NOMENCLATURE

New Parametric Affine Modeling and Control for

Skid-to-Turn Missiles

DongKyoung Chwa and Jin Young Choi,Member,IEEE

Abstract—This paper presents a new practical autopilot design

approach to acceleration control for tail-controlled skid-to-turn

(STT)missiles.The approach is novel in that the proposed para-

metric affine missile model adopts acceleration as the controlled

output and considers the couplings between the forces as well as the

moments and control fin deflections.The aerodynamic coefficients

in the proposed model are expressed in a closed form with fittable

parameters over the whole operating range.The parameters are

fitted from aerodynamic coefficient lookup tables by the proposed

function approximation technique,which is based on the combina-

tion of local parametric models through curve fitting using the cor-

responding influence functions.In addition,a feedback linearizing

controller is designed by using the proposed parametric affine mis-

sile model.Stability analysis for the overall closed-loop system is

provided,considering the uncertainties arising from approxima-

tion errors.The validity of the proposed modeling and control ap-

proach is demonstrated through simulations for an STT missile.

Index Terms—Aerodynamic coefficient in closed form,feedback

linearizing controller,function approximation,parametric affine

missile model,skid-to-turn(STT)missiles.

N OMENCLATURE

model.On the other hand,parametric missile models(i.e., missile models with parameterized aerodynamic coefficients) were developed and utilized in[3],[4]for a fixed local operating range,and over the whole operating range in[5]–[8].In[5]–[8], however,the coupling effects between the forces and control fin deflections were ignored.In[9],a pseudolinear model was constructed by chaining together the locally linearized modes at various flight conditions and the on-line affine model was obtained through the computational algorithms.These models suffered from performance degradation due to neglected nonlin-earities and problems of implementation caused by the complex computational algorithm,respectively.In particular,the force components due to control fins of our missile system are not so small as to be neglected,as they were for several missile configurations[12],[13].Thus,for practical applications,it becomes desirable to obtain the parametric affine missile model for acceleration control,where the nonlinearities and also the coupling effects between the forces and control fin deflections are fully considered regardless of flight conditions.

In this paper,we present a new parametric affine missile model over the whole operating range,where accelerations are used as controlled outputs,and the couplings between the forces as well as moments and control fin deflections are fully considered.The proposed model uses a function approximation technique that is characterized by several local parametric models indexed by Mach number and the corresponding influence functions indicating the local influenced regions. The aerodynamic coefficients of the model can be expressed in closed form with fittable parameters.The parameters are fitted using the least-squares algorithm from aerodynamic coefficient lookup tables in off-line environments.

In addition,a feedback linearizing controller[14]–[16]is de-signed by using the proposed parametric affine missile model, which is simplified to a weak minimum phase model[14]by using the singular perturbation approach[11].This weak min-imum phase model is then used to design a controller that makes the overall closed-loop system follow a given reference model under the assumption that there are no approximation errors in the parametric model.The influences of the singular perturba-tion and the approximation errors are analyzed by deriving error dynamics and using Lyapunov stability theory.The validity of the proposed modeling and control approach is demonstrated through simulations for an STT missile.

The present parametric affine model for the STT missile is described in Section II.Section III presents the controller de-sign and provides a stability analysis for the overall closed-loop missile system.In Section IV,simulation results are included to verify the proposed modeling and control approach.Conclu-sions follow in Section V.

II.A P ARAMETRIC A FFINE W EAK-M INIMUM-P HASE M ODEL

FOR STT M ISSILES

In this section,we first describe the missile dynamics together with parametric aerodynamics based on a function approxima-tion technique,and then obtain a weak minimum phase para-metric STT missile model by applying the singular perturbation technique.A.STT Missile Dynamics

Using the body axis equations of motion and assuming a rigid body,the linear and angular momentum

vectors

(1a)

(1b)

where

,

).

Assumption2.2:The missile

has

,).

Assumption2.3:The missile is roll-stabilized (). Assumption

2.4:constant.

Remark2.1:Assumptions2.1,2.2,and2.3are usually made in modeling STT missiles.Despite Assumption2.3,the gener-ality of a missile model can be seen from the fact that even with Assumption2.3,yaw and pitch dynamics are coupled through bank angle.

Remark2.2:The approximation in Assumption2.4,which holds relatively well in realistic situations,was made in[10], where fast maneuvering and high performance were achieved with this assumption.As for the equality in Assumption2.4, the forward linear

velocity

CHW A AND CHOI:NEW PARAMETRIC AFFINE MODELING AND CONTROL337 Note that the terms related to can be included easily into the

first rows in(2a)and(2b).These,however,only complicates the

form of the resulting parametric affine model and were observed

to make almost no difference in performance through simulation

results.Thus,we derive the parametric affine model from the

above dynamics.

The aerodynamic

coefficients

(3a)

(4a)

Pitch

dynamics:

(4b)

where and denote the distances from the nose of the missile

to the center of pressure of the control fins and the center of

gravity,respectively.

In the rest of this paper,we consider just the yaw dynamics

as the same can be said of the pitch dynamics.

B.Parametric Function Approximation for Aerodynamics

In this subsection,a function approximation technique is in-

troduced for a parametric affine model for acceleration con-

trol.The technique is characterized by several local parametric

models indexed by Mach number and corresponding influence

functions indicating the local influenced regions,The aerody-

namic

coefficients

and

used in

this paper is of the following form with scheduling

variables

,

and

,respectively.

In the

following,are approximated by local

parametric models on local Mach regions,which is similar to

the models in[3]–[6].The Mach operating range is divided into

several local regions,which have their centers

at

.

Each local parametric model

for is proposed by

the following

form:

,

where

,are all fitting

parameters

for,which are obtained

by a curve fitting technique from a lookup table of aerodynamic

coefficients and can be tuned further in on-line environments.

When using the above local parametric models,discontinu-

ities occur at the borders of the local regions.To interpolate

among the local models and maintain the continuity of the

overall approximated function,we use locally defined influence

functions,which form a partition of unity[17]over the whole

Mach region.The partition of unity divides the whole operating

region into nondisjoint regions,as defined in the following

definition.

Definition2.1:Let a compact

set exist.Then

a

collection,defined in an open

set

containing,if it

satisfies the following properties:1)for

each,we

have

(7a)

338IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY,VOL.9,NO.2,MARCH2001 (i.e.,first-order splines).Here,we use radial basis functions

defined

by

(8)

where is a nonzero constant representing the shape of the in-

fluence function and determining the controller performance via

approximation accuracy.To satisfy the properties of Definition

2.1,the influence

function

:

,,

and can be considered as slowly time-

varying parameters depending on Mach number and bank

angle

can be described by a linear com-

bination

of

,

,are fitting constants.

Letting

(14a)

is a time-varying coefficient depending

on

(18)

where is a new control input variable that will be defined later

and is a nonzero parameter defined in(11).The resulting

dynamics,controlled by(18),

is

CHW A AND CHOI:NEW PARAMETRIC AFFINE MODELING AND CONTROL 339a nonminimum phase system can leave the zero dynamics un-

stable,and thus it cannot guarantee the internal stability.Similar

to [11],the dynamics described by (19)can be approximated to

a weak minimum phase model [14]as follows.

Since

in the second row in (19)is physically a very large

value,

is actually a steady-state value.

Then,(21)

The yaw dynamics in (21)is of weak minimum phase since

the zero dynamics,which have bank angle as a solution,are

physically stable [14].

III.C ONTROL L AWS AND S TABILITY A NALYSIS

In this section,we present a procedure for controller design,

and then analyze the stability of the original missile system.

A weak minimum phase missile system with no approxima-

tion error

(

.

Remark 3.1:This assumption has been commonly used in

the STT missile control literature [12].The time derivative of

the coupled

parameter

(23)as in (18),when the corresponding control input is chosen

as (25)

then the behavior of the system (22)follows that of the reference

model (27)

and this in turn,together with (24),

becomes

340IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY,VOL.9,NO.2,MARCH2001

where

(32)

(33)

and

(35)

(39)

Meanwhile,the reduced

system

(40)

(22)and(25)

become

(42)

The output

error

(43)

Finally,the first and third rows in(31)can be directly obtained

from(39),(41),and(43).This completes the proof.(Q.E.D.)

Propositions3.1and3.2will be used in the following the-

orem on the stability and performance analysis for the overall

closed-loop system with approximation errors.Here,we assume

the following.

Assumption3.2:The approximation

errors

CHW A AND CHOI:NEW PARAMETRIC AFFINE MODELING AND CONTROL

341

(a)

(b)

Fig.1.C ; )from the lookup table (a)and its parametric model

^C ; )(b).

ally assumed to be bounded.These assumptions imply that the

approximation errors have the property that when the angle of

attack and sideslip angle remain within the range of interest

for the designed controller,approximation errors also remain

bounded.The analysis described here has significance in that

the validity of the weak minimum phase system with approxi-

mate parametric aerodynamics is discussed in a logical way.

IV .S IMULATION R ESULTS

The proposed approach was applied to an STT missile.Simu-

lations were performed in two directions:first,to show that the

proposed parametric model based on function approximations

is a valid representation of the actual model with aerodynamic

lookup tables;second,to evaluate the performance of the de-

signed controller using the parametric affine missile model.

A.Parametric Expression of the Lookup Table for Aerodynamic

Coefficients

The fitting

parameters,in the parametric

model

.As

shown in Fig.

1,

.shows the same

results.

(a)(b)Fig.2.C (b);M .

Each in (5)can be approximated also for each Mach number by the local parametric models of (6a)and (6b).The lookup tables

for are given in six tables indexed by Mach number

as .For the

given ,in (8)are chosen

as .The same results have been ob-tained

for ,

and

and

342IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY,VOL.9,NO.2,MARCH2001

(a)

(b)

Fig.3.C

(b);M

CHW A AND CHOI:NEW PARAMETRIC AFFINE MODELING AND CONTROL

343

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5.Missile-target intercept engagement.(a)Three-dimensional missile-target tracking trajectory (M:Missile,T:target).(b)Evolution of forward linear velocity U with time.

parameters as the rise time,steady-state error,and overshoot are all satisfactory.In particular,the rise time can be made to be smaller by choosing other proper values of design parameters in (45)due to the feedback linearized system behavior.

The results show the validity of the proposed parametric affine missile model.In addition,fin deflection angles do not reach the saturation limits and so do not require large control energy.Here,we can see coupling between the yaw and pitch dynamics,but it is effectively reduced.Furthermore,it shows that the functional approximation of aerodynamic coefficients is accurate enough for approximation errors to have little effect on the accuracy of acceleration https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html,paring the trajectories in Fig.4(a)and (d),we can see the close relation between the sideslip-angle (or angle-of-attack)and yaw (or pitch)accelerations of the missile.Since the missile is assumed to be roll-stabilized,the roll rate is set identically to zero in Fig.4(c).

Simulations were also conducted for the scenario in Fig.5(a),which shows the three-dimensional missile-target tracking tra-jectories.In this scenario,the target initially travels at constant velocity or maneuver,and two step-changes also occur in target accelerations.This simulation environment is specified in order to assess the performance characteristics in a closed-loop sur-face-to-air engagement scenario.Here,we assume that all mea-surements are noise-free.The proportional navigation (PN)law

[18]is used in our simulation as a guidance law.In addition,the first-order

lag ,

where is the time constant of

the

(a)(b)Fig.6.(a)Y -,Z -axis accelerations of parametric affine missile system (dashed and dotted:guidance command,solid:actual missile output)and (b)their corresponding control fin deflection angles.target,is used as a target maneuver model.Although a control system is usually designed under the assumption that a missile has entered a burn-out state,and also that missile mass is con-stant,the changes of thrust,missile mass,and inertial moment of the missile are included for our simulation.The control start time,when a control action begins,is selected as one second after the missile is launched.It is assumed that the thrust of the missile changes with time and it enters a burn-out state after 3.2s,until which the missile mass and the inertial moment of the missile are assumed to change linearly.A gravity effect is included in the missile dynamics and also in the guidance part.The acceleration command,which includes a gravity bias term,is generated considering this gravity effect.The evolution of forward

velocity

342
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 9, NO. 2, MARCH 2001
(a) (a)
(b) (b) Fig. 3. from a lookup table using a linear interpolation (a) and the . proposed parametric model ^ (b);
C
C
M B. The Performance of the Nonlinear Controller The full six-degree-of-freedom nonlinear equations described by (1a) and (1b) have been simulated using the aerodynamic lookup tables. For tracking a square wave acceleration command and for missile-target interception engagement, we used only Assumptions 2.1 through 2.3, considering this to be a more practical situation. Note that Assumption 2.4 is used just for the derivation of the proposed model. Design parameters for a feedback linearizing controller in (25) are selected as (44) where (45) As an actuator model, we included the following low-pass filter: (46) for each yaw and pitch channel, where the time constant s. In fact, we could see that time constants larger or smaller than this gave negligible influence on performance as in [10]. We evaluated the performance for tracking square wave m/s. Fig. 4 shows commands with the initial velocity the tracking performance of the designed controller and such
(c)
(d) Fig. 4. Tracking performance of a square wave command. (a) Commanded (dotted) and achieved (solid) output. (b) Control fin deflection. (c) Roll, pitch, and yaw rate. (d) Angle of attack and sideslip angle.

CHWA AND CHOI: NEW PARAMETRIC AFFINE MODELING AND CONTROL
343
(a)
(a)
(b) Fig. 5. Missile-target intercept engagement. (a) Three-dimensional missile-target tracking trajectory (M: Missile, T: target). (b) Evolution of forward linear velocity U with time.
(b) Fig. 6. (a) Y -, Z -axis accelerations of parametric affine missile system (dashed and dotted: guidance command, solid: actual missile output) and (b) their corresponding control fin deflection angles.
parameters as the rise time, steady-state error, and overshoot are all satisfactory. In particular, the rise time can be made to be smaller by choosing other proper values of design parameters in (45) due to the feedback linearized system behavior. The results show the validity of the proposed parametric affine missile model. In addition, fin deflection angles do not reach the saturation limits and so do not require large control energy. Here, we can see coupling between the yaw and pitch dynamics, but it is effectively reduced. Furthermore, it shows that the functional approximation of aerodynamic coefficients is accurate enough for approximation errors to have little effect on the accuracy of acceleration outputs. Comparing the trajectories in Fig. 4(a) and (d), we can see the close relation between the sideslip-angle (or angle-of-attack) and yaw (or pitch) accelerations of the missile. Since the missile is assumed to be roll-stabilized, the roll rate is set identically to zero in Fig. 4(c). Simulations were also conducted for the scenario in Fig. 5(a), which shows the three-dimensional missile-target tracking trajectories. In this scenario, the target initially travels at constant velocity or maneuver, and two step-changes also occur in target accelerations. This simulation environment is specified in order to assess the performance characteristics in a closed-loop surface-to-air engagement scenario. Here, we assume that all measurements are noise-free. The proportional navigation (PN) law [18] is used in our simulation as a guidance law. In addition, the , where is the time constant of the first-order lag
target, is used as a target maneuver model. Although a control system is usually designed under the assumption that a missile has entered a burn-out state, and also that missile mass is constant, the changes of thrust, missile mass, and inertial moment of the missile are included for our simulation. The control start time, when a control action begins, is selected as one second after the missile is launched. It is assumed that the thrust of the missile changes with time and it enters a burn-out state after 3.2 s, until which the missile mass and the inertial moment of the missile are assumed to change linearly. A gravity effect is included in the missile dynamics and also in the guidance part. The acceleration command, which includes a gravity bias term, is generated considering this gravity effect. The evolution of forward velocity with time is depicted in Fig. 5(b), and the decrease of the velocity is due to external force such as drag force. Fig. 6 shows the result of the overall missile system under the scenario in Fig. 5(a), validating the practical effectiveness of the proposed scheme. Note that we conducted also several other engagement scenarios and could obtain the similar performance. In this section, we have shown that satisfactory tracking performance for square wave commands and for missile-target intercept engagement can be achieved by the nonlinear control of the proposed parametric affine missile model. V. CONCLUSION In this paper, we have proposed a parametric affine missile model for acceleration control and designed a nonlinear con-

344
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 9, NO. 2, MARCH 2001
troller together with stability analysis. The distinctive features of our model are summarized as follows. 1) It is effective for overall flight conditions contrary to those in [3], [4]. 2) It adopts accelerations as controlled outputs while existing parametric models [5], [6] use angle of attack and sideslip angle as controlled outputs in order to avoid nonminimum phase characteristics. 3) It fully considers the coupling terms among the forces or the moments and control fin deflections, unlike conventional parametric models [5]–[8]. 4) A closed-form expression for the aerodynamic coefficients is given through a function approximation technique, based on several local parametric models obtained by curve fitting and locally defined influence functions. This has the strong advantage that versatile control techniques such as adaptive control can be applied easily to the autopilot design. 5) Unlike the model using linear velocities (i.e., and ) [10], [11], the whole dynamics are expressed in terms of angle of attack and sideslip angle (i.e., , ), which is natural since and are obtained by either measurement or estimation and also aerodynamic coefficients are usually , , , , and . indexed by The parameters of the missile model in this paper have been obtained by a function approximation technique from aerodynamic lookup tables. Simulations showed there is a small amount of approximation error between the fitted functions and the lookup tables. In general, the lookup tables have inherent modeling errors since they are obtained through wind-tunnel tests. Hence, the actual approximation errors may be different from those presented in the simulations (they may be larger or smaller in practice). In any event, modeling uncertainties are inevitable in both the parametric model and the lookup table model. As a further study, an adaptive control with on-line tuning of the parameters will be considered to accommodate the remaining approximation errors. APPENDIX A PROOF OF THEOREM 3.1 and in (37) correspond to the modeling error that First, comes from the approximation errors and the controller, which is designed with Assumption 3.1. The first and second rows in (31), which are slowly-varying equations, can be rewritten in matrix form as (A1) where
Second, we derive the upper bound of the norms , , , and through the choice of Lyais a punov functions and algebraic manipulations. Since , we can choose a positive defHurwitz matrix for inite matrix satisfying (A2) for some proper positive definite matrix function candidates . Define Lyapunov (A3) The time derivative of yields
where and are the maximum and minimum eigenvalues of matrix , respectively. It is noted that (A1) is used in the first equality and (A2), (A3) are used in the first and second inequalities in the above relation for , respectively. into the above inequality, we can have Substituting (A4) Integrating the above inequality with respect to time gives
(A5) ; . Therefore, from (A3) and where (43), respectively, (A5) reduces to
(A6a)
Note that the third row in (31) shows fast-varying dynamic characteristics. From Assumptions 3.2 and 3.3, the time derivatives of fitting errors and bank angle are bounded. By Proposition 3.1, is stabilized by the control action (23).
(A6b)

CHW A AND CHOI:NEW PARAMETRIC AFFINE MODELING AND CONTROL347 [14]H.K.Khalil,Nonlinear Systems,2nd ed.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Pren-

tice-Hall,1996.

[15] A.Isidori,Nonlinear Control System,3rd ed.New York:Springer-

Verlag,1995.

[16]N.Nijmeijer and A.van der Schaft,Nonlinear Dynamical Control Sys-

tems.New York:Springer-Verlag,1990.

[17]M.Spivak,Calculus on Manifold.New York:W.A.Benjamin,1965.

[18] C. F.Lin,Modern Navigation,Guidance,and Control Pro-

cessing.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,

1991.

DongKyoung Chwa received the B.S.and M.S. degrees in control and instrumentation engineering from Seoul National University,Seoul,Korea,in 1995and1997,where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D.degree from the School of Electrical Engineering.

He is now joining the project of Automatic Control Research Center(ACRC)at Seoul National Univer-sity.His fields of interests are nonlinear,robust,and adaptive control theory and their applications to the guidance and control of flight

systems.

Jin Young Choi(S’89–M’93)received the B.S.,

M.S.,and Ph.D.degrees in control and instrumen-

tation engineering from Seoul National University,

Seoul,Korea,in1982,1984,and1993,respectively.

From1984to1989,he joined the project of

TDX switching system at the Electronics and

Telecommunication Research Institute(ETRI).

From1992to1994,he was with the Basic Research

Department of ETRI,where he was a Senior Member

of Technical Staff working on the neural information

system.Since1994,he has been with Seoul National University,where he is currently an Assistant Professor in the School of Electrical Engineering.He is also affiliated with Automation and Systems Research Institute(ASRI),Engineering Research Center for Advanced Control and Instrumentation(ERC-ACI),and Automatic Control Research Center (ACRC)at Seoul National University.From1998to1999,he was Visiting Professor at University of California,Riverside.His research interests are neuro computing and control,evolutionary computing,adaptive and learning control,and their applications to missile,nuclear power plant,rapid thermal processing systems,and motors.

风管送风式空调(热泵)热水机组命名规则(中英文)_Hybrid-Illusion Nomenclature

Hybrid-Illusion 风管送风式空调（热泵）热水机组Ducted Air-Cooling Air Conditioning Heat Pump Water Heater

型号 M H D 5 1 8 E B N A A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 11 附加选项 N L F H 12 13 14 15 维修码 M H D 5 1 8 E B N A A N L F H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 第 1 位 M = 小型分体 第 2 位 H = 热泵型空调热水机 第 3 位 D = 管道机 第 4 位 5 = 螺纹连接 第 5, 6 位名义冷量，单位：KBtu/h 18 24 第 7 位设计序列号 E 第 8 位电源类型 B =220/50Hz/1PH 第 9 位 E电加热 N= 无电加热系统 F= 有1.8 Kw 电加热系统(MHD518) H= 有2.8 Kw 电加热系统(MHD524) 第 10 位控制器 A= 线控 B=线控+遥控 第 11 位设计变化 A = 首次设计变化 第 12 位附件选项 N= 无回风箱, 无过滤网 M= 有后回风箱, 无过滤网 A= 有后回风箱, 有过滤网 K= 有下回风箱, 无过滤网 L= 有下回风箱, 有过滤网 (过滤网标准配置为尼龙过滤网) 第 13 位盘管接管（面对出风口） L= 左接管( 标准) R=右接管 第14 位配置变化（非客户选择码） F= 低高度内机 第15 位热泵与单冷区分码（随外机） H= 配热泵型外机 C= 配单冷型外机

型号 H AR E 18 0130 6 D 1 2,345,67-10 11 12 附加选项 100 1 1 A 13-15 16 17 18 维修码 H AR E 18 0130 6 D 100 1 1 A 1 2,345,67-10 11 1 2 13-15 16 17 18 第 1 位机型 H= 空调热泵热水机组 第 2，3 位机组空调功能 AR= 空气源冷热风型空调机组 第 4 位型号 S= 单系统无水箱电加热控制 E= 单系统含水箱电加热控制（控制能力：电加热最大功率2.5kw）第 5，6 位名义制冷量，单位：KBtu/h 18 24 第 7-10 位产生热水量：单位: l/h 注：名义工况，⊿t=40℃。 第 11 位电源(V/Hz/Ph) 6 = 220/50/1 第 12 位控制模式 S= 单冷型空调控制 D= 冷暖型空调控制 第13-15 位热水系统 100= 1号系统制热水 第 16 位热水换热形式 1= 套管换热器 第 17 位机组适应工况 1= T1 2= T2 3= T3 第 18 位设计序列 A

IUPAC_nomenclature_of_organic_chemistry

IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is a systematic method of naming organic chemical compounds as recommended[1] by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry(IUPAC). Ideally, every organic compound should have a name from which an unambiguous structural formula can be drawn. There is also an IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry. See also phanes nomenclature of highly complex cyclic molecules. The main idea of IUPAC nomenclature is that every compound has one and only one name, and every name corresponds to only one structure of molecules (i.e. a one-one relationship), thereby reducing ambiguity. For ordinary communication, to spare a tedious description, the official IUPAC naming recommendations are not always followed in practice except when it is necessary to give a concise definition to a compound, or when the IUPAC name is simpler (viz. ethanol against ethyl alcohol). Otherwise the common or trivial name may be used, often derived from the source of the compound (See Sec 14. below) Contents [hide] ? 1 Basic principles ? 2 Alkanes ? 3 Alkenes and Alkynes

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Nomenclature of organic compounds (for fundamental organic chemistry) Functional group In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of. However, its relative reactivity can be modified by nearby functional groups. The word moiety is often used synonymously to "functional group," but, according to the IUPAC definition,a moiety is a part of a molecule that may include functional groups as substructures. For example, an ester is divided into an alcohol moiety and an acyl moiety, but has an ester functional group. Also, it may be divided into carboxylate and alkyl moieties. Each moiety may carry any number of functional groups, for example methyl parahydroxybenzoate carries a phenol functional group in the acyl moiety. Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent alkanes generates a powerful systematic nomenclature for naming organic compounds. The atoms of functional groups are linked to each other and to the rest of the molecule by covalent bonds. When the group of atoms is associated with the rest of the molecule primarily by ionic forces, the group is referred to more properly as a polyatomic ion or complex ion. And all of these are called radicals, by a meaning of the term radical that predates the free radical. The first carbon atom after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is called the alpha carbon; the second, beta carbon, the third, gamma carbon, etc. If there is another functional group at a carbon, it may be named with the Greek letter, e.g. the gamma-amine in gamma-aminobutanoic acid is on the third carbon of the carbon chain attached to the carboxylic acid group.

The Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine, Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT)

An examination of OWL and the requirements of a large health care terminology Kent Spackman Department of Medical Informatics and Clinical Epidemiology Oregon Health&Science University,Portland,Oregon,USA spackman@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html, Abstract.This paper presents a brief initial look at some of the possible bene?ts and barriers to using OWL as the language for the development, dissemination and implementation of terminological knowledge in the do- main of health and health care.In particular,this assessment is made from the perspective of the author’s role in the development of the Sys- tematized Nomenclature of Medicine(SNOMED).To date,SNOMED has developed and adopted its own special-purpose syntax and formats for terminology development,exchange and distribution.Its represen- tation language has limited expressivity yet is not expressible by any dialect of OWL1.0.With the evolution to OWL1.1,the barriers to using OWL for knowledge representation have been resolved.However, partly because of SNOMED’s very large size,there remain barriers to adoption of OWL XML/RDF for SNOMED development,distribution or exchange purposes. 1Introduction The Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine,Clinical Terms(SNOMED CT) [1]is a work of clinical terminology with broad coverage of the domain of health care,and it has been selected as a national standard for use in elec-tronic health applications in many countries,including the U.S.,U.K.,Canada, Australia,Denmark,and others.SNOMED was originally published in1976, while SNOMED CT became available in2002as a major expansion resulting from the merger of SNOMED RT with the U.K.’s Clinical Terms version3.A major distinguishing feature di?erentiating it from prior editions is the use of description logic(DL)to de?ne and organize codes and terms[2]. Another major distinguishing feature of SNOMED is its size and complexity. With over350,000concept codes,each representing a di?erent class,it is an order of magnitude larger than the next largest DL-based ontology of which we are aware.The size of the OWL XML/RDF form of SNOMED is approximately248 MB,and this is just the DL representation without all the synonyms,mappings, subsets,and other special-purpose components of the terminology. 2Knowledge Representation As noted by Patel-Schneider[3],the design of OWL has been driven by three main streams of in?uence:the Semantic Web,description logics,and frame sys-

The Nomenclature of Inorganic Substanc

The Nomenclature of Inorganic Substance You will meet compounds in this text and will learn their name as you go along. However, it is useful from the outset to know something about how to form their names. Many compounds were given common names before their compositions were known. Common names include water, salt, sugar, ammonia, and quartz. A systematic name, on the other hand, reveals which elements are present and,in some cases, how their atoms are arranged.The systematic name of table salt, for instance,is sodium chloride, which indicates at once that it is a compound of sodium and chlorine. The systematic naming of compounds, which is called chemical nomenclature, follows a set of rules, so that the name of each compound need not be memorized, only the rules. Names of Cations The names of monatomic cations are the same as the name of the element, with the addition of the word ion, as in sodium ion for Na+. When an element can form more than one kind of cation, such as Cu+ and Cu2+ from copper, we use the Stock number, a Roman numeral equal to the charge of the cation. Thus, Cu+ is a copper (Ⅰ) ion and Cu2+ is a copper (Ⅱ) ion. Similarly, Fe2+ is an iron (Ⅱ) ion and Fe3+ is an iron (Ⅲ) ion. Most transition metals form more than one kind of ion, so it is usually necessary to include a Stock number in the names of their compounds. An older system of nomenclature is still in use. For example, some cations were once denoted by the endings –ous and –ic for the ions with lower and higher charges, respectively. In this system, iron (Ⅱ) ions are called ferrous ions and iron (Ⅲ) ions are called ferric ions. Names of Anions Monatomic anions are named by adding the suffix –ide and the word ion to the first part of the name of the element ( the “stem”of its name ). There is no need to give the charge, because most elements that form monatomic anions form only one kind of ion.The ions formed by the halogens are collectively called halide ions and include fluoride (F-), chloride (Cl-), bromide (Br-), and iodide ions (I-). The names of oxoanions are formed by adding the suffix –ate to the stem of the name of the element that is not oxygen, as in the carbonate ion, CO32-. However, many elements can form a variety of oxoanions with different numbers of oxygen atoms; nitrogen, for example, forms both NO2- and NO3-. In such cases, the ion with the larger number of oxygen atoms is given the suffix –ate, and that with the smaller number of oxygen atoms is given the suffix –ite. Thus, NO2- is nitrate and NO3- is nitrite. Some elements-particularly take for the halogens—form more than two oxoanions. The name of the oxoanion with the smallest number of oxygen atoms is formed by adding the prefix hypo- to the –ite form of the name, as in the hypochlorite ion, ClO-. The oxoanion with a higher number of oxygen atoms than the –ate oxoanion is named with the prefix per- added to the –ate form of the name. An example is the perchlorate ion, ClO4-.

国际商贸术语中英对照表

☆国际贸易 对外贸易 世界贸易 海外贸易 ☆国内贸易 ☆有形商品贸易 ☆无形商品贸易 ☆国际服务贸易 ☆国际技术贸易 ☆出口贸易 ☆进口贸易 ☆过境贸易 ☆复出口 ☆复进口 ☆可兑换 ☆易货贸易 ☆总贸易 ☆专门贸易 ☆有纸贸易/单证贸易 ☆无纸贸易 ☆贸易差额 ☆净出口 ☆净进口 ☆进口值 ☆出口值 ☆国民生产总值 ☆贸易条件 ☆出口价格指数 ☆进口价格指数 ☆国际贸易商品结构 ☆《联合国国际贸易标准匪类》 ☆《商品名称和编码协调制度》《协调制度》 ☆对外贸易地理方向 ☆国际贸易地理方向 ☆亚当·斯密【英】 ☆大卫·李嘉图【英】 ☆赫克歇尔【瑞典】 ☆俄林【瑞典】 ☆要素禀赋学说 赫克歇尔-俄林原理 ☆里昂惕夫【美】 ☆里昂惕夫稀少生产要素之谜里昂惕夫反论 ☆弗农【美】 ☆威尔士【美】 ☆产业内贸易 ☆新兴工业化国家international trade foreign trade world trade oversea trade domestic trade visible trade invisible trade international service trade international technology trade export trade import trade transit trade re-export trade re-import trade convertible barter general trade special trade documentary trade electronic data interchange, EDI balance of trade net export net import QM QX Gross National Product, GNP terms of trade, TOT PX PM composition of international trade Standard International Trade Classification, SITC the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System, HS direction of foreign trade direction of international trade Adam Smith David Ricardo Eil Filip Heckscher Beltil Gotthard Ohlin factor endowment theory the Heckschor-Ohlin theorem W. W. Leontief the Leontief scarce factor paradox / the Leontief paradox R. Vernon L. T. Wells intra-industry trade NIC ☆反谷物法同盟 ☆重农主义 ☆休谟【英】 ☆制造业报告 ☆被动的警察 ☆《就业、利息和货币通论》 ☆次佳原理 ☆关税 ☆关境 ☆海关 ☆关税同盟 ☆财政关税 ☆保护关税 ☆进口税 ☆出口税 ☆过境税 ☆从量税 ☆从价税 ☆完税价格 ☆海关估价 ☆选择税 ☆混合税 ☆进口附加税 ☆反补贴税 ☆反倾销税 ☆报复关税 ☆科技关税 ☆关税税则/ 海关税则 ☆税则序列（税号） ☆货物分类目录 ☆税率 ☆《关税合作理事会税则目录》 《布鲁塞尔税则目录》 ☆税目号 ☆《国际贸易标准分类》 ☆编码 ☆单式税则/一栏税则 ☆复式税则/多栏税则 ☆非关税壁垒 ☆进口配额制/进口限额制 ☆绝对配额 ☆全球配额 ☆国别配额 ☆自主配额/单方面配额 ☆协议配额/双边配额 anti-corn law league physiocracy D. Humo Report on Manufacture passive policeman The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money second best theory customs duties / tariff customs frontier customs house customs union revenue tariff protective customs duties import duties export duties transit duties specific duties advalorem duties duty paid value customs value alternative duties mixed / compound duties import surtax counter-vailing duty anti-dumping duty retaliatory duties scientific tariff tariff schedule / customs tariff tariff No./heading No./tariff item description of goods rate of duty Customs Cooperation Council Nomenclature, CCCN Brussels Tariff Nomenclature, BTN heading No. Standard International Trade Classification, SITC code single tariff complex tariff Non-Tariff Barriers, NTBs import quotas system absolute quotas global quotas unallocated quotas country quotas autonomous quotas agreement quotas/bilateral quo.

miRBase-microRNA sequences, targets and gene nomenclature

miRBase:microRNA sequences,targets and gene nomenclature Sam Griffiths-Jones*,Russell J.Grocock,Stijn van Dongen,Alex Bateman and Anton J.Enright The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute,Wellcome Trust Genome Campus,Hinxton,Cambridge CB101SA,UK Received September 12,2005;Revised and Accepted October 18,2005 ABSTRACT The miRBase database aims to provide integrated interfaces to comprehensive microRNA sequence data,annotation and predicted gene targets.miRBase takes over functionality from the microRNA Registry and fulfils three main roles:the miRBase Registry acts as an independent arbiter of microRNA gene nomenclature,assigning names prior to publication of novel miRNA sequences.miRBase Sequences is the primary online repository for miRNA sequence data and annotation.miRBase Targets is a compre-hensive new database of predicted miRNA target genes.miRBase is available at https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html,/.INTRODUCTION MicroRNAs (miRNAs)are a class of non-coding RNA gene whose ?nal product is a 22nt functional RNA molecule.They play important roles in the regulation of target genes by binding to complementary regions of messenger transcripts to repress their translation or regulate degradation (1–3).miRNAs have been implicated in cellular roles as diverse as developmental timing in worms,cell death and fat meta-bolism in ?ies,haematopoiesis in mammals,and leaf devel-opment and ?oral patterning in plants [reviewed in (4,5)].Recent reports have suggested that miRNAs may play roles in human cancers (6–8). The biogenesis of miRNA sequences has been largely elucidated [reviewed in (9)].The mature miRNA (often des-ignated miR)is processed from a characteristic stem–loop sequence (called a pre-mir),which in turn may be excised from a longer primary transcript (or pri-mir).Only a handful of primary transcripts have been fully described,but evidence suggests that miRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II,and that the transcripts are capped and polyadenylated. Since the discovery of the founding members of the miRNA class,lin-4and let-7in Caenorhabditis elegans [reviewed in (10)],over 2000miRNA sequences have been described in vertebrates,?ies,worms and plants,and even in viruses.However,the functions of only a handful of these miRNAs have been experimentally determined.In parallel with novel gene identi?cation efforts,the miRNA community is therefore focused on predicting and validating miRNA gene targets.The miRBase database brings together the gene naming and sequence database roles previously ful?lled by the microRNA Registry (11),with the ?rst automated pipeline for predicting miRNA target genes in multiple animal genomes.These three functions are brie?y discussed in turn.miRBase REGISTRY The rapid growth of the miRNA ?eld has been facilitated by the adoption of a consistent gene naming scheme,which has been applied since the ?rst large-scale miRNA discoveries (12–14).The miRNA Registry (11)has acted as an independent arbiter of gene names,and this function is continued by the miRBase https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html,s are assigned by the Registry based on guide-lines agreed by a number of prominent miRNA researchers and discussed elsewhere (15).In order to minimize the gaps in the naming scheme and to take advantage of the peer review pro-cess to assess the validity of submitted miRNAs,names are assigned after a manuscript describing their discovery is accep-ted for publication.Of?cial gene names should be incorporated into the ?nal version of a manuscript.The nomenclature guide-lines require that novel miRNA genes are experimentally veri-?ed by cloning or with evidence of expression and processing.Homologous miRNAs from related organisms that are identi-?ed by sequence analysis methods may be named without the need for further experimental evidence. miRNAs are assigned sequential numerical identi?ers.The database uses abbreviated 3or 4letter pre?xes to designate the species,such that identi?ers take the form hsa-miR-101(in Homo sapiens ).The mature sequences are designated ‘miR’in the database,whereas the precursor hairpins are labelled ‘mir’.The gene names are intended to convey limited information about functional relationships between mature miRNAs.For example,hsa-miR-101in human and mmu-miR-101in mouse *To whom correspondence should be addressed.Tel:+441223834244;Fax:+441223494919;Email:sgj@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html, óThe Author 2006.Published by Oxford University Press.All rights reserved. The online version of this article has been published under an open access https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html,ers are entitled to use,reproduce,disseminate,or display the open access version of this article for non-commercial purposes provided that:the original authorship is properly and fully attributed;the Journal and Oxford University Press are attributed as the original place of publication with the correct citation details given;if an article is subsequently reproduced or disseminated not in its entirety but only in part or as a derivative work this must be clearly indicated.For commercial re-use,please contact journals.permissions@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html, D140–D144Nucleic Acids Research,2006,Vol.34,Database issue doi:10.1093/nar/gkj112

Universal Medical Device Nomenclature System

Scanning Systems,Gamma Camera Purpose Gamma cameras are used to produce images of the radiation generated by radiopharmaceuticals within a patient’s body in order to examine organ anatomy and function and to visualize bone abnormalities.The wide variety of radiopharmaceuticals and procedures used allows evaluation of almost every organ system.In addition to producing a conventional planar image(a two-dimensional image of the three-dimensional ra-diopharmaceutical distribution within a patient’s body),most stationary gamma camera systems can also produce whole-body images(single head-to-toe skeletal profiles)and tomographic images(cross-sec-tional slices of the body acquired at various angles around the patient and displayed as a computer-recon-structed image). SPECT is most commonly used for whole-body bone imaging,brain perfusion studies,and cardiac imaging; 30%of SPECT procedures are cardiac studies.Through sequential image acquisition,the gamma camera can image blood flow to various organs,including the brain, 175173 424-010 5200Butler Pike,Plymouth Meeting,PA19462-1298,USA Telephone+1(610)825-6000q Fax+1(610)834-1275q E-mail hpcs@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6b12223879.html, Scope of this Product Comparison This Product Comparison covers single-detector and multidetector stationary and mobile gamma cameras(formerly called Anger or scintillation cameras). Most of the systems listed are capable of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT),also called single photon emission to- mography,and some are capable of dual-head coincidence imaging with F-18fluorodeoxyglu- cose(FDG),a radiopharmaceutical used in posi- tron emission tomography(PET)imaging.For more information on PET,see the Product Com- parison titled SCANNING SYSTEMS,POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY. UMDNS information This Product Comparison covers the following device terms and product codes as listed in ECRI’s Universal Medical Device Nomenclature System? (UMDNS?): ?Scanning Systems,Gamma Camera,Mobile [16-891] ?Scanning Systems,Gamma Camera,Planar Imaging[16-892] ?Scanning Systems,Gamma Camera,Single Photon Emission Tomography [18-444] Dual-head stationary gamma camera