.
b. Please close the door when you leave.
c. Would you please close the door when you leave?
d. Could you close the door when you leave?
Although the above options are all available to both men and women, it is usually the more polite forms that are selected by female speakers. In general, females are found to use more questions than declarative stat ements in comparison with males.
62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English and Black English.
One of the most prominent phonological characteristics of Black English is the frequent simplification of consonant clusters at the end of words when one of the two consonants is an alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/. The application of this simplification rule may delete the past - tense morpheme, so "past "and "passed "are both pronounced like "pass."
Another salient characteristic of Black English phonological system concerns the deletion of some word-final stop consonants in words like "side" and "borrowed." Speakers of Black English frequently delete these word-final stops, pronouncing ―side‖ like ―sigh‖ and ―borrowed‖ like ―borrow.‖
One prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the copula "be" in Black English, which are required of Standard English. Compare the following expressions in Black English and Standard Eng-lish:
(1) Black English Standard English
They mine. They' re mine.
You crazy. You re crazy.
Another distinctive syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of die expression "it is" where Standard English uses "there is " in the sense of ―there exists‖ :
Is it a Mr. Johnson in this office?
Another aspect of Black English is the use of double negation constructions. Whenever the verb is negated, the indefinite pronouns "something", "somebody", and "some" become the negative indefinites "nothing", "nobody", and "none", for example:
He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)
63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?
A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use. Obscene, profane, and swear words are all taboo words that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mixed company.
In sociolinguistics, a linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts. As language use is contextualized in particular social settings, linguistic taboo originates from social taboo. When an act is taboo, reference to this act may also become taboo. Taboo words and expressions reflect the particular social customs and views of a particular culture.
As linguistic taboo reflects social taboo, certain words are more likely to be avoided, for examples, the words related to sex, sex organs and excrement in many cultures. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments, and has no linguistic basis.
The avoidance of using taboo language has led to the creation of euphemisms. A euphemism is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. For example, we say "portly" instead of "fat".
In many cultures, people avoid using direct words that pertain to death or dying because it is the subject that everyone fears and is unpleasant to talk about. In the English-speaking world, for example, people do not ―die‖ , but ―pass away‖.
Euphemisms involve a wide range of fields. Although the use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones, the disassociative effect is never long-lasting . Often when the negative connotation of a word is recognized in its euphemistic form, a new euphemism will have to be sought for. However, an excessive use of euphemism may have negative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms have become cliches that are to be avoided in formal speech and writing. They also tend to be wordy and to give writing a timid quality. In addition, euphemism can be evasive or even deceitful. Because they are often improperly used to obscure the intended meaning, many people find them offensive and prefer plain language.
(完整)初二物理密度典型计算题
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1、一个空杯子装满水，水的总质量为500克；用它装满酒精，能装多少克？ 2、一个空杯子装满水，水的总质量为1千克；用它装另一种液体能装1.2千克，求这种液体的密度是多少？ 3、一零件的木模质量为200克，利用翻砂铸模技术，制作钢制此零件30个，需要多少千克钢材？（ρ木=0.6×103kg/m3） 4、如图3所示，一只容积为3×10-4m3的瓶内盛有0.2kg的水，一只口渴的乌鸦每次将一块 质量为0.01kg的小石块投入瓶中，当乌鸦投入了25块相同的小石块后，水面升到瓶口。 求：（1）瓶内石块的总体积；（2）石块的密度。 5、一个容器盛满水总质量为450g，若将150g小石子投入容器中，溢出水后再称量，其总 质量为550g, 求：（1）、小石子的体积为多大？（2）、小石子的密度为多少？ 6、一空杯装满水的总质量为500克，把一小物块放入水中，水溢出后，杯的总质量为800克，最后把物块取出后，杯的总质量为200克，求此物块的密度是多少？ 五、利用增加量求密度在研究液体质量和体积的关系的实验中，得到下表的结果： 液体体积(cm3) 5.8 7.9 16.5 35.0 40.0 总质量（g）10.7 12.8 21.4 39.9 m (1)液体的密度为_________Kg/m； (2)表中m=_________g
幂函数经典例题
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故t ＝1且f (x )＝x 85或t ＝－1且f (x )＝x 2 5 . 点评 如果题中有参数出现，一定要注意对参数的分类讨论，尤其对题中的条件 t ∈Z 给予足够的重视． 例3、如图是幂函数y ＝x m 与y ＝x n 在第一象限内的图象，则( ) A ．-1
《钢结构设计原理》讲义教案(83页WORD版)
《钢结构设计原理》讲义教案 钢结构的特点、设计方法和材料 一、钢结构的特点 （1）强度高，塑性和韧性好 强度高，适用于建造跨度大、承载重的结构。 塑性好，结构在一般条件下不会因超载而突然破坏。 韧性好，适宜在动力荷载下工作。 （2）重量轻 （3）材质均匀，和力学计算的假定比较符合 钢材内部组织比较均匀，接近各向同性，实际受力情况和工程力学计算结果比较符合。 （4）钢结构制作简便，施工工期短 钢结构加工制作简便，连接简单，安装方便，施工周期短。 （5）钢结构密闭性较好 水密性和气密性较好，适宜建造密闭的板壳结构。 （6）钢结构耐腐蚀性差 容易腐蚀，处于较强腐蚀性介质内的建筑物不宜采用钢结构。 （7）钢材耐热但不耐火 温度在200℃以内时，钢材主要力学性能降低不多。温度超过200℃后，不仅强度逐步降低，还会发生兰脆和徐变现象。温度达600℃时，钢材进入塑性状态不能继续承载。 （8）在低温和其他条件下，可能发生脆性断裂。 二、钢结构的设计方法和设计表达式 《钢结构设计规范》除疲劳计算外，采用以概率理论为基础的极限状态设计方法，用分项系数的设计表达式进行计算。 1．极限状态 当结构或其组成部分超过某一特定状态就不能满足设计规定的某一功能要求时，此特定状态就称为该功能的极限状态。 （1)承载能力极限状态包括构件和连接的强度破坏、疲劳破坏和因过度变形而不适于
继续承载，结构和构件丧失稳定，结构转变为机动体系和结构倾覆。 （2)正常使用极限状态 包括影响结构、构件和非结构构件正常使用或外观的变形，影响正常使用的振动，影响正常使用或耐久性能的局部损坏（包括混凝土裂缝）。 以结构构件的荷载效应S 和抗力R 这两个随机变量来表达结构的功能函数，则 Z ＝g (R ，S )＝R -S (1) 在实际工程中，可能出现下列三种情况： Z ＞0 结构处于可靠状态； Z ＝0 结构达到临界状态，即极限状态； Z ＜0 结构处于失效状态。 按照概率极限状态设计方法，结构的可靠度定义为：结构在规定的时间内，在规定的条件下，完成预定功能的概率。这里所说“完成预定功能”就是对于规定的某种功能来说结构不失效(Z ≥0)。这样结构的失效概率f p 表示为 )0(<=Z P p f (2) 可靠指标β与f p 存在对应的关系，β增大，f p 减小；β减小，f p 增大。 2．分项系数的设计表达式 对于承载能力极限状态荷载效应的基本组合按下列设计表达式中最不利值确定 可变荷载效应控制的组合： f n i QiK ci Qi K Q Q GK G ≤?? ? ??++∑=2110σ?γσγσγγ （3） 永久荷载效应控制的组合： f n i QiK ci Qi GK G ≤?? ? ??+∑=10σ?γσγγ （4） 式中 0γ— 结构重要性系数，对安全等级为一级或设计使用年限为100年及以上的结构构 件，不应小于1.1；对安全等级为二级或设计使用年限为50年及结构构件，不 应小于1.0；对安全等级为三级或设计使用年限为5年结构构件，不应小于0.9； GK σ——永久荷载标准值在结构构件截面或连接中产生的应力； K Q 1σ——起控制作用的第一个可变荷载标准值在结构构件截面或连接中产生的应力 （该值使计算结果为最大）； Q i K σ——其他第i 个可变荷载标准值在结构构件截面或连接中产生的应力；
密度经典例题解析
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指对幂函数经典练习题
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指数函数、对数函数、幂函数练习题大全
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钢结构识图讲义
钢结构识图讲义文件排版存档编号：[UYTR-OUPT28-KBNTL98-UYNN208]
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密度经典例题
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幂函数知识点及典型题
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一．钢结构施工流程 1.构件制作工序（预制阶段） 2. 构件安装工序（安装阶段） 二．施工工艺 1.1.1.1施工准备
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幂函数的典型例题.doc
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幂函数练习题及答案
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A ．]6,(--∞ ? B ．),6[+∞- C.]1,(--∞ ? D.),1[+∞- 9. 如图１—9所示，幂函数α x y =在第一象限的图象，比较1,,,,,04321αααα的大小（ ) Ａ．102431<<<<<αααα Ｂ．104321<<<<<αααα Ｃ.134210αααα<<<<< D ．142310αααα<<<<< １0． 对于幂函数5 4 )(x x f =,若210x x <<，则 )2( 21x x f +，2 ) ()(21x f x f +大小关系是( ) A.)2( 21x x f +>2)()(21x f x f + ?Ｂ. )2(21x x f +<2) ()(21x f x f + C ． )2( 21x x f +=2 ) ()(21x f x f + ? D. 无法确定 二、填空题：请把答案填在题中横线上(每小题6分,共2４分). １１．函数y x =- 3 2 的定义域是 . 12．的解析式是?? . 1３．9 42 --=a a x y 是偶函数，且在),0(+∞是减函数,则整数a 的值是 . 1４．幂函数),*,,,()1(互质n m N k n m x y m n k ∈=-图象在一、二象限，不过原点，则n m k ,,的奇偶性为 ． 三、解答题:解答应写出文字说明．证明过程或演算步骤（共76分) . 1５．（1２分)比较下列各组中两个值大小 （１)06072088089611 611 53 53 ..(.)(.).与；（）与-- 1α 3α 4α 2α
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